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117-543: The sūtra deals with a number of topics, but is primarily concerned with the conduct of a bodhisattva , the realisation and attainment of the Perfection of Wisdom as one of the Six Perfections , the realisation of thusness ( tathātā ), the attainment of irreversibility on the path to buddhahood (avaivartika), non-conceptualisation and abandonment of views, as well as the worldly and spiritual benefit of worshipping

234-411: A Buddha after his resolution ( praṇidhāna ) in front of a past Buddha. During the first incalculable aeon he is said to have encountered and served 75,000 Buddhas, and 76,000 in the second, after which he received his first prediction ( vyākaraṇa ) of future Buddhahood from Dīpankara , meaning that he could no longer fall back from the path to Buddhahood. For Sarvāstivāda, the first two incalculable aeons

351-587: A being has entered the path by giving rise to bodhicitta, they must make effort in the practice or conduct ( caryā ) of the bodhisattvas, which includes all the duties, virtues and practices that bodhisattvas must accomplish to attain Buddhahood. An important early Mahayana source for the practice of the bodhisattva is the Bodhisattvapiṭaka sūtra, a major sutra found in the Mahāratnakūṭa collection which

468-465: A bodhisattva can avoid malice and regard all bodhisattvas as their teacher and avoid competitive-mindedness. Chapter 25. Training — To train in omniscience, a bodhisattva trains in suchness, without grasping onto either. It is also suggested in this chapter that the number of bodhisattvas who truly train in the Prajñāpāramitā are very few in number, but that the merit of practicing the Prajñāpāramitā

585-404: A bodhisattva can engage in skilful means by remaining in the world and not entering nirvāṇa in order to benefit beings. They do this by holding back from realising the reality-limit . They continue by developing the pāramitās and engaging in non-attachment. They can know their own irreversibility when they see signs in their dreams, and develop powers . Chapter 21. Māra's Deeds — Returning to

702-417: A bodhisattva has no doubt of his irreversibility. Without doubt, their conduct is pure and continue to work for beings' benefit. They cannot be dissuaded by Māra, who will be easily recognised by them. Chapter 18. Emptiness — Bodhisattva stages are equated with suchness. Reflecting upon them, a bodhisattva develops the Prajñāpāramitā. The greatest of deeds is excelled by practicing the Prajñāpāramitā for even

819-518: A bodhisattva, as one edict states that he "set out for sambodhi." By the time that the Buddhist tradition had developed into various competing sects, the idea of the bodhisattva vehicle (Sanskrit: bodhisattvayana ) as a distinct (and superior) path from that of the arhat and solitary buddha was widespread among all the major non-Mahayana Buddhist traditions or Nikaya schools , including Theravāda , Sarvāstivāda and Mahāsāṃghika . The doctrine

936-451: A bodhisattva- mahāsattva is so called." Mahayana sutras also depict the bodhisattva as a being which, because they want to reach Buddhahood for the sake of all beings, is more loving and compassionate than the sravaka (who only wishes to end their own suffering). Thus, another major difference between the bodhisattva and the arhat is that the bodhisattva practices the path for the good of others ( par-ārtha ), due to their bodhicitta , while

1053-467: A brahmin who offers to buy Sadāprarudita's heart, blood, and marrow. Agreeing and dissecting himself, he is saved by a merchant's daughter who offers to help him with her riches. Seeing his resolve, Śakra restores Sadāprarudita's dissected body parts and magically disappears. After finding Dharmodgata and honouring him, Sadāprarudita asks him from whence the buddhas came and to where they went. Chapter 31. Dharmodgata — In response, Dharmodgata suggests that

1170-613: A collection of texts on bodhisattvas alongside the Tripitaka , which they termed "Bodhisattva Piṭaka" or "Vaipulya (Extensive) Piṭaka". None of these have survived. Dar Hayal attributes the historical development of the bodhisattva ideal to "the growth of bhakti (devotion, faith, love) and the idealisation and spiritualisation of the Buddha." The North Indian Sarvāstivāda school held it took Gautama three "incalculable aeons" ( asaṃkhyeyas ) and ninety one aeons ( kalpas ) to become

1287-482: A commentary on the Cariyāpiṭaka , a text which focuses on the bodhisattva path and on the ten perfections of a bodhisatta. Dhammapāla 's commentary notes that to become a bodhisattva one must make a valid resolution in front of a living Buddha. The Buddha then must provide a prediction ( vyākaraṇa ) which confirms that one is irreversible ( anivattana ) from the attainment of Buddhahood. The Nidānakathā , as well as

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1404-578: A commentary on the Aṣṭasāhasrikā , the Abhisamayālaṅkārāloka , or the "Light for the Ornament of Clear Realisation." While, owing to it being based on a commentary on a different text, the structure suggested to be present by Haribhadra does not fit perfectly, the structure as he understands it is as follows: The following is a chronological survey of prominent manuscript witnesses and editions of

1521-480: A great compassion ( mahākaruṇā ). These beings are exemplified by important spiritual qualities such as the "four divine abodes" ( brahmavihāras ) of loving-kindness ( maitrī ), compassion ( karuṇā ), empathetic joy ( muditā ) and equanimity ( upekṣā ), as well as the various bodhisattva "perfections" ( pāramitās ) which include prajñāpāramitā ("transcendent knowledge" or "perfection of wisdom") and skillful means ( upāya ). In Theravāda Buddhism ,

1638-596: A hundred thousand, shorter kalpas (aeons) to reach Buddhahood. Several sources in the Pali Canon depict the idea that there are multiple Buddhas and that there will be many future Buddhas, all of which must train as bodhisattas. Non-canonical Theravada Jataka literature also teaches about bodhisattvas and the bodhisattva path. The worship of bodhisattvas like Metteya , Saman and Natha ( Avalokiteśvara ) can also be found in Theravada Buddhism. By

1755-419: A level of dispassion at the time of Buddha Dīpaṃkara many aeons ago and he is also said to have attained the perfection of wisdom countless aeons ago. The Mahāvastu also presents four stages or courses ( caryās) of the bodhisattva path without giving specific time frames (though it's said to take various incalculable aeons ). This set of four phases of the path is also found in other sources, including

1872-426: A resolution to become a Buddha and has also received a confirmation or prediction from a living Buddha that this will be so. In Mahāyāna Buddhism , a bodhisattva refers to anyone who has generated bodhicitta , a spontaneous wish and compassionate mind to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings . Mahayana bodhisattvas are spiritually heroic persons that work to attain awakening and are driven by

1989-542: A single and unified whole as it presently stands (more or less)," with additional materials being added around these chiastically arranged materials. The primary subject of Prajñāpāramitā commentary has been the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā version. This includes the commentaries attributed to Nāgārjuna , Dignāga, and Asaṅga's Abhisamayālaṅkāra . Using the Abhisamayālaṅkāra as a basis, however, Haribhadra composed

2106-546: A single day. Awakening never increases or decreases to such a bodhisattva, whose activities and merits are said to be ineffable. Chapter 19. The Goddess of the Ganges — Awakening is said to arise depending upon the first and last bodhicitta aspiration, but not directly by either. In suchness, development to awakening is said to only be a convention. Objective bases are said to be that upon which discriminative actions depend, but they are said to be empty. Moreover, conditionality

2223-478: Is a period of time in which a bodhisattva may still fall away and regress from the path. At the end of the second incalculable aeon, they encounter a buddha and receive their prediction, at which point they are certain to achieve Buddhahood. Thus, the presence of a living Buddha is also necessary for Sarvāstivāda . The Mahāvibhāṣā explains that its discussion of the bodhisattva path is partly meant "to stop those who are in fact not bodhisattvas from giving rise to

2340-481: Is based principally upon the path of a bodhisattva. This path was seen as higher and nobler than becoming an arhat or a solitary Buddha . Hayal notes that Sanskrit sources generally depict the bodhisattva path as reaching a higher goal (i.e. anuttara-samyak-sambodhi ) than the goal of the path of the "disciples" ( śrāvakas ), which is the nirvana attained by arhats. For example, the Lotus Sutra states: "To

2457-520: Is emphasised that these can be counteracted by honouring the good friends . Chapter 22. The Good Friends — The true good friends are declared to be the Six Pāramitās, with Prajñāpāramitā as their key. Relying upon it, a bodhisattva sees all as empty and pure. Thus, the Prajñāpāramitā is equated to a precious jewel. Also, in this way, beings and the Prajñāpāramitā are said to neither increase or decrease, and by not practicing in anything one practices in

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2574-705: Is found, for example, in 2nd century CE sources like the Avadānaśataka and the Divyāvadāna. The bodhisattvayana was referred by other names such as "vehicle of the perfections" ( pāramitāyāna ), "bodhisatva dharma", "bodhisatva training", and "vehicle of perfect Buddhahood". According to various sources, some of the Nikaya schools (such as the Dharmaguptaka and some of the Mahasamghika sects) transmitted

2691-442: Is greater than any other practice. Bodhisattvas are thus able to teach śrāvakas by learning about their qualities, but do not fall to their yāna. Chapter 26. Like Illusion — While bodhisattvas surpass all except buddhas, and the merits of their bodhicitta is said to be boundless, they are an illusion, and thus cannot know the illusion that is also full awakening. Their bodhicitta, too, is an illusion. Thus, they act conventionally in

2808-520: Is held by some in the Mahāyāna tradition that the Buddha taught the Aṣṭasāhasrikā , and the other Mahāyāna sūtras during his lifetime, some legends exist regarding its appearance in the world after the Buddha's parinirvāṇa . One such legend is that Mañjuśrī Bodhisattva came to the house of King Candragupta (321–297 BCE), preached, and left the Aṣṭasāhasrikā there. Another, related by Haribhadra (8th C),

2925-490: Is likely late in origin, as Seishi Karashima writes regarding the text from which Lokakṣema (fl. 147–189) was translating, the text was probably originally just entitled Prajñāpāramitā or Mahāprajñāpāramitā . But when different versions began circulating, the additional titles, such as references to length, were added in order to differentiate them. The name of Lokakṣema's translation thus became Dàohéng Bānruòbōluómì Jīng , "The Way of Practice Perfection of Wisdom Sūtra," with

3042-432: Is not really the Prajñāpāramitā. Finally it is said that the Prajñāpāramitā is consummated through seeing non-extinction of the skandhas and seeing the links of dependent origination . Chapter 29. Approaches — The approach to the Prajñāpāramitā is said to be through non-conceptualisation in 54 aspects. The declarations of the Prajñāpāramitā are to be approached through the "roaring of a lion," but one should also know that

3159-468: Is only one vehicle, the ekayana , which ends in Buddhahood. Classical Indian mahayanists held that the only sutras which teach the bodhisattva vehicle are the Mahayana sutras . Thus, Nagarjuna writes "the subjects based on the deeds of Bodhisattvas were not mentioned in [non-Mahāyāna] sūtras." They also held that the bodhisattva path was superior to the śrāvaka vehicle and so the bodhisattva vehicle

3276-500: Is said to be buddhahood. Those who have backslided, as suggested in Chapter 14, must rely upon the Prajñāpāramitā in order to once again enter the buddhayāna . In that regard, the difficulty of buddhahood is said to be that there is no one to attain it, and no three yānas by which to approach it—awakening is knowing this without trembling. Chapter 17. Attributes, Tokens, and Signs of Irreversibility — Having attained irreversibility,

3393-422: Is said to be heard due to one's karmic roots, and accepting it is said to accelerate one's progress on the path. Chapter 14. Similes — This chapter points out that practitioners of the Prajñāpāramitā may have been born in a buddha-field in a previous life, but that generally they will be born as humans. If one fails to understand the Prajñāpāramitā, it may have been due to failing to question buddhas about it in

3510-400: Is said to be viewing the world. Chapter 13. Unthinkable — The Prajñāpāramitā is said to be unthinkable and incalculable like space. The same is so of all skandhas, phenomena, attainments . All of the levels of the path are said to work through the agency of the Prajñāpāramitā as a minister does a king's work. The Prajñāpāramitā is summarised as being the non-attachment to any phenomena. It

3627-533: Is said to only exist by convention of speech, but not in reality. Practicing thus without fear, a bodhisattva should endure misfortunes and dedicate them to awakening. The Goddess of the Ganges gains faith in the Prajñāpāramitā and it is predicted that after she studies under the Buddha Akṣobhya , she will become a Buddha called Suvarṇapuṣpa. Chapter 20. Discussion of Skill in Means — This chapter describes how

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3744-431: Is taught in the form of annihilationist doctrine, it is called the "counterfeit Prajñāpāramitā." Finally, it is declared to be the greatest gift since it renders full buddhahood . Chapter 6. Dedication and jubilation — The chapter points out that one should rejoice in the merit of others and one's own practice and dedicate it to attaining buddhahood, but without perceiving any sign in doing so. Chapter 7. Hell — While

3861-516: Is termed bodhicitta (the mind set on awakening). The bodhisattva doctrine went through a significant transformation during the development of Buddhist tantra, also known as Vajrayana . This movement developed new ideas and texts which introduced new bodhisattvas and re-interpreted old ones in new forms, developed in elaborate mandalas for them and introduced new practices which made use of mantras , mudras and other tantric elements. According to David Drewes, "Mahayana sutras unanimously depict

3978-529: Is that while the Śrāvakayāna teachings were entrusted and preserved by Ānanda , the Mahāyāna sūtras, and in particular the " Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, " were entrusted to Vajradhāra residing in the Aḍakavatī Heaven. Finally, the legend which has the most currency in East Asia, is that Nāgārjuna was gifted the sūtra from the king of the nāgas after seeing Nāgārjuna's resolve to obtain the Mahāyāna sūtras of

4095-446: Is the "great vehicle" (mahayana) due to its greater aspiration to save others, while the śrāvaka vehicle is the "small" or "inferior" vehicle ( hinayana ). Thus, Asanga argues in his Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra that the two vehicles differ in numerous ways, such as intention, teaching, employment (i.e., means), support, and the time that it takes to reach the goal. Over time, Mahayana Buddhists developed mature systematized doctrines about

4212-602: Is the cause and result of bodhicitta) eventually developed into the idea that bodhisattvas take certain formulaic " bodhisattva vows ." One of the earliest of these formulas is found in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra and states: We having crossed (the stream of samsara), may we help living beings to cross! We being liberated, may we liberate others! We being comforted, may we comfort others! We being finally released, may we release others! Other sutras contain longer and more complex formulas, such as

4329-459: Is told to go east by a voice, and then told by visions of the buddhas to seek the teacher Dharmodgata in Gandhavatī. Sadāprarudita's desire at that point is to know from whence the buddhas came and to where they went. Not having anything to offer the teacher as payment, Sadāprarudita offers himself for payment, but Māra deafens everyone so that they cannot hear him. Knowing this, Śakra manifests as

4446-512: Is very difficult to maintain the necessary conduct and views during periods when the Dharma has disappeared from the world. One will easily fall back during such periods and this is why one is not truly a full bodhisattva until one receives recognition from a living Buddha. Because of this, it was and remains a common practice in Theravada to attempt to establish the necessary conditions to meet

4563-475: The Buddhavaṃsa and Cariyāpiṭaka commentaries makes this explicit by stating that one cannot use a substitute (such as a Bodhi tree , Buddha statue or Stupa ) for the presence of a living Buddha, since only a Buddha has the knowledge for making a reliable prediction. This is the generally accepted view maintained in orthodox Theravada today. According to Theravāda commentators like Dhammapāla as well as

4680-464: The Suttanipāta commentary, there are three types of bodhisattvas: According to modern Theravada authors, meeting a Buddha is needed to truly make someone a bodhisattva because any other resolution to attain Buddhahood may easily be forgotten or abandoned during the aeons ahead. The Burmese monk Ledi Sayadaw (1846–1923) explains that though it is easy to make vows for future Buddhahood by oneself, it

4797-701: The Acchariyabbhutadhamma-sutta ( MN 123, and its Chinese parallel in Madhyama-āgama 32) discuss the marvelous qualities of the bodhisattva Gautama in his previous life in Tuṣita heaven. The Pali text focuses on how the bodhisattva was endowed with mindfulness and clear comprehension while living in Tuṣita, while the Chinese source states that his lifespan, appearance, and glory was greater than all

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4914-564: The Discourse on an Explanation about the Past (MĀ 66). In this discourse, a monk named Maitreya aspires to become a Buddha in the future and the Buddha then predicts that Maitreya will become a Buddha in the future. Other discourses found in the Ekottarika-āgama present the "bodhisattva Maitreya" as an example figure (EĀ 20.6 and EĀ 42.6) and one sutra in this collection also discuss how

5031-508: The Dàohéng . Similarly, Zhī Dàolín (314-366 CE) suggested that monks had redacted the Xiăopĭn translation from the medium sūtra. Contemporary scholarship holds that the shorter Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, using the Aṣṭasāhasrikā as the base, were redacted and expanded in the formation of the longer sūtras. As Jan Nattier characterises, the evolution of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā - Prajñāpāramitā into

5148-775: The Gandhari “ Many-Buddhas Sūtra ” (* Bahubudha gasutra ) and the Chinese Fó běnxíng jí jīng (佛本行 集經, Taisho vol. 3, no. 190, pp. 669a1–672a11). The four caryās (Gandhari: caria ) are the following: The bodhisattva ideal is also found in southern Buddhist sources, like the Theravāda school's Buddhavaṃsa (1st-2nd century BCE), which explains how Gautama, after making a resolution ( abhinīhāra ) and receiving his prediction ( vyākaraṇa ) of future Buddhahood from past Buddha Dīpaṃkara, he became certain ( dhuva ) to attain Buddhahood. Gautama then took four incalculable aeons and

5265-755: The Pañcaviṃsati-sāhasrikā through what we might call the “club sandwich” style of textual formation: with the exception of the final chapters (30-32 in the Sanskrit version) of the Aṣṭa-, which have no counterpart in the Sanskrit Pañca - and apparently circulated separately before being incorporated into the Aṣṭa - ... the [ Pañca- ] consists of the Aṣṭa - being “sliced” like a loaf of bread and then layered with “fillings” introduced from other sources. Very little of

5382-588: The Prajñā in eight thousand articles". This French translation was published in 2022 by Guillaume Ducoeur ( Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā, la Perfection de sagesse en huit mille stances , traduite par Eugène Burnouf (1801-1852), éditée par Guillaume Ducoeur, Université de Strasbourg, 2022) . The only full published translation remains Edward Conze's 1973 translation, The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and its Verse Summary. A translation of

5499-682: The Ratnagunasaṃcaya were added, which were then put into prose as the Aṣṭasāhasrikā . To this were gradually added (3) material from the Abhidharma , (4) concessions to the "Buddhism of Faith" (referring to Pure Land references in the sūtra), and then (5) the expansion into the larger sūtras, their (6) contraction into the shorter sūtras (i.e. Diamond Sūtra , Heart Sūtra , down to the Prajñāpāramitā in One Letter ), which all in turn set

5616-524: The Theravāda monk Bhikkhu Bodhi , while all the Buddhist traditions agree that to attain Buddhahood, one must "make a deliberate resolution" and fulfill the spiritual perfections ( pāramīs or pāramitās) as a bodhisattva, the actual bodhisattva path is not taught in the earliest strata of Buddhist texts such as the Pali Nikayas (and their counterparts such as the Chinese Āgamas ) which instead focus on

5733-459: The devas (gods). These sources also discuss various miracles which accompanied the bodhisattva's conception and birth, most famously, his taking seven steps and proclaiming that this was his last life. The Chinese source (titled Discourse on Marvellous Qualities ) also states that while living as a monk under the Buddha Kāśyapa he "made his initial vow to [realize] Buddhahood [while] practicing

5850-585: The "sameness of all phenomena." Bodhisattva In Buddhism , a bodhisattva ( English: / ˌ b oʊ d iː ˈ s ʌ t v ə / BOH -dee- SUT -və ; Sanskrit : बोधिसत्त्व , romanized :  bodhisattva ; Pali : बोधिसत्त , romanized:  bodhisatta ) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood . In the Early Buddhist schools , as well as modern Theravāda Buddhism , bodhisattva (or bodhisatta) refers to someone who has made

5967-504: The Buddha taught the bodhisattva path of the six perfections to Maitreya (EĀ 27.5). 'Bodhisatta' may also connote a being who is "bound for enlightenment", in other words, a person whose aim is to become fully enlightened. In the Pāli canon , the Bodhisatta (bodhisattva) is also described as someone who is still subject to birth, illness, death, sorrow, defilement, and delusion. According to

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6084-461: The Buddha that were missing on earth. It is clear that Indian monastics did not see the development of the Prajñāpāramitā literature in the first millennium as an outgrowth from the Aṣṭasāhasrikā , an early opinion, but Dignāga (c. 480–540 CE), suggests "we assert that this Eight Thousand is a condensed version [of the Perfection of Wisdom ] text, not short of any of the topics. It proclaims

6201-691: The Buddha who realise dharmatā teach, that is the work of the Buddha. He goes on to clarify the realisation of the Perfection of Wisdom by explaining that by cutting off the view of the inherent existence of self and phenomena , a bodhisattva can go forth on the Mahāyāna for the liberation of beings and not enter nirvāṇa halfway . However, in suchness , he points out, there are in fact no bodhisattvas, beings to save, Prajñāpāramitā, path, or nirvāṇa. Chapter 2: Śakra — In response to Śakra 's request for further explanation, Subhūti points out that in suchness one cannot rely on any aggregate , state of being, or

6318-475: The Mahāyāna Buddhist world and are believed to possess great magical power which they employ to help all living beings. In pre-sectarian Buddhism , the term bodhisatta is used in the early texts to refer to Gautama Buddha in his previous lives and as a young man in his last life, when he was working towards liberation . In the early Buddhist discourses , the Buddha regularly uses the phrase "when I

6435-586: The Omniscient One after the attainment of the supreme and perfect bodhi." According to Peter Skilling, the Mahayana movement began when "at an uncertain point, let us say in the first century BCE, groups of monks, nuns, and lay-followers began to devote themselves exclusively to the Bodhisatva vehicle." These Mahayanists universalized the bodhisattvayana as a path which was open to everyone and which

6552-531: The Prajñāpāramitā have planted karmic roots with past buddhas. If one encounters it and is not afraid, one is said to be near to realising the Prajñāpāramitā, and one develops one's practice in this regard by not mentally constructing the path. While Māra will try to obstruct such bodhisattvas, they will be sustained by the buddhas. It is said that the sūtra will spread long after the Buddha's nirvāṇa and that those who search for it will find it in one to two lives. Chapter 11. Māra's Deeds — This chapter returns to

6669-421: The Prajñāpāramitā is the source of all buddhas, thus in worshipping buddha relics one is really worshipping the Prajñāpāramitā. Prajñāpāramitā, also, ultimately contains the other five pāramitās—so practicing it allows one to practice the others. Chapter 5. The Revolution of Merit — Practicing the Prajñāpāramitā is said to be of great merit , but teaching it to others is said to be even greater. However, if it

6786-406: The Prajñāpāramitā should be considered the teacher , it is not to be thought of as procuring anything and should be practiced through non-practice: this leads beings to nirvāṇa but does not result in perceiving beings or nirvāṇa. If one obtains the sūtra, it is said to be because one encountered the buddhas previously, but that it is understood depending upon one's conditions. If, however, one rejects

6903-514: The Prajñāpāramitā, hell is said to be the retribution. Chapter 8. Purity – This chapter points out that ultimately the skandhas are pure, and so is the Prajñāpāramitā. Seeing this one is non-attached, but not seeing it, one develops attachment . Teaching and not teaching the Prajñāpāramitā and the skandhas is said to have no effect upon their increase or decrease, since they are ultimately like space. The Buddha points out that just as he teaches, so did all past buddhas , and so will Maitreya in

7020-458: The Prajñāpāramitā. Chapter 23. Śakra — It is said that by practicing and teaching the Prajñāpāramitā, all devas are surpassed by a bodhisattva. The devas will therefore protect that bodhisattva—but they can only accomplish this through the Buddha's power. Chapter 24. Conceit — If, however, a bodhisattva does not practice the Prajñāpāramitā properly, they will be open to Māra who will give rise to their conceit. However, by practicing repentance,

7137-422: The Prajñāpāramitā. It suggests that the bodhisattva aspiration is not related to phenomena, and that the non-grasping nature of the Dharma is demonstrated through non-demonstration. Chapter 16. Suchness — This chapter, being the turning point in terms of identifying the end of retrogression in the realisation of suchness, emphasises that the Buddha, suchness, and phenomena are identical and non-dual—to know this

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7254-649: The Sanskrit Aṣṭasāhasrikā text: The following editions have been made of the Sanskrit text: The Aṣṭasāhasrikā first became known to western scholars when Brian Hodgson had obtained manuscripts of the sūtra in Nepal and sent them to the Indologist Eugène Burnouf (1801-1852) in Paris for analysis. Burnouf's first impression was lack of interest, "because I saw only perpetual repetitions of

7371-599: The World — This chapter emphasises how the Prajñāpāramitā is the mother of the buddhas: therefore they care for her, just as a child for his mother, by teaching the Prajñāpāramitā. The world to which it is taught is declared to be made up of empty skandhas , and thus the world, too, is said to be empty. Similarly all beings' thoughts are characterised by emptiness, are identical to suchness, and are inherently pure. One cannot fix onto any phenomenon , just like space, and are ultimately unknowable—viewing them thus through non-viewing

7488-463: The [ Aṣṭasāhasrikā ], through condensing its topics, to produce benefit for beings who are captured by headings and delight in brief explanation." Haribhadra, however, uses the topics of the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā , which were the basis of the Abhisamayālaṅkāra of Asaṅga (4th C) on which his commentary relies, in order to explain the Aṣṭasāhasrikā . Chinese monastics in general also held that

7605-464: The advantages and merits promised to those who obtain prajñāpāramitā . But what is this prajñā itself? This is what I did not see anywhere, and what I wished to learn." Later, in his 1844 work on the history of Indian Buddhism, Burnouf presented the first detailed study of the doctrines of the Prajñāpāramitā found in the west. In that work, he also produced a translation of the first chapter and stated "I have translated, for my personal use, almost all of

7722-419: The arising of bodhicitta. These elements, which constitute a kind of preliminary preparation for bodhicitta, are found in the "seven part worship" ( saptāṇgapūjā or saptavidhā anuttarapūjā ). This ritual form is visible in the works of Shantideva (8th century) and includes: After these preliminaries have been accomplished, then the aspirant is seen as being ready to give rise to bodhicitta, often through

7839-468: The basis for the (7) Yogācārin commentaries and (8) Tantras and (9) Chan . Based on a similar understanding, most scholars of the Prajñāpāramitā have suggested that there is a base urtext from which the rest of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā expanded. Similar to Conze in regards to the Ratnagunasaṃcaya , scholars who hold that the first chapter of the prose sūtra is the urtext include Kōun Kajiyoshi, Yìnshùn , and Lambert Schmithausen . Ryūshō Hikata argued that

7956-450: The bodhisattva is mainly seen as an exceptional and rare individual. Only a few select individuals are ultimately able to become bodhisattvas, such as Maitreya . Mahāyāna Buddhism generally understands the bodhisattva path as being open to everyone, and Mahāyāna Buddhists encourage all individuals to become bodhisattvas. Spiritually advanced bodhisattvas such as Avalokiteshvara , Maitreya , and Manjushri are also widely venerated across

8073-510: The bodhisattva. The authors of the various Madhyamaka treatises often presented the view of the ekayana , and thus held that all beings can become bodhisattvas. The texts and sutras associated with the Yogacara school developed a different theory of three separate gotras (families, lineages), that inherently predisposed a person to either the vehicle of the arhat , pratyekabuddha or samyak-saṃbuddha (fully self-awakened one). For

8190-458: The buddhas neither come nor go, since they are suchness. Sadāprarudita, rising in the air, offers himself to Dharmodgata. The merchant's daughter does likewise. Dharmodgata enters a samādhi for seven years—during this time, Sadāprarudita and the merchant's daughter stand outside his house for seven years. After leaving his samādhi, Dharmodgata teaches them the Prajñāpāramitā. Following this, Sadāprarudita enters millions of samādhis, including that of

8307-420: The compassionate mind aimed at awakening for the sake of all beings, is a central defining element of the bodhisattva path. Another key element of the bodhisattva path is the concept of a bodhisattva's praṇidhāna - which can mean a resolution, resolve, vow, prayer, wish, aspiration and determination. This more general idea of an earnest wish or solemn resolve which is closely connected with bodhicitta (and

8424-513: The evolution of the bodhisattva doctrine." Other sutras in the Mahāratnakūṭa collection are also important sources for the bodhisattva path. Dao%27an Dao'an ( Chinese : 道安 ; pinyin : Dào'ān ; Wade–Giles : Tao-an ; 312–385) was a Buddhist monk, author and bibliographer, during the Eastern Jin dynasty. He was from what is now Hebei . His main importance

8541-425: The extra element "Dàohéng" taken from the name of the first chapter. The sūtra is among the most well-established in the Mahāyāna tradition and "was the first philosophical text to be translated from the Mahāyāna literature into Chinese ." It was translated seven times into Chinese, five times into Tibetan , and eight times into Mongolian . Its titles in the languages of these various countries include: While it

8658-477: The first two chapters of Kumārajīva's version was published by Matt Orsborn (=Shi Huifeng) in 2018. The structure of the sūtra can be understood in a number of ways. But four clear divisions can be noted: Chapter 1: The Practice of the Knowledge of all Modes — While at Vulture Peak , the Buddha asks Subhūti to explain how bodhisattvas realise the Prajñāpāramitā . Subhūti explains that when disciples of

8775-467: The future Buddha Maitreya and thus receive a prediction from him. Medieval Theravada literature and inscriptions report the aspirations of monks, kings and ministers to meet Maitreya for this purpose. Modern figures such as Anagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933), and U Nu (1907–1995) both sought to receive a prediction from a Buddha in the future and believed meritorious actions done for the good of Buddhism would help in their endeavor to become bodhisattvas in

8892-563: The future. Chapter 9. Praise — The Prajñāpāramitā is declared to be just a name which is not produced, stopped, defiled, or pure. Beings who hear it will be free from suffering, but some people will be hostile to its spread. Nonetheless, it is said to be pure and neither proceeds nor recedes due to its unproduced and isolated nature. Chapter 10. Proclamation of the Qualities of Bearing in Mind — This chapter emphasises how people who practice

9009-410: The future. Over time the term came to be applied to other figures besides Gautama Buddha in Theravada lands, possibly due to the influence of Mahayana . The Theravada Abhayagiri tradition of Sri Lanka practiced Mahayana Buddhism and was very influential until the 12th century. Kings of Sri Lanka were often described as bodhisattvas, starting at least as early as Sirisanghabodhi (r. 247–249), who

9126-456: The holy life." Another early source that discusses the qualities of bodhisattvas is the Mahāpadāna sutta. This text discusses bodhisattva qualities in the context of six previous Buddhas who lived long ago, such as Buddha Vipaśyī . Yet another important element of the bodhisattva doctrine, the idea of a prediction of someone's future Buddhahood, is found in another Chinese early Buddhist text,

9243-651: The idea that Metteya ( Maitreya ), who currently resides in Tuṣita , would become the future Buddha and that this had been predicted by the Buddha Sakyamuni was also an early doctrine related to the bodhisattva ideal. It first appears in the Cakkavattisihanadasutta . According to A.L. Basham, it is also possible that some of the Ashokan edicts reveal knowledge of the bodhisattva ideal. Basham even argues that Ashoka may have considered himself

9360-579: The ideal of the arahant . The oldest known story about how Gautama Buddha becomes a bodhisattva is the story of his encounter with the previous Buddha, Dīpankara . During this encounter, a previous incarnation of Gautama, variously named Sumedha, Megha, or Sumati offers five blue lotuses and spreads out his hair or entire body for Dīpankara to walk on, resolving to one day become a Buddha. Dīpankara then confirms that they will attain Buddhahood . Early Buddhist authors saw this story as indicating that

9477-517: The loss of his parents he was raised by an elder cousin. Dao'an left home to join the monastic order at twelve. Ca. 335 CE he visited Linzhang and became a disciple of the famous Kuchean monk and missionary Fotudeng (232–348). One of his disciples was the monk Huiyuan , whose teachings inspired Pure Land Buddhism . He was active in Xiangyang until the Former Qin ruler Fu Jian captured

9594-426: The making of a resolution ( abhinīhāra ) in the presence of a living Buddha and his prediction/confirmation ( vyākaraṇa ) of one's future Buddhahood was necessary to become a bodhisattva. According to Drewes, "all known models of the path to Buddhahood developed from this basic understanding." Stories and teachings on the bodhisattva ideal are found in the various Jataka tale sources, which mainly focus on stories of

9711-419: The monks in the assembly will become buddhas called Avakīrṇakusuma. The Buddha then entrusts the sūtra to Ānanda for the first time, declaring that it should be worshipped. The Buddha makes a vision of Akṣobhya's buddha-field arise and cease, and says that just as it arises and ceases, one should not train in a fixed idea. In this way, the Prajñāpāramitā is declared to be boundless, and thus its form in book form

9828-584: The past lives of the Sakyamuni. Among the non-Mahayana Nikaya schools, the Jataka literature was likely the main genre that contained bodhisattva teachings. These stories had certainly become an important part of popular Buddhism by the time of the carving of the Bharhut Stupa railings (c. 125–100 BCE), which contain depictions of around thirty Jataka tales. Thus, it is possible that the bodhisattva ideal

9945-423: The past. Moreover, the chapter suggests that if a bodhisattva does not rely upon the Prajñāpāramitā and skilful means , they may backslide to the śrāvakayāna or pratyekabuddhayāna . Chapter 15. Gods — This chapter suggests that bodhisattva training relies upon good friends who point out the Prajñāpāramitā. These are equated to bodhisattvas who abide in signless suchness, and who do not tremble in encountering

10062-418: The path beginning with the first arising of the thought of becoming a Buddha ( prathamacittotpāda ), or the initial arising of bodhicitta , typically aeons before one first receives a Buddha's prediction, and apply the term bodhisattva from this point." The Ten Stages Sutra , for example, explains that the arising of bodhicitta is the first step in the bodhisattva's career. Thus, the arising of bodhicitta,

10179-590: The path, all of which are illusions. All, including the Prajñāpāramitā, are said to be without beginning, middle, or end, and therefore are infinite. The devas declare that they will highly regard a bodhisattva who practices as Subhūti describes—the Buddha relates how he was such a bodhisattva in the past when he met Dīpankara Buddha . Chapter 3. Reverence for the Receptacle of the Perfections, which holds Immeasurable Good Qualities — This chapter emphasises

10296-486: The qualities of the skandhas are equal to those of the Prajñāpāramitā. Bodhisattvas who practice with this understanding are said to find it easy to become a buddha. Chapter 30. Sadāprarudita — The Buddha teaches Subhūti that one should seek the Prajñāpāramitā just like the Bodhisattva Sadāprarudita ("Always Weeping"). In relating his story, the Buddha explains that Sadāprarudita, who seeks the Prajñāpāramitā,

10413-429: The recitation of a bodhisattva vow . Contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism encourages everyone to give rise to bodhicitta and ceremonially take bodhisattva vows. With these vows and precepts, one makes the promise to work for the complete enlightenment of all sentient beings by practicing the transcendent virtues or paramitas . In Mahāyāna, bodhisattvas are often not Buddhist monks and are former lay practitioners. After

10530-517: The self-conceit that they are." However, for Sarvāstivāda, one is not technically a bodhisattva until the end of the third incalculable aeon, after which one begins to perform the actions which lead to the manifestation of the marks of a great person . The Mahāvastu of the Mahāsāṃghika - Lokottaravādins presents various ideas regarding the school's conception of the bodhisattva ideal. According to this text, bodhisattva Gautama had already reached

10647-447: The sravakas do so for their own good ( sv-ārtha ) and thus, do not have bodhicitta (which is compassionately focused on others). Mahayana bodhisattvas were not just abstract models for Buddhist practice, but also developed as distinct figures which were venerated by Indian Buddhists. These included figures like Manjushri and Avalokiteshvara , which are personifications of the basic virtues of wisdom and compassion respectively and are

10764-408: The sravakas, he preached the doctrine which is associated with the four Noble Truths and leads to Dependent Origination. It aims at transcending birth, old age, disease, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress of mind and weariness; and it ends in nirvana. But, to the great being, the bodhisattva, he preached the doctrine, which is associated with the six perfections and which ends in the Knowledge of

10881-504: The state of a śrāvaka not only in Mahayana but also in Theravada. Rahula writes "the fact is that both the Theravada and the Mahayana unanimously accept the Bodhisattva ideal as the highest...Although the Theravada holds that anybody can be a Bodhisattva, it does not stipulate or insist that all must be Bodhisattva which is considered not practical." He also quotes the 10th century king of Sri Lanka, Mahinda IV (956–972 CE), who had

10998-401: The superior goal of sambodhi ( Buddhahood ) and thus must continue to strive until they reach this goal. The Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra , one of the earliest known Mahayana texts, contains a simple and brief definition for the term bodhisattva , which is also the earliest known Mahāyāna definition. This definition is given as the following: "Because he has bodhi as his aim,

11115-435: The sūtra was composed in two phases from Chapter 1 to 25, but that material from Chapter 26 to 32 and references to Akṣobhya were later developments. P.L. Vaidya is alone in suggesting that the urtext is "Dharmodgata's sermon to Sadāprarudita" at Chapter 31. Matthew Orsborn presents a dissenting opinion to the urtext theories, holding that the presence of chiastic structures may point "to the entire sūtra being composed as

11232-530: The sūtra. The Sanskrit title for the sūtra, Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra m, literally translates as "The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Sūtra." The "Eight Thousand," Edward Conze indicates, refers roughly to ślokas , which have a count of thirty two syllables. Regarding this, Conze writes, "The Cambridge manuscript Add 866 of A.D. 1008 gives the actual number of slokas after each chapter, and added together they are exactly 8,411." This title

11349-499: The ten vows found in the Ten Stages Sutra . Mahayana sources also discuss the importance of a Buddha's prediction ( vyākaraṇa ) of a bodhisattva's future Buddhahood. This is seen as an important step along the bodhisattva path. Later Mahayana Buddhists also developed specific rituals and devotional acts for which helped to develop various preliminary qualities, such as faith, worship, prayer, and confession, that lead to

11466-414: The term "bodhisattva" can refer to those who follow any of the three vehicles, since all are working towards bodhi . Therefore, the specific term for a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is a mahāsattva (great being) bodhisattva . According to Atiśa 's 11th century Bodhipathapradīpa , the central defining feature of a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is the universal aspiration to end suffering for all sentient beings, which

11583-499: The text of the Aṣṭa - has been altered in the process, and only rarely does a crumb of the “bread” seem to have dropped out. The Pañca - is not simply related to the Aṣṭa -; it is the Aṣṭa -, with the addition of a number of layers of new material. Similarly, Edward Conze suggested a nine-stage model of expansion. (1) A base urtext of the Ratnagunasaṃcaya Gāthā , starting with the first two chapters. (2) Chapters 3 to 28 of

11700-522: The three vehicles of the Śrāvakayāna , Pratyekabuddhayāna and the Bodhisattvayāna were really just one vehicle ( ekayana ). This is most famously promoted in the Lotus Sūtra which claims that the very idea of three separate vehicles is just an upaya , a skillful device invented by the Buddha to get beings of various abilities on the path. But ultimately, it will be revealed to them that there

11817-524: The time of the great scholar Buddhaghosa (5th-century CE), orthodox Theravāda held the standard Indian Buddhist view that there were three main spiritual paths within Buddhism: the way of the Buddhas ( buddhayāna ) i.e. the bodhisatta path; the way of the individual Buddhas ( paccekabuddhayāna ); and the way of the disciples ( sāvakayāna ). The Sri Lankan commentator Dhammapāla (6th century CE) wrote

11934-423: The topic of Māra by pointing out how he will try to dissuade bodhisattvas from the Prajñāpāramitā. He does this in particular by making bodhisattvas slothful , creating obstacles between the student and his teacher, making them feel like the Śrāvakayāna sūtras are of greater value, and manifesting as people, such as an illusory buddha, who will give rise to doubts through misleading teachings. Chapter 12. Showing

12051-519: The topic of Māra, this chapter points out how Māra may give rise to conceit in bodhisattvas by making them mistakenly think they attained powers, or implanting false memories of past lives as monks, or predictions to buddhahood. Becoming conceited, the bodhisattvas will renounce the Prajñāpāramitā and return to the śrāvakayāna or pratyekabuddhayāna. Similarly, bodhisattvas living in isolation are said to be particularly targeted by Māra, who will give rise to their arrogance against city-dwelling bodhisattvas. It

12168-439: The translations corresponding to the Aṣṭasāhasrikā were redacted from the medium sūtras (e.g. translations of the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā )—despite the fact that large portions of the shorter versions of the sūtra are absent from the larger texts. For instance, Dào’ān (312-385 CE) theorised that Indian monks redacted the Dàohéng translation from the longer sūtras, but also that the longer sūtras could be used as commentaries on

12285-534: The two most important bodhisattvas in Mahayana. The development of bodhisattva devotion parallels the development of the Hindu bhakti movement . Indeed, Dayal sees the development of Indian bodhisattva cults as a Buddhist reaction to the growth of bhakti centered religion in India which helped to popularize and reinvigorate Indian Buddhism. Some Mahayana sutras promoted another revolutionary doctrinal turn, claiming that

12402-464: The very same topics that the longer sūtras] have proclaimed." Later, Haribhadra suggests that the Buddha "demonstrated the [ Śatasāhasrikā ] to bring benefit to those beings who are devoted to words and delight in extensively worked-out rendition, demonstrated the [ Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā ], through gathering all the topics together, out of affection for those beings who delight in middle-sized [renditions] and understand from selective elaboration, and taught

12519-493: The words inscribed "none but the bodhisattvas will become kings of a prosperous Lanka," among other examples. Jeffrey Samuels echoes this perspective, noting that while in Mahayana Buddhism the bodhisattva path is held to be universal and for everyone, in Theravada it is "reserved for and appropriated by certain exceptional people." Mahāyāna Buddhism (often also called Bodhisattvayāna , "Bodhisattva Vehicle")

12636-454: The world as puppets—knowing that this is hard to do, while there is no one to do it and nothing to do. Chapter 27. The Core — In this way, bodhisattva practice is insubstantial, but they do not lose motivation because there is nothing that is there to lose motivation. Bodhisattvas practicing in this way are protected by devas, and praised by buddhas and bodhisattvas from other worlds. Chapter 28. Avakīrṇakusuma — The Buddha declares that all

12753-540: The worldly benefits of practicing the Prajñāpāramitā and writing it as a book and worshipping it. The devas also declare that they will come and gather around one who does this. This chapter also points out that the Prajñāpāramitā is the root of the other of the Six Pāramitās . Worshipping the Prajñāpāramitā as a book is said to be superior to worshipping stūpas because it is the source of buddhas themselves. Chapter 4. The Proclamation of Qualities — Śakra points out that

12870-415: The yogacarins then, only some beings (those who have the "bodhisattva lineage") can enter the bodhisattva path. In East Asian Buddhism, the view of the one vehicle ( ekayana ) which holds that all Buddhist teachings are really part of a single path, is the standard view. The term bodhisattva was also used in a broader sense by later authors. According to the eighth-century Mahāyāna philosopher Haribhadra ,

12987-507: Was also traditionally considered to be a reincarnation of Maitreya. Paul Williams writes that some modern Theravada meditation masters in Thailand are popularly regarded as bodhisattvas. Various modern figures of esoteric Theravada traditions (such as the weizzās of Burma) have also claimed to be bodhisattvas. Theravada bhikkhu and scholar Walpola Rahula writes that the bodhisattva ideal has traditionally been held to be higher than

13104-452: Was an unawakened Bodhisatta" to describe his experiences before his attainment of awakening. The early texts which discuss the period before the Buddha's awakening mainly focus on his spiritual development. According to Bhikkhu Analayo , most of these passages focus on three main themes: "the bodhisattva's overcoming of unwholesome states of mind, his development of mental tranquillity, and the growth of his insight." Other early sources like

13221-407: Was popularized through the telling of Jatakas. Jataka tales contain numerous stories which focus on the past life deeds of Sakyamuni when he was a bodhisattva. These deeds generally express bodhisattva qualities and practices (such as compassion, the six perfections, and supernatural power) in dramatic ways, and include numerous acts of self-sacrifice. Apart from Jataka stories related to Sakyamuni,

13338-888: Was renowned for his compassion, took vows for the welfare of the citizens, and was regarded as a mahāsatta (Sanskrit: mahāsattva ), an epithet used almost exclusively in Mahayana Buddhism . Many other Sri Lankan kings from the 3rd until the 15th century were also described as bodhisattas and their royal duties were sometimes clearly associated with the practice of the ten pāramitās . In some cases, they explicitly claimed to have received predictions of Buddhahood in past lives. Popular Buddhist figures have also been seen as bodhisattvas in Theravada Buddhist lands. Shanta Ratnayaka notes that Anagarika Dharmapala , Asarapasarana Saranarikara Sangharaja, and Hikkaduwe Sri Sumamgala "are often called bodhisattvas". Buddhaghosa

13455-462: Was taught for all beings to follow. This was in contrast to the Nikaya schools, which held that the bodhisattva path was only for a rare set of individuals. Indian Mahayanists preserved and promoted a set of texts called Vaipulya ("Extensive") sutras (later called Mahayana sutras ). Mahayana sources like the Lotus Sutra also claim that arhats that have reached nirvana have not truly finished their spiritual quest, for they still have not attained

13572-506: Was that of overseer of translation of Buddhist texts into Chinese, organizer of the Chinese sangha, author of exegetical works and compiler of the most important early catalogue of Chinese Buddhist translation in 374. Although this catalogue is itself lost, Sengyou reproduces much of it in his catalogue (T2145) completed in 515. Dao'an is thought of as the founder of the cult of Maitreya in China. According to his traditional biography, after

13689-419: Was widely cited by various sources. According to Ulrich Pagel, this text is "one of the longest works on the bodhisattva in Mahayana literature" and thus provides extensive information on the topic bodhisattva training, especially the perfections ( pāramitā ) . Pagel also argues that this text was quite influential on later Mahayana writings which discuss the bodhisattva and thus was "of fundamental importance to

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