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109-726: The Banu Khuza'a acted as the custodians of Mecca before the Quraysh . They were the ruling kings of the emirate of Lower Mesopotamia (now southern Iraq) until the Ottoman Empire's invasion in the late 19th century and were the rulers of the kingdom of the Middle Euphrates until the early 20th century. The Banu Khuza'a fought in the Battle of the Trench . The Banu Nadir began rousing the nomads of Najd . The Nadir enlisted

218-575: A Lakhmid caravan to the Hejaz. The attack took place during the holy season when fighting was typically forbidden. The Kinani tribesman's patron was Harb ibn Umayya , a Qurayshi chief. This patron and other chiefs were ambushed by the Hawazin at Nakhla, but were able to escape. In the battles that occurred in the following two years, the Qays were victorious, but in the fourth year, the tide turned in favor of

327-560: A believer and he was an unbeliever …” And al-Muṣ’ab al-Zubayrī stood by this hadith saying that whatever Muhammad said was the truth. This is also supported by Ibn Khaldūn , who reiterates the statement of Qādi ‘Ayyāḑ : ”What is well known about this Khuza'a is that he is Amr bin Luhay bin Qum’ah bin Ilyās. Hadith 4: The hadith of Salamah ibn al-Akwā' , who said: “The Messenger of Allah (SAW) passed by

436-471: A caravan at Nakhla , Muhammad learned of a larger Quraysh caravan returning from Gaza . He attempted to intercept it, but the caravan rerouted. Instead, Muhammad encountered Quraysh troops led by Amr ibn Hisham , and despite being outnumbered, won the Battle of Badr , gaining prestige and followers. The Quraysh defeat at Badr was significant, causing them to lose many of their influential or experienced men and their prestige. Seeking to restore their honor,

545-609: A class of men with well-developed managerial and organizational skills. It was a development unheralded, and almost unique, in central Arabia. The Banu Makhzum and Banu Umayya , in particular, acquired vast wealth from trade and held the most influence among the Quraysh in Meccan politics. The Banu Umayya and the Banu Nawfal , another clan descending from Abd Manaf that had become wealthy from their commercial enterprise, split from

654-507: A fearless irreverence towards his academic critics and authorities. Ibn Hazm wrote works on law and theology and over ten medical books. He called for science to be integrated into a standard curriculum. In Organization of the Sciences , he diachronically defines educational fields as stages of progressive acquisition set over a five-year curriculum, from language and exegesis of the Qur'an to

763-776: A great mass, accompanied by some other tribes, intending to seize it. At that time the leader of Banu Qays Aylan was Amr ibn al-Zarb al-'Udwānī. Khuza'a went out to fight them, and a battle ensued, and finally the Banu Qays Aylan fled. Similarly, a group of the Hawāzin also launched a raid on the Banu Datir bin Habshah, one of the Banu Khuza'a, just after the Hawāzin had attacked the Banu Malūḥ (who belonged to Kinanah); then

872-400: A group of people from the tribe of Aslam who were practicing archery.“ And he said to them: ”Throw Banī Ishmael, for your father was an archer, and I am with the sons of such-and-such a one …” Ibn Ḥazm said: “Now as for the first, the third and the fourth hadiths, they are all extremely authentic and reliable, and they cannot be rejected for the statements of the genealogists and others; and on

981-586: A key component in the Muslim elite. Many leading Qurayshi tribesmen were installed in key government positions and in Muhammad's policy-making circle. According to Donner, the inclusion of Quraysh "in the ruling elite of the Islamic state was very probably responsible for what appears to be the more carefully organized and systematic approach to statesmanship practiced by Muhammad in the closing years of his life, as

1090-451: A lesser danger among the other nations [to their empire]. Their affairs became exacerbated and their afflictions doubled as they plotted wars against Islam various times. However, in all of their plots, Allāh made the Truth manifest. They continued to plot more useful stunts. So, some of their people accepted Islām only to turn towards Shī'ism, with the claim of loving Ahl al-Bayt (the family of

1199-405: A man and a woman. The punishment prescribed by him is therefore not that which is incurred by zinà, viz. stoning or intensive flogging, but a milder one consisting of a maximum of ten lashes and imprisonment with the aim of bringing about the reformation of the sinner. Ibn Hazm rejects those reports and traditions which proclaim that jfl qawm Lût is worse than zinà, including certain traditions from

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1308-523: A new spring of fresh water had emerged at that location. They settled in Mecca and in the area around. Once Ishmael had become a youth, he married a woman of the tribe of Jurhum. Ishmael was the custodian of the Kaaba , and after he died he made his son Nabit his successor. After Nabit, the job was given to his uncles from Jurhum, and with them were the descendants of Ishmael. Then Mudadh ibn Amr al-Jurhamī assumed

1417-623: A pact with Muhammad, refused to join. Other tribes included the Banu Murra , with 400 men led by Hars ibn Auf Murri, and the Banu Shuja , with 700 men led by Sufyan ibn Abd Shams. In total, the strength of the Confederate armies, though not agreed upon by scholars, is estimated to have included around 10,000 men and six hundred horsemen. At the end of March 627 the army, which was led by Abu Sufyan, marched on Medina. In accordance with

1526-743: A peaceful resolution, Muhammad decided to confront the Quraysh through armed conflict, beginning with raids on Meccan caravans. This led to several major battles, including those at Badr , Uhud , and the Trench . After these conflicts and following changes in Medina's political landscape, including the expulsion of three major Jewish tribes, Muhammad reportedly shifted his focus from Quraysh caravans to northern tribes such as Banu Lahyan and Banu Mustaliq . As Muhammad's position in Medina became more established, attitudes towards him in his hometown became more approving. The Treaty of al-Hudaybiya , establishing

1635-532: A precedent for Muslims later on towards Jews and Christians, namely jizya . He did not slaughter those who surrendered but let them stay and tend their fields, with half the produce going to him and his followers. The Jewish colony of Wadi al-Qura also came into his possession with this expedition, making the Muslim community rich. In early 627, Muhammad undertook the Umrah known as the 'fulfilled pilgrimage' in Mecca, during which time he reconciled with his family,

1744-565: A ten-year truce with the Meccans, allowed Muhammad to perform Umrah in Mecca the following year. During this pilgrimage, Muhammad reconciled with his family, the Hashim clan, which was symbolized by his marriage to Maymuna bint al-Harith . Several prominent Meccans, such as Khalid ibn al-Walid and Amr ibn al-As , recognized Muhammad's increasing influence in Arabia and converted to Islam. At

1853-592: A trench to be dug around Medina. This led to the Battle of the Trench . The trench hampered the Quraysh advance, and Muhammad conducted secret negotiations with the Ghatafan to induce distrust among his enemies. Unfavorable weather eventually caused the besiegers to lose morale and retire. Afterwards, Muhammad turned his attention to the Banu Qurayza , who were accused of betraying the Muslims by conspiring with

1962-538: A violation of the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya, Muhammad then set out with his army to Mecca. With those willing to fight from the Mecca side becoming fewer and fewer, Abu Sufyan set out with several others, including Muhammad's friend, Budayl ibn Warqa al-Khuza’i, to ask for amnesty for all the Quraysh who abandoned armed resistance. Muhammad thus managed to enter Mecca unopposed, and almost all the inhabitants adopted Islam. In 630, Muhammad entered Mecca victoriously , prompting

2071-639: Is Qurashī , though in the early centuries of the Islamic Ummah , most Qurayshi tribesmen were denoted by their specific clan instead of the tribe. Later, particularly after the 13th century, claimants of Qurayshi descent used the Qurashī surname. The Quraysh's progenitor was Fihr ibn Malik , whose full genealogy, according to traditional Arab sources, was the following: Fihr ibn Malik ibn al-Nadr ibn Kinana ibn Khuzayma ibn Mudrika ibn Ilyas ibn Mudar ibn Nizar ibn Ma'add ibn Adnan. Thus, Fihr belonged to

2180-458: Is nothing to fear in death. He believed that these philosophical traditions were useful but not enough to build an individual's character properly, and he stated that the Islamic faith was also necessary. The concept of absolute free will was rejected by Ibn Hazm, as he believed that all of an individual's attributes are created by God . Ibn Hazm was highly critical of the Shia. He said about

2289-807: Is that the Khuza'a themselves used to say: “We are the sons of Amr ibn Rabiah from the Yemen.” Arabs linguists tended towards the opinion that the name of Khuza'a came from the phrase: khaza’a ‘an aṣḥābihi (خزع عن أصحابه ), which means "he has lagged behind his companions (when they are walking)"; so they were called this because they were behind their people when they came from Marib. Al-Zabīdī mentions what ‘Awn ibn Ayūb al-Ansārī stated: فَلَمَّا هَبَطْنَا بَطْنَ مُرٍّ تَخَزَعَتْ خُزَاعَةٌ عَنّا فِيْ حُلُوْلِ كَرَاكِرَ ( Fa-lammā habaṭnā baṭna murrin takhazza'at khuzā’atun ‘annā fī ḥulūli Karākira  : "And when we dismounted at Baṭn Murr Khuza'a had already stayed behind in

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2398-422: Is uncertain." The Quraysh, the dominant tribe of Mecca , initially showed little concern when Muhammad began preaching his new faith in the city. However, as Muhammad's message increasingly challenged traditional Meccan religious and social practices, tensions gradually arose. As relations with the Quraysh deteriorated, Muhammad coordinated the gradual emigration of his followers to Medina , eventually making

2507-544: Is ‘Umayr, father of Khuza'a. This is supported by the opinion of Ibn Ḥazm , who related four prophetic traditions ( Hadith ) substantiating that Khuza'a were from Muḑar and not from Qaḥṭān: Hadith 1: From Abū Hurayrah that Muhammad said: “’Amr ibn Luhay bin Qum’ah bin Khandaf is the father of Khuza'a.” Hadith 2: The statement of Muhammad: “I saw Amr bin Luhay bin Qum’ah bin Khandaf the father of those sons of Kaab, and he

2616-618: The al-Muṭayyabūn faction in 605 and engaged in business with the al-Aḥlāf . Their financial fortunes had enabled them to become a force of their own. During a commercial incident where a Yemenite merchant was robbed of his trade by al-As ibn Wa'il al-Sahmi, the al-Muṭayyabūn reformed in the Hilf al-Fudul , which consisted of the Banu Hashim and Banu Muttalib , which, like the Banu Umayya, were descendants of Abd Manaf, and

2725-482: The Banu Hashim , which was sealed by marrying Maymuna bint al-Harith . Some important people of Mecca, such as Khalid ibn al-Walid and Amr ibn al-As , recognized Muhammad as a man of the future in Arabia and converted to Islam. In December 629, after the belligerent party in Mecca, against the advice of Abu Sufyan, decided to support one of their client clans against the Khuzaa, who were allied with Muhammad, resulting in

2834-593: The Banu Mustaliq were defeated in battle, with many captives later freed. Over time, tensions between Muhammad and the people of Mecca eased, leading to the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya , a ten-year armistice. Muhammad and his followers were then allowed to perform Umrah next year in Mecca. A short time later, Muhammad attacked the Jewish-inhabited Khaybar, where he instituted a practice that set

2943-565: The Banu Nadir , driving them to Khaybar and other settlements, and seizing their property. The Quraysh, with their caravans still under attack and urged by the Jews in Khaybar, recognized the importance of occupying Medina. They negotiated with various Bedouin tribes and managed to raise 10,000 troops. To defend against the Quraysh troops, Muhammad, advised by one of his followers, ordered

3052-701: The Banu Taym , Banu Asad , Banu Zuhra and Banu al-Harith ibn Fihr , were known as al-Muṭayyabūn ('the Perfumed'). Toward the end of the 6th century, the Fijar War broke out between the Quraysh and the Kinana on one side and various Qaysi tribes on the other, including the Hawazin , Banu Thaqif , Banu Amir and Banu Sulaym . The war broke out when a Kinani tribesman killed an Amiri tribesman escorting

3161-605: The Ghatafan confederacy by paying them half of their harvest. This contingent, the second largest, added a strength of about 2000 men and 300 horsemen led by Unaina bin Hasan Fazari. The Banu Assad also agreed to join, led by Tuleha Asadi. From the Banu Sulaym , the Nadir secured 700 men, though this force would likely have been much larger had not some of its leaders been sympathetic towards Islam. The Banu Amir , who had

3270-666: The Hashim clan into which the Islamic prophet Muhammad was born. By 600 CE , the Quraysh had become wealthy merchants, dominating trade between the Indian Ocean , East Africa , and the Mediterranean . They ran caravans to Gaza and Damascus in summer, and Yemen in winter. They also mined and pursued other enterprises on these routes, placing business interests first. When Muhammad began spreading Islam in Mecca,

3379-527: The Hejaz (western Arabia). In the words of Fred Donner : [By the end of the 6th century,] Meccan commerce was flourishing as never before, and the leaders in this trade [the Quraysh] had developed from mere merchants into true financiers. They were no longer interested in "buying cheap and selling dear," but also with organizing money and men to realize their commercial objectives. There was emerging, in short,

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3488-514: The Kinana tribe and his descent is traced to Adnan the Ishmaelite , the semi-legendary father of the " northern Arabs ". According to the traditional sources, Fihr led the warriors of Kinana and Khuzayma in defense of the Kaaba, at the time a major pagan sanctuary in Mecca, against tribes from Yemen ; however, the sanctuary and the privileges associated with it continued to be in the hands of

3597-672: The Muslim world . Ibn Hazm's grandfather Sa'id and his father, Ahmad, both held high advisory positions in the court of Umayyad Caliph Hisham II . Scholars believe that they were Iberian Christians who converted to Islam ( Muwallads ). al-Dhahabi said: "Ali Ibn Ahmad Ibn Saeed Ibn Hazm, known for his extensive knowledge and skills, hailed from Persian origin and later became an integral figure in Andalusia, specifically in Cordoba. His notable contributions and lineage are detailed in

3706-515: The Quran) , this attack constituted a breach of the Treaty of Ḥudaybīyah of 628, that had brought about a truce between the Muslims and the Quraish and forbade hostilities between the two groups and their respective allies. This led to the conquest of Mecca by the Muslim armies, which occurred without a battle. The Banu Mustaliq was a branch of Banu Khuza'a. They occupied the territory of Qudayd on

3815-754: The Red Sea shore between Jeddah and Rābigh . The genealogy of Muhammad is connected to that of Khuza'a in two ways: firstly by way of his third great grandfather Abd Manaf bin Qusay; and also through his marriage to the ‘Mother of the Believers’ Juwayrīyah, daughter of al-Ḥārith al-Khuza'i. At the time of the Truce of Hudaybiya, one of the conditions set down was: ”Whoever wishes to enter into an agreement with Muhammad and into his covenant, then he should enter it; and whoever wishes to enter into an agreement with

3924-512: The 5th century can be set for that settlement, although traditionalists place it at an earlier date by giving particularly long lives to some of its leaders. The opinions of genealogists vary concerning the ancestry and origins of the Banu Khuza'a; some say that they were descended from Qahtan and others say they are from Adnan . We will present both opinions here: Al-Mubarrid held the opinion that Khuza'a are descendants of Amr bin Rabiah, and he

4033-568: The 6th century. The issue of succession between Qusayy's natural successor, Abd al-Dar, and his chosen successor, Abd Manaf, led to the division of Quraysh into two factions; those who backed the Abd al-Dar clan , including the clans of Banu Sahm , Banu Adi , Banu Makhzum and Banu Jumah , became known as al-Aḥlāf ('the Confederates'), while those who backed the Abd Manaf clan , including

4142-464: The Ansar (Aws & Khazraj) and Bariq, Ghassān and Dawasir (Al-Zayed). All are from Azd Mazin tribes . Geographical and historical works mention the locations that Khuza'a used to inhabit before and after the coming of Islam, since they were either Mecca , or adjoining it or in the mountains, watering holes and wadis around it. A number of other Arab tribes used to share these places with them, such as

4251-617: The Ansar were concerned about their political stake. The Quraysh apparently held real power during this period marked by the Muslim conquests . During the First Fitna , the Ansar, who backed Caliph Ali of the Banu Hashim against two factions representing rival Qurayshi clans, were defeated. They were subsequently left out of the political elite, while the Thaqif maintained a measure of influence by dint of their long relationship with

4360-493: The Arabic, selections of which have been translated into English, is now The Muhalla (المحلى بالأثار), or The Adorned Treatise . It is reported to be a summary of a much longer work, known as Al-Mujalla (المجلى). Its essential focus is on matters of jurisprudence or fiqh (فقه), but it also touches of matters of creed in its first chapter, Kitab al-Tawheed (كتاب التوحيد), whose focus is on credal matters related to monotheism and

4469-691: The Banu Asad and Talha ibn Ubayd Allah of the Banu Taym. Later, during the Second Fitna , these same factions again fought for control of the caliphate , with the Umayyads victorious at the war's conclusion in 692/693. In 750, the issue of which Qurayshi clan would hold the reins of power was again raised but this time, the Abbasids , a branch of the Banu Hashim, were victorious and slew much of

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4578-657: The Banu Datir and a group of Khuza'a raided the Hawāzin and killed many men. On another occasion the Hawazin raided Khuza'a, and they fought at al-Mahsab near Mina; they succeeded in beating the Banu 'Unqa' and some of the Banu Datir from Khuza'a. During this time the Khuza'a tribe controlled the region from the West of Medina to the Red Sea. Quraysh, the descendants of Al-Nadr bin Kinanah, were dispersed at that time throughout Mecca and

4687-418: The Banu Umayya. Afterward, Islamic leadership was contested between different branches of the Banu Hashim. Ibn Hazm Ibn Hazm ( Arabic : ابن حزم , romanized :  Ibn Ḥazm ; November 994 – 15 August 1064) was an Andalusian Muslim polymath , historian , traditionist , jurist , philosopher , and theologian , born in the Córdoban Caliphate , present-day Spain . Described as one of

4796-426: The Kaaba were known Quraysh al-Biṭāḥ ('Quraysh of the Hollow'), and included all of the descendants of Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy and others. The clans settled in the outskirts of the sanctuary were known as Quraysh al-Ẓawāhir ('Quraysh of the Outskirts'). According to historian Ibn Ishaq , Qusayy's younger son, Abd Manaf , had grown prominent during his father's lifetime and was chosen by Qusayy to be his successor as

4905-413: The Muslim community traditionally passed to a member of the Quraysh, as was the case with the Rashidun , Umayyad , and Abbasid Caliphates , and purportedly the Fatimids . Sources differ as to the etymology of Quraysh, with one theory holding that it was the diminutive form of qirsh (shark). The Arab genealogist Hisham ibn al-Kalbi asserted that there was no eponymous founder of Quraysh; rather,

5014-467: The Pre-Islamic period; they surprised them at a watering hole belonging to Khuza'a at al-Watīr to the south of Mecca, and they killed twenty of their men. They were helped in this attack by Quraysh who supplied men and weapons; and Khuza'a were driven into the Sacred Territory (Ḥaram), where they were unable to continue fighting. Amr bin Salim al-Khuza'i set out with forty mounted men of Khuza'a to inform Muhammad about what had happened to them. When Muhammad

5123-407: The Prophet) and abhorrence to the oppression against 'Alī. Then, they traversed upon this way until it led them away from the path of Guidance [Islām]. Ibn Hazm states in no uncertain terms that homosexual acts between men constitute a sin, since they are expressly condemned in the Quran and the Sunna. However, his rejection of qiyàs prevents him from assimilating liwàt to zinâ: illicit sex between

5232-466: The Qur'an does not describe Arabic as such. Ibn Hazm viewed that there was no proof for claiming any language was superior to another. Ibn Hazm was well known for his strict literalism and is considered the champion of the literalist Zahirite school within Sunni Islām. A commonly-cited example is his interpretation of the first half of verse 23 in the Qur'anic chapter of Al-Isra prohibiting one from saying "uff" to one's parents. Ibn Hazm said that half of

5341-474: The Quraysh and Kinana. After a few more clashes, peace was reestablished. According to Watt, the actual aim in the Fijar War was control of the trade routes of Najd . Despite particularly tough resistance by the Quraysh's main trade rivals, the Thaqif of Ta'if , and the Banu Nasr clan of Hawazin, the Quraysh ultimately held sway over western Arabian trade. The Quraysh gained control over Ta'if's trade, and many Qurayshi individuals purchased estates in Ta'if, where

5450-453: The Quraysh and into their covenant then he should enter it.” And Khuza'a leaped up with enthusiasm, saying: “We are in agreement with Muhammad and in his [SAW] covenant!” While the Banu al-Di’l bin Bakr jumped up saying: “We are in agreement with the Quraysh and in their covenant!” Now while the truce was still holding, the Banu al-Di’l bin Bakr took advantage of it, and wanted to take blood revenge from Khuza'a for something that had happened in

5559-448: The Quraysh in Mecca, and Kinanah in Jabal al-Abwā’ and Murr al-Ẓahrān and Qudayd. The Arab tribes in general often used to move from one area to another in search of water, something that sometimes led to tribes sharing certain spots. And among the campsites of Khuza’ah were: After Hagar and her son Ishmael had settled in Mecca , the tribe of Jurhum happened to pass through there and agreed with Hagar that they should remain there, as

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5668-438: The Quraysh initially showed little concern. However, opposition grew as he challenged the existence of gods other than Allah (an Arabic name for God or the god of Abraham). As relations deteriorated, Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina (the Hijrah ) after negotiating with Banu Aws and Khazraj to mediate their conflict. The Quraysh had prevented Muslims from performing the pilgrimage to Mecca . Unable to reach

5777-548: The Quraysh, led by Abu Sufyan , mobilized 3,000 troops to confront Muhammad, resulting in the Battle of Uhud . Initially, Muhammad's forced had the upper hand, but a setback occurred when his archers abandoned their positions and pursued the fleeing Meccan soldiers. The Meccan military strategist Khalid ibn al-Walid exploited this and Muhammad's forces retreated. The Quraysh did not pursue further, considering their objective achieved. In Medina, some Jewish tribes expressed satisfaction at Muhammad's defeat, prompting him to target

5886-484: The Quraysh. A hadith holding that the caliph must be from Quraysh became almost universally accepted by the Muslims, with the exception of the Kharijites . Indeed, control of the Islamic state essentially devolved into a struggle between various factions of the Quraysh. In the first civil war, these factions included the Banu Umayya represented by Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan , the Banu Hashim represented by Ali, and other Qurayshi leaders such as al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam of

5995-410: The Quraysh. Following a siege, their men were judged to be executed, while the women and children were taken captive. This event marked a significant turning point, with Muhammad consolidating his control in Medina. Muhammad's focus then shifted to other tribes, such as the Banu Lahyan and Banu Mustaliq . The Banu Nadir were expelled from Medina after being accused of plotting against Muhammad, and

6104-519: The Sacred House to Abū Ghabshān Salīm bin Amr al-Khuza'i, and one day he and Quṣay were drinking together; now when he became drunk Quṣay bought the control of the Sacred House from him for a skinful of wine and a young camel. As a result there was a saying: “More damaging than the transaction of Abū Ghabshān.” These individual accounts, when collated show that Qusay was getting ready to seize the Sacred House from Khuza’ah, and Khuza’ah set out to fight Quṣay, Quraysh, Kinanah and his allies from Quḑaa’ah. There

6213-417: The Sacred House, and according to the Muslim sources Allah turned them into two stones to punish them for this sacrilegious act. Their aggression against the sanctity of the Sanctuary was the catalyst that made the Banu Bakr bin ‘Abd al-Manāf bin Kinanah, descendants of Ishmael, join with Khuza'a in fighting Jurhum, and they expelled them from Mecca. After the Jurhumites had fled, Khuza'a became custodians of

6322-420: The Sacred House, passing the duty on from father to son for a long time, five hundred years it is said. The first one of Khuza'a to govern the Sacred House was Amr bin Rabiah (Luhay) who travelled to Syria-Palestine (al-Shām) to seek a cure for a disease he was suffering from; he found the people there worshiping idols, and he liked this religion, so he brought back an idol called Hubal back to Mecca and called on

6431-440: The Sanctuary, giving him the key. Now when Khuza’ah found out about this they refused to give the control of the Sacred House to Quṣay, and they took the key from Hubay. Now Quṣay quickly went to his people the Quraysh and Banu Kinanah and sought their help against Khuza'a, and he also sent for his brother to come from the territory of Quḑa’ah to assist. 3. Abu Hilāl al-‘Askerī relates that when Ḥalīl became old, he passed control of

6540-402: The Taym, Asad, Zuhra and al-Harith ibn Fihr clans. The Banu Hashim held the hereditary rights surrounding the pilgrimage to the Kaaba, though the Banu Umayya were ultimately the strongest Qurayshi clan. According to Watt, "In all the stories of the pre-Islamic period there is admittedly a legendary element, but the main outline of events appears to be roughly correct, even if most of the dating

6649-526: The Yemeni Khuza'a tribe. The Quraysh gained their name when Qusayy ibn Kilab , a sixth-generation descendant of Fihr ibn Malik, gathered together his kinsmen and took control of the Kaaba. Prior to this, Fihr's offspring lived in scattered, nomadic groups among their Kinana relatives. All medieval Muslim sources agree that Qusayy unified Fihr's descendants, and established the Quraysh as the dominant power in Mecca. After conquering Mecca, Qusayy assigned quarters to different Qurayshi clans. Those settled around

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6758-412: The basis of these Khuza'a was one of the sons of Qum’ah bin Ilyās bin Muḑar. Al-Suhaylī said that the hadith of Salamah was a strong proof for those who considered Khuza'a to be one of the sons of Qum’ah ibn Ilyās. And there is not the slightest doubt that the difference between the different genealogists stems from the fact that Salamah mentioned in the fourth hadith are the brothers of Khuza'a. And among

6867-452: The blood of Khuza'a spilled by Quṣay’s army blood money was due; but Khuza’ah should pass on the rule of Mecca to Quṣay. This event occurred in the 5th century CE. The Khuza'a remained allies of the Quraysh, and in 570, the Year of the Elephant , took part in the battle against Abrahah . In 630, the Khuza'a were attacked by the Banu Bakr , allies of the Quraysh. Since the Khuza'a had recently formed an alliance with Muhammad (referred to in

6976-448: The burden of the affairs of the Sacred House. Jurhum's custodianship of the Sanctuary lasted for some time, but they then started to become weaker in faith, putting the continuing sanctity of the Sacred House in peril. They considered all the funds collected at the Sanctuary to be their property, and started to perform sinful acts within its precincts. It came to the point where a man and a woman, called Asaf and Na'ilah, performed coitus in

7085-483: The camp at Karākir.") It is said that ascribing Khuza'a to Qaḥṭān also agrees with this etymology of the name, whereas to say that they are descendants of ‘Adnān makes such an etymology of the name meaningless. Ibn Iṣḥaq is of the opinion that Khuza'a are the descendants of Amr ibn Luhay bin Qum’ah bin Ilyās bin Muḑar bin Nazār bin Ma’d bin ‘Adnān; they would therefore be Muḑarites rather than Qaḥṭanites. Al-Muṣ’ab al-Zubayri also agrees with Ibn Iṣḥaq, saying that Qum’ah

7194-588: The canonical collections. In the same way that male homosexuality is not assimilated to illicit heterosexual contacts, so homosexual acts between women cannot be compared to them, nor can they be compared to male homosexuality. Nevertheless, sahq, like liwàt, incurs a ta^zir punishment of up to ten lashes. Whether women, too, will have to serve a term in prison, like the men, is not clear. Muslim scholars, especially those subscribing to Zahirism, have often praised Ibn Hazm for what they perceive as his knowledge and perseverance. Yemeni preacher Muqbil bin Hadi al-Wadi'i

7303-548: The capacity of human beings to deceive and to oppress. His reaction was to believe that there was no refuge or truth except with an infallible God and that with men resided only corruption. He was thus known for his cynicism regarding humanity and a strong respect for the principles of language and sincerity in communication. Ibn Hazm lived among the circle of the ruling hierarchy of the Caliphate of Córdoba government. His experiences produced an eager and observant attitude, and he gained an excellent education at Córdoba. After

7412-468: The climate was cooler. The sanctuary village of Mecca developed into a major Arabian trade hub. According to Watt, by 600 CE, the leaders of Quraysh "were prosperous merchants who had obtained something like a monopoly of the trade between the Indian Ocean and East Africa on the one hand and the Mediterranean on the other". Furthermore, the Quraysh commissioned trade caravans to Yemen in the winter and caravans to Gaza , Bosra , Damascus and al-Arish in

7521-498: The death of the grand vizier, al-Muzaffar , in 1008, the Caliphate of Iberia became embroiled in a civil war that lasted until 1031 and resulted in the collapse of the central authority of Córdoba and the emergence of many smaller independent states, the taifas . Ibn Hazm's father died in 1012. Ibn Hazm was frequently imprisoned as a suspected supporter of the Umayyads. By 1031, Ibn Hazm retreated to his family estate at Manta Lisham and had begun to express his activist convictions in

7630-592: The end of 629 CE, a belligerent party within the Quraysh, against the advice of their chief Abu Sufyan , supported one of their client clans in a conflict against the Khuza'a , allies of Muhammad. This act was seen as a violation of the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya. As Muhammad advanced with his army to besiege Mecca, Abu Sufyan, along with others, including Muhammad's ally Khuza'i Budayl ibn Warqa, met with Muhammad to request amnesty for all Quraysh who did not resist. Thus Muhammad entered Mecca unopposed, and almost all of its inhabitants converted to Islam. Afterwards, leadership of

7739-442: The fundamental principles of approach to divine texts. One of the main points that emerges from the masterpiece of jurisprudencial thought is that Ibn Hazm rejects analogical reasoning (qiyas قياس) in favor of direct reliance on the Quran, sunnah , and ijma . Ibn Hazm wrote the Scope of Logic , which stressed on the importance of sense perception as a source of knowledge. He wrote that the "first sources of all human knowledge are

7848-546: The guardian of the Kaaba. He also gave other responsibilities related to the Kaaba to his other sons Abd al-Uzza and Abd, while ensuring that all decisions by the Quraysh had to be made in the presence of his eldest son Abd al-Dar ; the latter was also designated ceremonial privileges such as keeper of the Qurayshi war banner and supervisor of water and provisions to the pilgrims visiting the Kaaba. According to historian F. E. Peters , Ibn Ishaq's account reveals that Mecca in

7957-516: The importance of reason, as the Qur'an itself invites reflection , he argued that reflection to refer mainly to revelation and sense data since the principles of reason are themselves derived entirely from sense experience . He concludes that reason is not a faculty for independent research or discovery , but that sense perception should be used in its place, an idea that forms the basis of empiricism . Perhaps Ibn Hazm's most influential work in

8066-627: The journey himself, after negotiations with various factions in Medina had established a base of support there. This event, known as the Hijra , followed complex negotiations with different groups in Medina, where Muhammad was seen as a potential mediator for ongoing tribal conflicts, though his role was likely more multifaceted than just mediation. In Medina, Muhammad received a divine revelation allowing Muslims to defend themselves, which included targeting Quraysh trade caravans in response to their ongoing hostility and persecution. After obtaining spoils from

8175-575: The life and physical sciences to a rationalistic theology. Apart from his rational works, Ibn Hazm's The Ring of the Dove ( Tawq al-hamamah) is considered a major work of Arabic literature from Al-Andalus. The manuscript of Ṭawq al-ḥamāma (MS Or. 927) is kept at Leiden University Libraries and is also available digitally. In Fisal ( Detailed Critical Examination ), a treatise on Islamic science and theology , Ibn Hazm promoted sense perception above subjectively flawed human reason . Recognizing

8284-580: The literary form. He was a leading proponent and codifier of the Zahiri school of Islamic thought , and he produced a reported 400 works, but only 40 still survive. His political and religious opponents gained power after the collapse of the caliphate and so he accepted an offer of asylum from the governor of the island of Majorca in the 1040s. He continued to propagate the Zahiri School there before he returned to Andalusia. Contemporaries coined

8393-408: The name stemmed from taqarrush , an Arabic word meaning "a coming together" or "association". The Quraysh gained their name when Qusayy ibn Kilab , a sixth-generation descendant of Fihr ibn Malik, gathered together his kinsmen and took control of the Kaaba . Prior to this, Fihr's offspring lived in scattered, nomadic groups among their Kinana relatives. The nisba or surname of the Quraysh

8502-1014: The opinion that: ”Amr bin Luhay, for Luhay was his name, is Rabiah ibn Ḥārithah bin Amr; and he is Mā’ al-Samā’ ibn Ḥārithah bin Imra’ al-Qays bin Tha’labah bin Māzin bin al-Azd bin Ghawth bin al-Nabit bin Mālik bin Zayd bin Kaḥlān bin Saba’ bin Yashjab bin Ya’rab bin Qaḥṭān, so he is the ancestor of all of Khuza'a, and they broke away from him." It is suggested that one of the strongest proofs for this

8611-585: The organizational skills of the Quraysh were put to use in the service of Islam". With Muhammad's death in 632, rivalry emerged between the Quraysh and the two other components of the Muslim elite, the Ansar and the Thaqif, over influence in state matters. The Ansar wanted one of their own to succeed the prophet as caliph , but were persuaded by Umar to agree to Abu Bakr. During the reigns of Abu Bakr ( r.  632–634 ) and Umar ( r.  634–644 ), some of

8720-488: The people to worship it. Hubal had the figure of an old man with a long beard and was made of carnelian. Its right hand had been cut off but the Quraysh would later provide it with a hand made of gold. Amr ibn Rabi'ah was the first to change the religion of the Arabs. Muslims historians consider that the people of Mecca were following the monotheistic religion of Ibrāhīm and Ismā'īl up to this point (see Hanif ), when polytheism

8829-518: The plan the armies began marching towards Medina , Meccans from the south (along the coast) and the others from the east. At the same time, horsemen from the Banu Khuza'a left to warn Medina of the invading army. Most traditionalists trace the origins of the tribe to Amr ibn Luhay , and agree that, with the other branches of the Azd, they at some point, left Yemen and moved north. Amr ibn Luhay and his clan settled themselves around Mecca . A date of around

8938-487: The primary biographer of Ibn Hazm in the modern era, has authored a number of works on Ibn Hazm's life and career, many published through Ibn Aqil's printing press which is named after Ibn Hazm. Modernist revival of Ibn Hazm's general critique of Islamic legal theory has seen several key moments in Arab intellectual history, including Ahmad Shakir 's re-publishing of Al-Muhalla, Muhammad Abu Zahra 's biography of Ibn Hazm, and

9047-457: The respected historical text 'Siyar A'lam al-Nubala.'" Having been raised in a politically and economically important family, Ibn Hazm mingled with people of power and influence all his life. He had access to levels of government by his adolescence that most people then would never know throughout their whole lives. Those experiences with government and politicians caused Ibn Hazm to develop a reluctant and even sad skepticism about human nature and

9156-400: The rest of Quraysh to embrace Islam. Muhammad sought to consolidate the unity of his expanding Muslim community by "winning over this powerful group [the Quraysh]", according to Donner; to that end he guaranteed Qurayshi participation and influence in the nascent Islamic state. Thus, despite their long enmity with Muhammad, the Quraysh were brought in as political and economic partners and became

9265-563: The riders. We have nobody, whether close relatives or not close, in Tihamah who has been better with us than Khuza'a!” Then he continued: “I would not receive succour if I failed to assist Banu Kaab from the very thing in which I need help.” Muhammad coordinated a large coalition force including Muslims and some of the Bedouin tribes and they went to Mecca and conquered it. This was towards the end of January 630 CE (8 AH). Many descendants of

9374-629: The saying "the tongue of Ibn Hazm was a twin brother to the sword of al-Hajjaj ", an infamous 7th century general and governor of Iraq. Ibn Hazm became so frequently quoted that the phrase "Ibn Hazm said" became proverbial. As an Athari , he opposed the allegorical interpretation of religious texts and preferred a grammatical and syntactical interpretation of the Qur'an . He granted cognitive legitimacy only to revelation and sensation, and he considered deductive reasoning insufficient in legal and religious matters. He rejected practices common among more orthodox schools such as juristic discretion . He

9483-576: The science of language to some degree. He viewed the Arabic language , the Hebrew language and the Syriac language as all essentially being one language which branched out as the speakers settled in different geographic regions and developed different vocabularies and grammars from the common root. He also differed with many Muslim theologians in that he did not view Arabic as superior to other languages since

9592-404: The sect: The Persians possessed a great kingdom and an upper hand above all other nations. They magnified the danger they posed [to others nations] by calling themselves al-Ahrār (the free ones) and al-Asyād (the noble ones). As a result, they considered all other people their slaves. However, they were afflicted with the destruction of their empire at the hands of the Arabs whom they had considered

9701-447: The some more modern scholars who prefer to regard Khuza'a as one of the descendants of ‘Adnān is 'Allāmah ‘Abd al-Raḥmān bin Yaḥyā al-Mu’allamī al-Yamānī. In ancient times the tribe of Khuza'a was subdivided into a number of phratries (buṭūn): And Banu al-Muṣṭaliq and Banu al-Ḥayā’ belong to the tribes who formed the Ḥalaf of Ḥabābish in Mecca. The closest tribes in lineage to Khuza'a are

9810-438: The soundly used senses and the intuitions of reason , combined with a correct understanding of a language". Ibn Hazm also criticized some of the more traditionalist theologians who were opposed to the use of logic and argued that the first generations of Muslims did not rely on logic. His response was that the early Muslims had witnessed the revelation directly, but later Muslims have been exposed to contrasting beliefs and so

9919-481: The strictest hadith interpreters, Ibn Hazm was a leading proponent and codifier of the Zahiri school of Islamic jurisprudence , and produced a reported 400 works, of which only 40 still survive. In all, his written works amounted to some 80,000 pages. Also described as one of the fathers of comparative religion , the Encyclopaedia of Islam refers to him as having been one of the leading thinkers of

10028-403: The strongman of Quraysh, he was not officially a king of the tribe, but one of many leading shaykhs (tribal chieftains). According to historian Gerald R. Hawting , if the traditional sources are to be believed, Qusayy's children, "must have lived in the second half of the fifth century". However, historian W. Montgomery Watt asserts that Qusayy himself likely died in the second half of

10137-504: The summer. The Quraysh established networks with merchants in these Syrian cities. They also formed political or economic alliances with many of the Bedouin (nomadic Arab) tribes in the northern and central Arabian deserts to ensure the safety of their trade caravans. The Quraysh invested their revenues in building their trading ventures, and shared profits with tribal allies to translate financial fortune into significant political power in

10246-732: The surrounding area. This changed when Qusay bin Kilab got betrothed to Hubay bint Halil bin Habshah bin Salul bin Kaab bin Amr al-Khuza'i; he married her and at that time her father was in charge of the Kaabah, so Quṣay was later able to take over the custody of the Sanctuary. There are three different versions of the story of how Quṣay managed to seize this custody: 1. Ibn Isḥaq states that Quṣay became wealthy, his sons were dispersed all over Mecca, and he

10355-531: The time of Qusayy and his immediate offspring was not yet a commercial center; rather, the city's economy was based on pilgrimage to the Kaaba, and "what pass[ed] for municipal offices [designated by Qusayy] have to do only with military operations and with control of the shrine". During that time, the tribesmen of Quraysh were not traders; instead, they were entrusted with religious services, from which they significantly profited. They also profited from taxes collected from incoming pilgrims. Though Qusayy appeared to be

10464-474: The tribe still live in their original homeland, in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , but members of the tribe also live in other countries, such as Palestine , Iraq , Qatar , Bahrain and Jordan . Khuza'a of Tihamah ‘Asīr Quraysh The Quraysh or Qureshi ( Arabic : قُرَيْشٍ ) is an Arab tribe that inhabited and used to control Mecca and the Kaaba . Comprising ten main clans, it includes

10573-722: The truth, to defend womanhood, to repel humiliation which your creator has not imposed upon you, to help the oppressed. Anyone who uses his energy for the sake of the vanities of the world is like someone who exchanges gemstones for gravel. A poem or fragment of a poem by him is preserved in Ibn Said al-Maghribi 's Pennants of the Champions : Ibn Hazm's teachers in medicine included al-Zahrawi and Ibn al-Kattani , and he wrote ten medical works, including Kitab fi'l-Adwiya al-mufrada mentioned by al-Dhahabi . In addition to his views on honesty in communication, Ibn Hazm also addressed

10682-493: The use of logic is necessary to preserve the true teachings of Islam . The work was first republished in Arabic by Ihsan Abbas in 1959 and most recently by Abu Abd al-Rahman Ibn Aqil al-Zahiri in 2007. In his book, In Pursuit of Virtue , Ibn Hazm had urged his readers: Do not use your energy except for a cause more noble than yourself. Such a cause cannot be found except in Almighty God Himself: to preach

10791-423: The verse prohibits only saying "uff", not hitting one's parents, for example. However, he considered that hitting them is prohibited by the second half of the verse as well as verse 24 which command kind treatment of parents. Ibn Hazm's works lightly touched upon the traditions of Greek philosophy. Agreeing with both Epicurus and Prodicus of Ceos , he stated that pleasure brings happiness in life and that there

10900-560: The war against Khuza'a. 2. Al-Azraqī mentions that Ḥalil liked Quṣay, and gave him his daughter's hand during his lifetime. Quṣay became the father of Abd al-Dar, Abd Manaf and Abd al-Uzza among others. Now when Ḥalīl became old he used to give the key of the Kaabah to his daughter, and she would pass it to her husband to open up the Sacred House. When Ḥalīl was dying he considered the fact that Quṣay had so many offspring and that they were well established, and he bequeathed him control of

11009-569: Was a fierce battle which was known as “The Day of Abṭaḥ” ( Yawm Abṭaḥ ); there were many casualties on both sides but the army of Quṣay was victorious. Finally both sides decided that they should seek a ruling about what to do; they consulted the leader of Banu Kinanah, Ya’mar bin ‘Awf bin Kaab bin ‘Āmir bin Layth bin Bakr bin ‘Abd Manāt bin Kinanah, and he decide that Quṣay should forget all the injuries sustained by him and his men, and that in recompense for

11118-484: Was among the people in the mosque, Amr recited a poem to him about the agreements and affiliations between them and Khuza'a. Then Muhammad said: “You have our help, O Amr ibn Salim!” He looked towards a cloud in the sky, saying: “This will make the victory of the Banu Kaab easy!” Nawfil ibn Mu'awiyah al-Di'li al-Kinani apologized for his people saying: “The riders are lying to you.” But Muhammad said: “Never mind about

11227-648: Was dragging his intestines through hellfire.” And those sons of Kaab are the ones about whom Ibn 'Abbās said: “The Quran was sent down in the dialect of Kaabs: Kaab bin Kaab bin Lu’ayy and Kaab bin Amr bin Luhay.” Hadith 3: The narration of Aktham ibn Abī Ḥabbūn al-Khuza'i, when Muhammad said to him, “O Aktham! I saw Rabiah ibn Luhay bin Qum’ah bin Khandaf dragging his intestines in the fire, and I have never seen any man more like him than you; nor more like you than him.” Aktham asked: “Are you afraid that being like him will harm me, o Messenger of Allah?” And he replied: ”No, you are

11336-499: Was eventually promoted to the level of a teacher of the school himself. In 1029, both were expelled from the main mosque of Cordoba for their activities. Much of Ibn Hazm's substantial body of works, which approached that of Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari and As-Suyuti 's, was burned in Seville by his sectarian and political opponents. His surviving works, while criticised as repetitive, didactic and abrasive in style, also show

11445-496: Was held in great respect. After the death of Ḥalīl, Qusay thought he had more right to govern Mecca than Khuzā’a since the tribe of Quraysh were the cream of the sons of Ishmael son of Ibrāhīm and he was their pure descendant. The sons of Kinanah and Quraysh joined to help him to expel Khuza'a and Banu Bakr from Mecca. He sent a message to his stepbrother, Razah bin Rabiah, asking him to assist, and he did indeed come. Razah rushed to Mecca with his tribe from Quda'a, to help his brother in

11554-631: Was initially a follower of the Maliki school of law within Sunni Islam , but he switched to the Shafi'i school at around the age of thirty. He finally settled with the Zahiri school. He is perhaps the most well-known adherent of the school and the main source of extant works on Zahirite law. He studied the school's precepts and methods under Abu al-Khiyar al-Dawudi al-Zahiri of Santarém Municipality and

11663-454: Was introduced. Amr ibn Luhay became very famous among the other Arab tribes, because he fed all the pilgrims to the Sacred House, and distributed Yemeni cloaks to them. Many of the tribes started to visit Mecca on pilgrimage, and took their own idols with them, placing them around the Kaaba to worship. It is narrated that Banu Qays Aylan bin MuDar coveted the Sacred House and they came one day in

11772-606: Was known as Luhay and belonged to the Azd ; Ibn al-Athīr al-Jazarī agrees with him, saying: “They were called Khuza'a because they broke away from the Azd when they all left Yemen at the time of the flood of ˁIram” (the breach of the Marib dam ). Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī says the same, but states that they are Qahtanites. Al-Qalqashandī states: “Khuza'a are a tribe from the Azd, from the Qahtanites.” Ibn ‘Abd al-Birr states that Ibn al-Kalbi held

11881-1029: Was one of Ibn Hazm's admirers in recent times, holding the view that no other Muslim scholar had embodied the prophetic tradition of the Muhammad and the Sahaba . On several occasions, al-Wadi'i rejected the validity of Qiyas while referencing Ibn Hazm's works. As a matter of fact, al-Wadi'i would at times advice his students to be Zahiri when approaching Fiqh altogether. Similarly, Pakistani cleric Badi' ud-Din Shah al-Rashidi taught Ibn Hazm's book Al-Muhalla to students in Masjid al-Haram , while living in Mecca . al-Wadi'i himself taught Al-Muhalla in Al-Masjid an-Nabawi , while in Medina . Abu Abd al-Rahman Ibn Aqil al-Zahiri ,

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