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107-523: The building was designed by Indianapolis architect Evans Woollen III , the principal and founder of Woollen, Molzan and Partners . Completed in 1975, the structure is notable for its exposed concrete slabs, which are typical of the Brutalist architecture style. Some have called the $ 20 million project a "pigeon coop" and "the ugliest building in Indianapolis." Boston City Hall , completed in 1968,

214-674: A B.A. and an M.Arch. degree. Woollen apprenticed at Johnson's firm in New Canaan, Connecticut , which was a center for modern architectural design at that time. Johnson was the noted modernist architect of the Glass House in New Canaan. Woollen also worked on his own for two years before establishing his practice in Indianapolis in 1955. In 1955, Woollen married Nancy Sewell, a psychotherapist, educator, and arts community leader. The Woollens settled in Indianapolis and moved into

321-827: A downtown Heinen's supermarket. Cleveland's historic ecclesiastical architecture includes the Presbyterian Old Stone Church in downtown Cleveland, the onion domed St. Theodosius Russian Orthodox Cathedral in Tremont , and the Catholic Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist along with myriad other ethnically inspired Roman Catholic churches. The Cleveland City Planning Commission has officially designated 34 neighborhoods in Cleveland. Centered on Public Square, Downtown Cleveland

428-714: A foreign-born population of 30%. At this time, Cleveland saw the rise of radical labor movements, most prominently the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), in response to the conditions of the largely immigrant and migrant workers. In 1919, the city attracted national attention amid the First Red Scare for the Cleveland May Day Riots , in which local socialist and IWW demonstrators clashed with anti-socialists. The riots occurred during

535-578: A gradual economic recovery under Mayor George V. Voinovich in the 1980s. Downtown saw the construction of the Key Tower and 200 Public Square skyscrapers, as well as the development of the Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex – consisting of Progressive Field and Rocket Mortgage FieldHouse – and North Coast Harbor, including the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , Cleveland Browns Stadium , and

642-613: A high school diploma or equivalent. The median age was 36.6 years. As of 2020 , the racial and ethnic composition of the city was 47.5% African American, 32.1% non-Hispanic white , 13.1% Hispanic or Latino , 2.8% Asian , 0% Pacific Islander , 0.2% Native American, and 3.8% from two or more races . 85.3% of Clevelanders age five and older spoke only English at home, while 14.7% spoke a language other than English, including Spanish , Arabic , Chinese , Hungarian , Albanian , and various Slavic languages ( Russian , Polish , Serbian , Croatian , and Slovene ). The city's spoken accent

749-804: A homogeneous settlement of New England Protestants , it evolved into a city with a diverse religious composition. The predominant faith among Clevelanders today is Christianity ( Catholic , Protestant, and Eastern and Oriental Orthodox ), with Jewish, Muslim , Hindu , and Buddhist minorities. Within Cleveland, the neighborhoods with the highest foreign-born populations are Asiatown/Goodrich–Kirtland Park (32.7%), Clark–Fulton (26.7%), West Boulevard (18.5%), Brooklyn Centre (17.3%), Downtown (17.2%), University Circle (15.9%, with 20% in Little Italy), and Jefferson (14.3%). Recent waves of immigration have brought new groups to Cleveland, including Ethiopians and South Asians , as well as immigrants from Russia and

856-600: A modern addition (1983–89) to Christ Church Cathedral , a city landmark on Monument Circle. Notable library projects included the Cushwa-Leighton Library (1981–82) at Saint Mary's College in Notre Dame, Indiana , and Indiana University 's Musical Arts Center (1972) in Bloomington . The two-story, rectangular-shaped Cushwa-Leighton Library at Saint Mary's College was one of the five winners of

963-635: A naturalization ceremony of new immigrants. Cleveland's location on the Cuyahoga River and Lake Erie has been key to its growth as a major commercial center. Steel and many other manufactured goods emerged as leading industries. The city has since diversified its economy in addition to its manufacturing sector. Established in 1914, the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland is one of 12 U.S. Federal Reserve Banks . Its downtown building, located on East 6th Street and Superior Avenue ,

1070-478: A new, six-story curved glass-and-steel structure that connected to the Cret building through an expansive atrium. The project was the firm's largest commission up to that time and the final one before Woollen retired from the firm. Construction problems caused work to be temporarily halted in 2004, followed by the library and the firm filing lawsuits and counter-lawsuits. Woollen and his firm were eventually released from

1177-820: A pacesetter among architects in the Midwest , Woollen, dubbed the dean of Indiana architects, was noted for his use of bold materials and provocative, modern designs. Some of Woollen's most iconic projects were built in Indianapolis: Clowes Memorial Hall , the Minton-Capehart Federal Building , John J. Barton Tower, Hilbert Conservatory at White River Gardens , and major additions to the Indianapolis Central Library and The Children's Museum of Indianapolis . Woollen also designed several of

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1284-639: A population of 372,624 in 2020. The city anchors the Cleveland metropolitan area , the 33rd-largest in the U.S. at 2.18 million residents, as well as the larger Cleveland– Akron – Canton combined statistical area with 3.63 million residents. Cleveland was founded in 1796 near the mouth of the Cuyahoga River as part of the Connecticut Western Reserve in modern-day Northeast Ohio by General Moses Cleaveland , after whom

1391-573: A residential street. In the late 1880s, writer Bayard Taylor described it as "the most beautiful street in the world". Known as Cleveland's "Crystal Palace", the five-story Cleveland Arcade (sometimes called the Old Arcade) was built in 1890 and renovated in 2001 as a Hyatt Regency Hotel. Another major architectural landmark, the Cleveland Trust Company Building , was completed in 1907 and renovated in 2015 as

1498-430: A specialty of Woollen and his firm. The Modernist-style Marian University library (1966) in Indianapolis, Indiana, had a square form with an exposed structural frame and open staircase with stacks arranged around reading areas. Two of Woollen's early notable church designs include Saint Thomas Aquinas Church (1968) in Indianapolis and Saint Andrew's Abbey Church (1985–86) in Cleveland , Ohio . Saint Thomas Aquinas Church

1605-802: A total of 13 times beginning in 1868. It was the river fire of June 1969 that spurred the city to action under Mayor Carl B. Stokes, and played a key role in the passage of the Clean Water Act in 1972 and the National Environmental Policy Act later that year. Since that time, the Cuyahoga has been extensively cleaned up through the efforts of the city and the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency (OEPA). In addition to continued efforts to improve freshwater and air quality, Cleveland

1712-566: A two-block area. The buildings included a recreational center, a senior citizens center, a Montessori school and daycare center, and a meeting and event space. Funding for the $ 2.5 million project came from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development . In 2001, Woollen and his firm was commissioned to restore the Indianapolis Public Library 's historic Central Library , which was designed by Paul Cret and built in 1917. The planned $ 100 million project also included

1819-641: A wide range of projects, including commercial buildings, churches, governmental buildings, and various college and university buildings, among other projects. Notable works from the 1970s and 1980s in Indianapolis included an atrium entrance (1989) to The Children's Museum of Indianapolis and the White River Gardens Conservatory (1999) at the Indianapolis Zoo . Outside of Indianapolis, major projects in Indiana included

1926-460: Is 569 feet (173 m) above sea level ; however, the city lies on a series of irregular bluffs lying roughly parallel to the lake. In Cleveland these bluffs are cut principally by the Cuyahoga River , Big Creek, and Euclid Creek . The land rises quickly from the lake shore elevation of 569 feet. Public Square, less than one mile (1.6 km) inland, sits at an elevation of 650 feet (198 m), and Hopkins Airport, 5 miles (8 km) inland from

2033-626: Is a port city , connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Saint Lawrence Seaway . Its economy relies on diverse sectors that include higher education, manufacturing, financial services, healthcare, and biomedicals. The city serves as the headquarters of the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland , as well as several major companies. The GDP for the Greater Cleveland MSA was US$ 138.3 billion in 2022. Combined with

2140-522: Is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County . Located along the southern shore of Lake Erie , it is situated across the Canada–United States maritime border and lies approximately 60 mi (97 km) west of Pennsylvania . Cleveland is the most populous city on Lake Erie, the second-most populous city in Ohio, and the 54th-most populous city in the U.S. with

2247-656: Is also known for his churches, including Saint Meinrad Archabbey's monastery and library (Spencer County, Indiana), Saint Andrew's Abbey Church (Cleveland, Ohio), and others, as well as numerous libraries. In addition to commercial projects, Woollen designed some of Indianapolis's notable mid-century modern homes. Although some of his modern building designs were criticized, such as the Minton-Capehart Federal Building and Barton Tower, most of his designs were praised, especially Clowes Memorial Hall, which he co-designed with John M. Johansen. Clowes Hall

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2354-983: Is an advanced form of Inland Northern American English , similar to other Great Lakes cities, but distinctive from the rest of Ohio. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Cleveland saw a massive influx of immigrants from Ireland, Italy , and the Austro-Hungarian , German , Russian , and Ottoman empires, most of whom were attracted by manufacturing jobs. As a result, Cleveland and Cuyahoga County today have substantial communities of Irish (especially in West Park), Italians (especially in Little Italy), Germans , and several Central -Eastern European ethnicities, including Czechs , Hungarians , Lithuanians , Poles , Romanians , Russians , Rusyns , Slovaks , Ukrainians , and ex- Yugoslav groups, such as Slovenes , Croats and Serbs . The presence of Hungarians within Cleveland proper was, at one time, so great that

2461-631: Is credited for introducing the Modern and the Brutalist architecture styles to his hometown of Indianapolis , Indiana . Woollen, a fellow of the American Institute of Architects (FAIA) and a graduate of the Yale School of Architecture , was active in the field from the mid-1950s to the early 2000s. He established his own architecture firm in Indianapolis in 1955 that became known as Woollen, Molzan and Partners ; it dissolved in 2011. As

2568-549: Is now exploring renewable energy. The city's two main electrical utilities are FirstEnergy and Cleveland Public Power . Its climate action plan , updated in December 2018, has a 2050 target of 100% renewable power , along with reduction of greenhouse gases to 80% below the 2010 level. In recent decades, Cleveland has been working to address the issue of harmful algal blooms on Lake Erie, fed primarily by agricultural runoff, which have presented new environmental challenges for

2675-469: Is one of Woollen's most iconic projects. Woollen and his firm were also involved in projects outside of Indianapolis, including, among others, the New Harmony Inn (Posey County, Indiana) and Indiana University's Musical Arts Center (Monroe County, Indiana) that are still in use. Woollen's firm also managed the renovation and preservation of several of Indianapolis's historic structures, most notably

2782-522: Is similar in design and may have served as inspiration for Woollen. Built to fill in the east side of the Indiana World War Memorial Plaza , the block-long, six-story structure is raised 24 feet (7.3 m) above grade on large columns. The concrete building includes 290,000 square feet (27,000 m) of flexible office on five floors and a parking garage level for 500 cars. Its distinctive, horizontal façade tilts outward as

2889-865: Is the city's central business district, encompassing a wide range of subdistricts, such as the Nine-Twelve District , the Campus District , the Civic Center , East 4th Street , and Playhouse Square . It also historically included the lively Short Vincent entertainment district. Mixed-use areas, such as the Warehouse District and the Superior Arts District , are occupied by industrial and office buildings as well as restaurants, cafes, and bars. The number of condominiums , lofts , and apartments has been on

2996-424: Is the warmest month with a mean temperature of 74.5 °F (23.6 °C), and January, with a mean temperature of 29.1 °F (−1.6 °C), is the coldest. Normal yearly precipitation based on the 30-year average from 1991 to 2020 is 41.03 inches (1,042 mm). The least precipitation occurs on the western side and directly along the lake, and the most occurs in the eastern suburbs. Parts of Geauga County to

3103-534: The AIA / ALA Library Building Award for 1983. The IU project, another example of Woollen's interpretation of the Brutalist style, includes work and storage spaces arranged around a cylindrical, 1,500-seat opera house. Despite his many successful projects, Woollen's outspoken nature cost his firm at least one major commission. Woollen expressed his preference for building the new Indianapolis Museum of Art facility amid

3210-764: The Akron MSA , the eight-county Cleveland–Akron metropolitan economy was $ 176 billion in 2022, the largest in Ohio. Designated as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network , Cleveland is home to several major cultural institutions, including the Cleveland Museum of Art , the Cleveland Museum of Natural History , the Cleveland Orchestra , the Cleveland Public Library , Playhouse Square , and

3317-452: The Cfa humid subtropical climate . Summers are hot and humid, while winters are cold and snowy. East of the mouth of the Cuyahoga, the land elevation rises rapidly in the south. Together with the prevailing winds off Lake Erie, this feature is the principal contributor to the lake-effect snow that is typical in Cleveland (especially on the city's East Side) from mid-November until the surface of

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3424-569: The Glenn Research Center in Cleveland. Jones Day , one of the largest law firms in the U.S., was founded in Cleveland in 1893. Healthcare plays a major role in Cleveland's economy. The city's "Big Three" hospital systems are the Cleveland Clinic , University Hospitals , and MetroHealth . The Cleveland Clinic is the largest private employer in the state of Ohio, with a workforce of over 55,000 as of 2022 . It carries

3531-680: The Great Lakes Science Center . Although the city emerged from default in 1987, it later suffered from the impact of the subprime mortgage crisis and the Great Recession . Nevertheless, by the turn of the 21st century, Cleveland succeeded in developing a more diversified economy and gained a national reputation as a center for healthcare and the arts. The city's downtown and several neighborhoods have experienced significant population growth since 2010, while overall population decline has slowed. Challenges remain for

3638-741: The Indiana Theatre (1982), the main shed of Union Station (1986), and the Majestic Building (1984–91) in downtown Indianapolis. In addition to preservation work in Indianapolis, Woollen was involved in the redevelopment of the Over-the-Rhine historic neighborhood in Cincinnati , Ohio . Woollen designed the Over-the-Rhine Pilot Center (1972–84), which included four mixed-use buildings within

3745-928: The International style . One of Woollen's first commissions in Indianapolis was an International-style home for the Perlov family. The symmetrical, one-story, U-shaped residence (ca. 1960–63) was featured in House and Garden magazine. When the International style did not prove to be especially popular among Indianapolis homeowners, Woollen turned to other styles, as well as commission work for commercial projects. Another early residential commission illustrates his modern interpretation of an earlier architectural form. The Leibman residence (ca. 1962–64), featured in House Beautiful and House and Garden magazines,

3852-645: The John Herron Art Institute before transferring to The Hotchkiss School , an exclusive preparatory school in Lakeville, Connecticut , during his junior year of high school. Woollen, who later remarked that he had wanted to be an architect since his youth, studied under modern architects Philip Johnson and Louis Kahn at Yale University . In addition, Woollen trained under architects Paul Schweikher and John M. Johansen . Woollen graduated from Yale School of Architecture in 1952, earning

3959-565: The John Herron Art Institute ; Clowes Memorial Hall (1963), co-designed with John M. Johansen and located on the campus of Butler University ; the John J. Barton Tower (1967), a high-rise apartment building; Saint Thomas Aquinas Church (1968); and the Minton-Capehart Federal Building (1976). These structures are notable for their exposed concrete slabs, which are typical of the Brutalism style. Fesler Hall, Woollen's first civic commission,

4066-712: The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , as well as Case Western Reserve University . Known as " The Forest City " among many other nicknames , Cleveland serves as the center of the Cleveland Metroparks nature reserve system. The city's major league professional sports teams include the Cleveland Browns ( football ; NFL ), the Cleveland Cavaliers (basketball; NBA ), and the Cleveland Guardians (baseball; MLB ). Cleveland

4173-697: The Union during the American Civil War . Decades later, in July 1894, the wartime contributions of those serving the Union from Cleveland and Cuyahoga County would be honored with the Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument on Public Square. The Civil War vaulted Cleveland into the first rank of American manufacturing cities and fueled unprecedented growth. Its prime geographic location as a transportation hub on

4280-729: The former USSR , Southeast Europe (especially Albania ), the Middle East, East Asia, and Latin America. In the 2010s, the immigrant population of Cleveland and Cuyahoga County began to see significant growth, becoming a major center for immigration in the Great Lakes region. A 2019 study found Cleveland to be the city with the shortest average processing time in the nation for immigrants to become U.S. citizens . The city's annual One World Day in Rockefeller Park includes

4387-646: The 1832 completion of the Ohio and Erie Canal . This key link between the Ohio River and the Great Lakes connected Cleveland to the Atlantic Ocean via the Erie Canal and Hudson River, and later via the Saint Lawrence Seaway . The town's growth continued with added railroad links . In 1836, Cleveland, then only on the eastern banks of the Cuyahoga, was officially incorporated as a city, and John W. Willey

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4494-416: The 1840s. "Evans" was the maiden name of Woollen III's great-grandmother. Woolley III's father and grandfather, Evans Woollen Jr. and Evans Woollen Sr., were prominent Indianapolis bankers and arts patrons. Woollen was a descendant of Samuel Merrill , a former Indiana state treasurer , and Conrad Baker , a former Indiana governor . Woollen attended Indianapolis Public Schools and took art classes at

4601-405: The 1960s, Cleveland's economy began to slow down, and residents increasingly sought new housing in the suburbs, reflecting the national trends of suburban growth following federally subsidized highways. Industrial restructuring , particularly in the steel and automotive industries, resulted in the loss of numerous jobs in Cleveland and the region, and the city suffered economically. The burning of

4708-414: The Cleveland Transit System, the predecessor to the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority . After the war, Cleveland initially experienced an economic boom , and businesses declared the city to be the "best location in the nation". In 1949, the city was named an All-America City for the first time, and in 1950, its population reached 914,808. In sports, the Indians won the 1948 World Series ,

4815-487: The Cuyahoga River in June 1969 brought national attention to the issue of industrial pollution in Cleveland and served as a catalyst for the American environmental movement . Housing discrimination and redlining against African Americans led to racial unrest in Cleveland and numerous other Northern U.S. cities. In Cleveland, the Hough riots erupted from July 18 to 24, 1966, and the Glenville Shootout took place on July 23, 1968. In November 1967, Cleveland became

4922-411: The East and West Sides, while Broadway–Slavic Village is sometimes referred to as the South Side. Several neighborhoods have begun to attract the return of the middle class that left the city for the suburbs in the 1960s and 1970s. These neighborhoods are on both the West Side (Ohio City, Tremont, Detroit–Shoreway, and Edgewater) and the East Side (Collinwood, Hough, Fairfax, and Little Italy). Much of

5029-434: The Great Lakes played an important role in its development as an industrial and commercial center. In 1870, John D. Rockefeller founded Standard Oil in Cleveland, and in 1885, he moved its headquarters to New York City, which had become a center of finance and business. Cleveland's economic growth and industrial jobs attracted large waves of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe as well as Ireland . Urban growth

5136-398: The Indiana Theatre (home of the Indiana Repertory Theatre ), Union Station, the Majestic Building, and several historic apartment buildings. Woollen also designed Cincinnati's Over-the-Rhine Pilot Center. These major works, among others, serve as a testament to his "adventurous sense of architectural form" and "respect for its visual and community context." Cleveland Cleveland

5243-523: The Moody Music Center in Tuscaloosa, Alabama . Woollen was especially known for his churches and college libraries, such as Saint Andrew's Abbey Church in Cleveland , Ohio ; the Cushwa-Leighton Library at Saint Mary's College in Notre Dame, Indiana ; and the Grainger Engineering Library at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . Evans Woollen III was born in Indianapolis , Indiana , on August 10, 1927, to Lydia (Jameson) and Evans Woollen Jr. The Woollen family's ties to Indianapolis date from

5350-424: The New Harmony Inn (1975) at New Harmony and Saint Meinrad Archabbey 's monastery and library (1984) in Spencer County . Woollen and his firm designed numerous performing arts structures, libraries, and academic buildings, which became the firm's specialties. Notable examples include several Indianapolis churches: Saint Phillip's Church (1986), Holy Cross Lutheran Church (1990), Saint Monica's Church (1993), and

5457-534: The South. Between 1910 and 1970, the black population of Cleveland, largely concentrated on the city's East Side, increased significantly as a result of the First and Second Great Migrations . Cleveland's Latino community consists primarily of Puerto Ricans , as well as smaller numbers of immigrants from Mexico, Cuba , the Dominican Republic , South and Central America, and Spain. The city's Asian community, centered on historical Asiatown, consists of Chinese , Koreans , Vietnamese , and other groups. Additionally,

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5564-503: The U.S. during the Battle of Lake Erie in the War of 1812 . Locals adopted Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry as a civic hero and erected a monument in his honor decades later. Largely through the efforts of the settlement's first lawyer Alfred Kelley , the village of Cleveland was incorporated on December 23, 1814. In spite of the nearby swampy lowlands and harsh winters, the town's waterfront location proved to be an advantage, giving it access to Great Lakes trade. It grew rapidly after

5671-610: The United States. Besides Saint Andrew's Abbey Church in Cleveland, these include the Moody Music Center (1983–90) on the University of Alabama campus in Tuscaloosa and the Grainger Engineering Library (1987–95) at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign . Woollen was well known for his Modern and Brutalism designs, but he also loved older historical styles and was interested in preserving notable buildings. Woollen and his firm completed several historic preservation projects, including churches, apartment and commercial buildings, and theatres. Notable examples include restoration of

5778-489: The age of eighty-eight. Woollen's innovative designs made him a pacesetter among architects in the Midwest . Steve Mannheimer, a former reporter for the Indianapolis Star , described Woollen as "the most distinguished designer among his generation of Indiana-based architects." Woollen, who is credited for introducing the Modernist and the Brutalist architecture styles to Indianapolis, became known for his use of bold materials and creative solutions to design issues. Woollen

5885-423: The age of twenty-seven, Woollen returned to his hometown of Indianapolis to establish his architecture firm, which remained in business for more than fifty-five years. Woollen initially specialized in modern residential designs, but his work soon expanded to include commercial and urban-design projects before he retired in the early 2000s. Woollen's early commissions were primarily mid-century modern residences in

5992-798: The architectural community has praised its bold design. The success of this major project, which a reporter for The New York Times Magazine called "cool, dignified, and quietly dramatic," led to Woollen securing other significant commissions in Indianapolis. Another of Woollen's major projects in the 1960s was Barton Tower, the first high-rise apartment building in Indianapolis that provided low-cost housing for senior citizens. Described by some as "ungainly" and "awkward," it received international coverage in architecture journals for its "inventive take on public housing." The estimated $ 3.5 million project contained 248 apartment units on twenty floors. The tower's fifteenth floor offered an open public space for use of its residents. Libraries and churches also became

6099-459: The broader strike wave that swept the U.S. that year. Cleveland's population continued to grow throughout the Roaring Twenties . The decade saw the establishment of the city's Playhouse Square , and the rise of the risqué Short Vincent . The Bal-Masque balls of the avant-garde Kokoon Arts Club scandalized the city. Jazz came to prominence in Cleveland during this period. Prohibition first took effect in Ohio in May 1919 (although it

6206-413: The building's stark design, but architects have considered it one of the city's few "cutting-edge designs from the 1970s." The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2021. [REDACTED] Media related to Minton-Capehart Federal Building at Wikimedia Commons Evans Woollen III Evans Woollen III (August 10, 1927 – May 17, 2016) was an American architect who

6313-435: The city and for northern Ohio. At the 2020 census, there were 372,624 people and 170,549 households in Cleveland. The population density was 4,901.51 inhabitants per square mile (1,892.5/km ). The median household income was $ 30,907 and the per capita income was $ 21,223. 32.7% of the population was living below the poverty line. Of the city's population over the age of 25, 17.5% held a bachelor's degree or higher, and 80.8% had

6420-450: The city and the county have significant communities of Albanians , Arabs (especially Lebanese , Syrians , and Palestinians ), Armenians , French , Greeks , Iranians , Scots , Turks , and West Indians . A 2020 analysis found Cleveland to be the most ethnically and racially diverse major city in Ohio. The influx of immigrants in the 19th and early 20th centuries drastically transformed Cleveland's religious landscape. From

6527-439: The city and the county include Aleris , American Greetings , Applied Industrial Technologies , Eaton , Forest City Realty Trust , Heinen's Fine Foods, Hyster-Yale Materials Handling , Lincoln Electric , Medical Mutual of Ohio , Moen Incorporated , NACCO Industries , Nordson Corporation , OM Group , Swagelok , Kirby Company , Things Remembered , Third Federal S&L , TransDigm Group , and Vitamix . NASA maintains

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6634-425: The city ascends into the Heights on the east, where the region known as the " Snow Belt " begins. Extending from the city's East Side and its suburbs, the Snow Belt reaches up the Lake Erie shore as far as Buffalo . The all-time record high in Cleveland of 104 °F (40 °C) was established on June 25, 1988, and the all-time record low of −20 °F (−29 °C) was set on January 19, 1994. On average, July

6741-429: The city boasted the highest concentration of Hungarians in the world outside of Budapest . Cleveland has a long-established Jewish community , historically centered on the East Side neighborhoods of Glenville and Kinsman, but now mostly concentrated in East Side suburbs such as Cleveland Heights and Beachwood , location of the Maltz Museum of Jewish Heritage . The availability of jobs attracted African Americans from

6848-464: The city from Santa Monica, California in the Women's Air Derby . The Van Sweringen brothers commenced construction of the Terminal Tower skyscraper in 1926 and oversaw it to completion in 1927. By the time the building was dedicated as part of Cleveland Union Terminal in 1930, the city had a population of over 900,000. Cleveland was hit hard by the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the subsequent Great Depression . A center of union activity ,

6955-402: The city saw significant labor struggles in this period, including strikes by workers against Fisher Body in 1936 and against Republic Steel in 1937. The city was also aided by major federal works projects sponsored by President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal . In commemoration of the centennial of Cleveland's incorporation as a city, the Great Lakes Exposition debuted in June 1936 at

7062-513: The city was named. The city's location on the river and the lake shore allowed it to grow into a major commercial and industrial metropolis by the late 19th century, attracting large numbers of immigrants and migrants . It was among the top 10 largest U.S. cities by population for much of the 20th century, a period that saw the development of the city's cultural institutions. By the 1960s, Cleveland's economy began to slow down as manufacturing declined and suburbanization occurred. Cleveland

7169-406: The city's North Coast Harbor , along the Lake Erie shore north of downtown. Conceived by Cleveland's business leaders as a way to revitalize the city during the Depression, it drew four million visitors in its first season, and seven million by the end of its second and final season in September 1937. On December 7, 1941, Imperial Japan attacked Pearl Harbor and declared war on the U.S. Two of

7276-448: The city's notable mid-century modern homes. In addition, Woollen and his firm planned and managed the renovation of several of the city's historic structures, including the Indiana Theatre , the Majestic Building , and Indianapolis Union Station , among others. Major projects outside of Indianapolis included the Over-the-Rhine Pilot Center in Cincinnati , Ohio ; Indiana University 's Musical Arts Center in Bloomington, Indiana ; and

7383-418: The city's west side is led by president and CEO Christine Alexander-Rager. Formerly known as City Hospital, it operates one of two Level I trauma centers in the city, and has various locations throughout Greater Cleveland. In 2013, Cleveland's Global Center for Health Innovation opened with 235,000 square feet (21,800 m ) of display space for healthcare companies across the world. To take advantage of

7490-426: The city, with improvement of city schools, economic development of neighborhoods, and continued efforts to tackle poverty, homelessness , and urban blight being top municipal priorities. According to the U.S. Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 82.47 square miles (213.60 km ), of which 77.70 square miles (201.24 km ) is land and 4.77 square miles (12.35 km ) is water. The shore of Lake Erie

7597-485: The colorful mural, as well as the building's stark design, but architects have considered it one of the city's few "cutting-edge designs from the 1970s." In 1968, Woollen formed a partnership with Lynn Molzan, a Tacoma, Washington , native who joined the firm in 1965. The firm was incorporated as Woollen Associates in 1968. It was renamed Woollen, Molzan and Partners in 1982 and dissolved in 2011, several years after Woollen retired. Woollen, Molzan, and their team designed

7704-525: The distinction of being one of the best hospital systems in the world. The clinic is led by Croatian-born president and CEO Tomislav Mihaljevic and it is affiliated with Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine . University Hospitals includes the University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center and its Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital . Cliff Megerian serves as that system's CEO. MetroHealth on

7811-416: The east receive over 44 inches (1,100 mm) of liquid precipitation annually. With its extensive cleanup of its Lake Erie shore and the Cuyahoga River, Cleveland has been recognized by national media as an environmental success story and a national leader in environmental protection. Since the city's industrialization, the Cuyahoga River had become so affected by industrial pollution that it "caught fire"

7918-421: The east side of the Indiana World War Memorial Plaza , the block-long, six-story structure is raised 24 feet (7.3 m) above grade on large columns. The concrete building is known for its distinctive, horizontal façade that tilts outward as the square footage of each upper floor increases. Graphic artist Milton Glaser designed a graphic rainbow mural that wraps the exterior's base. Many local residents disliked

8025-469: The first major American city since the Great Depression to enter into a financial default on federal loans. The national recession of the early 1980s "further eroded the city's traditional economic base." While unemployment during the period peaked in 1983, Cleveland's rate of 13.8% was higher than the national average due to the closure of several steel production centers. The city began

8132-425: The first major American city to elect an African American mayor, Carl B. Stokes , who served from 1968 to 1971 and played an instrumental role in restoring the Cuyahoga River. During the 1970s, Cleveland became known as "Bomb City U.S.A." due to several bombings that shook the city, mostly due to organized crime rivalries. In December 1978, during the turbulent tenure of Dennis Kucinich as mayor, Cleveland became

8239-618: The foothills of the Rocky Mountains . Woollen also resumed a lifelong interest in painting, preferring to paint landscapes in a geometric, abstract style. He also spent some of his later years in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . Woollen continued working on architectural projects into his mid-eighties. Among his final projects were a trio of Modernist homes in Hamilton County, Indiana . Woollen died on May 17, 2016, at

8346-462: The former residence of Indianapolis architect Kurt Vonnegut Sr. on North Illinois Street in 1962. The home was also the boyhood home of Vonnegut's son, the noted author Kurt Vonnegut Jr. The Woollens were the parents of two sons, Malcolm and Ian. Nancy Sewell Woolen died in 1992. Following Woollen's retirement from his architectural practice in Indianapolis around 2001, he moved to Boulder, Colorado , where he designed his own home. In 1955, at

8453-549: The golden age in Downtown Cleveland retail, centered on major department stores Higbee's , Bailey's, the May Company , Taylor's , Halle's , and Sterling Lindner Davis , which collectively represented one of the largest and most fashionable shopping districts in the country, often compared to New York's Fifth Avenue . In 1929, Cleveland hosted the first of many National Air Races , and Amelia Earhart flew to

8560-408: The growth has been spurred on by attracting creative class members, which has facilitated new residential development and the transformation of old industrial buildings into loft spaces for artists. Typical of the Great Lakes region , Cleveland exhibits a continental climate with four distinct seasons, which lies in the humid continental ( Köppen Dfa ) zone. The climate is transitional with

8667-399: The historic buildings in downtown Indianapolis, but the decision was made to build the new art museum at its present-day site northwest of the downtown area. Because he opposed its location, Woollen was not commissioned to design any of the art museum's buildings. While many of his firm's projects were located in Indiana, Woollen and his team also worked on others that were built elsewhere in

8774-614: The hockey team, the Barons , became champions of the American Hockey League, and the Browns dominated professional football in the 1950s. As a result, along with track and boxing champions produced, Cleveland was declared the "City of Champions" in sports at this time. Additionally, the 1950s saw the rising popularity of a new music genre that local WJW (AM) disc jockey Alan Freed dubbed " rock and roll ". However, by

8881-644: The increase since 2000 and especially 2010, reflecting downtown's growing population. Clevelanders geographically define themselves in terms of whether they live on the east or west side of the Cuyahoga River. The East Side includes the neighborhoods of Buckeye–Shaker , Buckeye–Woodhill , Central , Collinwood (including Nottingham ), Euclid–Green , Fairfax , Glenville , Goodrich–Kirtland Park (including Asiatown ), Hough , Kinsman , Lee–Miles (including Lee–Harvard and Lee–Seville), Mount Pleasant , St. Clair–Superior , Union–Miles Park , and University Circle (including Little Italy ). The West Side includes

8988-484: The lake freezes, usually in late January or early February. The lake effect causes a relative differential in geographical snowfall totals across the city. On the city's far West Side, the Hopkins neighborhood only reached 100 inches (254 cm) of snowfall in a season three times since record-keeping for snow began in 1893. By contrast, seasonal totals approaching or exceeding 100 inches (254 cm) are not uncommon as

9095-480: The lake, is at an elevation of 791 feet (241 m). Cleveland borders several inner-ring and streetcar suburbs . To the west, it borders Lakewood , Rocky River , and Fairview Park , and to the east, it borders Shaker Heights , Cleveland Heights , South Euclid , and East Cleveland . To the southwest, it borders Linndale , Brooklyn , Parma , and Brook Park . To the south, the city borders Newburgh Heights , Cuyahoga Heights , and Brooklyn Heights and to

9202-456: The neighborhoods of Brooklyn Centre , Clark–Fulton , Cudell , Detroit–Shoreway , Edgewater , Ohio City , Old Brooklyn , Stockyards , Tremont (including Duck Island ), West Boulevard , and the four neighborhoods colloquially known as West Park : Kamm's Corners , Jefferson , Bellaire–Puritas , and Hopkins . The Cuyahoga Valley neighborhood (including the Flats ) is situated between

9309-634: The open Cleveland Mall and share a common neoclassical architecture . They were built in the early 20th century as the result of the 1903 Group Plan. They constitute one of the most complete examples of City Beautiful design in the U.S. Completed in 1927 and dedicated in 1930 as part of the Cleveland Union Terminal complex, the Terminal Tower was the tallest building in North America outside New York City until 1964 and

9416-640: The project, but the work was completed in 2007 using the Woollen Molzan firm's design at a cost of $ 150 million. The architectural firm's lawsuit with the library was settled in 2006. (Woollen's firm paid the library $ 580,000, but it denied accusations that the building had design flaws.) In 2009 the library's "structural consultants were exonerated in court, and it is generally accepted that the innocence extended to Woollen, Molzan too." Following Woollen's retirement from Woollen Molzan around 2001, he moved to Boulder, Colorado, where he designed his own home in

9523-544: The rural South arrived in Cleveland (among other Northeastern and Midwestern cities) as part of the Great Migration for jobs, constitutional rights, and relief from racial discrimination . By 1920, the year in which the Cleveland Indians won their first World Series championship , Cleveland had grown into a densely-populated metropolis of 796,841, making it the fifth-largest city in the nation, with

9630-458: The son of George H. A. Clowes for whom the building is named, supported Woollen's proposal. The thirty-one-year-old Woollen teamed with John M. Johansen, a modernist architect with a national reputation who had been Woollen's professor at Yale and a former classmate of Allen Clowes at Harvard University . Woollen served as the junior partner in the project, but he was the "driving force behind its design and detail." Since Clowes Hall opened in 1963,

9737-495: The southeast, it borders Warrensville Heights , Maple Heights , and Garfield Heights . To the northeast, along the shore of Lake Erie, Cleveland borders Bratenahl and Euclid . Cleveland's downtown architecture is diverse. Many of the city's government and civic buildings, including City Hall , the Cuyahoga County Courthouse , the Cleveland Public Library , and Public Auditorium , are clustered around

9844-418: The square footage of each upper floor increases, forming an inverted ziggurat . Graphic designer Milton Glaser , designer of the stylized I Love New York heart logo, designed the building's graphic rainbow mural, Color Fuses , another notable feature of the building. The colorful mural wraps around the exterior's base. Many local residents disliked the colorful mural, which has faded over time, as well as

9951-575: The structure's setting and its history. Some of his most distinctive modern buildings still stand in Indianapolis, including Clowes Memorial Hall, Barton Tower, the Minton-Capehart Federal Building, the west entrance addition to The Children's Museum of Indianapolis, the White River Gardens Conservatory, and a modern addition to the Indianapolis Central Library, all of which are still in use. Woollen

10058-472: The tallest in the city until 1991. It is a prototypical Beaux-Arts skyscraper. The two other major skyscrapers on Public Square, Key Tower (the tallest building in Ohio) and 200 Public Square, combine elements of Art Deco architecture with postmodern designs. Running east from Public Square through University Circle is Euclid Avenue , which was known as "Millionaires' Row" for its prestige and elegance as

10165-419: The time as the sixth-largest U.S. city. Its automotive companies included Peerless , Chandler , and Winton , maker of the first car driven across the U.S. Other manufacturing industries in Cleveland included steam cars produced by White and electric cars produced by Baker . The city counted major Progressive Era politicians among its leaders, most prominently the populist Mayor Tom L. Johnson , who

10272-415: The victims of the attack were Cleveland natives – Rear Admiral Isaac C. Kidd and ensign William Halloran. The attack signaled America's entry into World War II . A major hub of the " Arsenal of Democracy ", Cleveland under Mayor Frank Lausche contributed massively to the U.S. war effort as the fifth largest manufacturing center in the nation. During his tenure, Lausche also oversaw the establishment of

10379-438: Was a cluster house of two circular structures with conical roofs that evoked the style of an old European peasant farmhouse in southern Italy. Between 1962 and 1976, Woollen was commissioned to design some of his best-known works, many of which serve as examples of Modernism and Brutalism architectural styles. Woollen's best known commercial projects were built in Indianapolis. These include Fesler Hall (1962), an addition to

10486-506: Was a freestanding wing addition at the John Herron Art Institute. The three-story structure connected via covered walkway to the original Paul Philippe Cret -designed building that was erected in 1928–29. Woollen's addition was noted for its use of reinforced concrete, exposed columns, and deeply coffered ceilings. The design for the $ 3.5 million Clowes Memorial Hall was a controversial one, but Allen Whitehill Clowes,

10593-428: Was accompanied by significant strikes and labor unrest, as workers demanded better wages and working conditions . Between 1881 and 1886, 70 to 80% of strikes were successful in improving labor conditions in Cleveland. The Cleveland Streetcar Strike of 1899 was one of the more violent instances of labor strife in the city during this period. By 1910, Cleveland had become known as the "Sixth City" due to its status at

10700-533: Was completed in 1923 by the Cleveland architectural firm Walker and Weeks . The headquarters of the Federal Reserve System's Fourth District, the bank employs 1,000 people and maintains branch offices in Cincinnati and Pittsburgh . Cleveland and Cuyahoga County are home to Fortune 500 companies Cleveland-Cliffs , Progressive , Sherwin-Williams , Parker-Hannifin , KeyCorp , and Travel Centers of America . Other large companies based in

10807-556: Was elected its first mayor. That same year, it nearly erupted into open warfare with neighboring Ohio City over a bridge connecting the two communities. Ohio City remained an independent municipality until its annexation by Cleveland in 1854. A center of abolitionist activity, Cleveland (code-named "Station Hope") was a major stop on the Underground Railroad for escaped African American slaves en route to Canada. The city also served as an important center for

10914-733: Was established on July 22, 1796, by surveyors of the Connecticut Land Company when they laid out Connecticut 's Western Reserve into townships and a capital city. They named the settlement "Cleaveland" after their leader, General Moses Cleaveland , a veteran of the American Revolutionary War . Cleaveland oversaw the New England –style design of the plan for what would become the modern downtown area, centered on Public Square , before returning to Connecticut, never again to visit Ohio. The town's name

11021-428: Was not afraid of being provocative. He once remarked, "If an architect isn't controversial, he can't be very effective." Woollen was also described as outspoken and sometimes stubborn, even when faced with harsh criticism from those who viewed his designs as too modern. In an active career that spanned from the mid-1950s to the early 2000s, Woollen is noted for his innovative and sophisticated designs that blended with

11128-589: Was not well-enforced in Cleveland), became law with the Volstead Act in 1920, and was eventually repealed nationally by Congress in 1933. The ban on alcohol led to the rise of speakeasies throughout the city and organized crime gangs, such as the Mayfield Road Mob , who smuggled bootleg liquor across Lake Erie from Canada into Cleveland. The era of the flapper marked the beginning of

11235-407: Was often shortened to "Cleveland", even by Cleaveland's original surveyors. A common myth emerged that the spelling was altered by The Cleveland Advertiser in order to fit the name on the newspaper's masthead . The first permanent European settler in Cleveland was Lorenzo Carter , who built a cabin on the banks of the Cuyahoga River. The emerging community served as an important supply post for

11342-577: Was responsible for the development of the Cleveland Mall Plan . The era of the City Beautiful movement in Cleveland architecture saw wealthy patrons support the establishment of the city's major cultural institutions. The most prominent among them were the Cleveland Museum of Art , which opened in 1916, and the Cleveland Orchestra , established in 1918. In addition to the large immigrant population, African American migrants from

11449-426: Was the recipient of an Indiana Society of Architects award for its bold, geometric design. Saint Andrew's polygonal plan has a controversial asymmetrical exterior and striking modern sanctuary of exposed steel, concrete walls, and an upward-sloping ceiling. The Minton-Capehart Federal Building was a $ 20 million project that some have called a "pigeon coop" and "the ugliest building in Indianapolis." Built to fill in

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