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126-434: Jehovah's Witnesses is a nontrinitarian , millenarian , restorationist Christian denomination . In 2023, the group reported approximately 8.6 million members involved in evangelism , with around 20.5 million attending the annual Memorial of Christ's death . Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the destruction of the present world system at Armageddon is imminent, and the establishment of God's kingdom over earth

252-452: A chaperone when they are together as a way of preventing sexual desire. All sexual relations outside marriage are grounds for expulsion if the person is not deemed repentant; homosexual activity is considered a serious sin, and same-sex marriage is forbidden. Jehovah's Witnesses may get married at a Kingdom Hall in a simple ceremony and practices considered pagan such as wishing good luck or throwing rice are prohibited. An elder will give

378-582: A church , sect , new religious movement , or cult . Usage of the various terms has been debated among sociologists. When the term sect is used by sociologists, it is within the framework of church-sect typology for their activities within a specific country. Academics generally stopped using the term cult in the 1980s due to its pejorative association and its usage by the Christian countercult movement , with new religious movement largely replacing it. George Chryssides and Zoe Knox avoid using

504-526: A co-equal threeness to the being of the infinite God that is not explicitly scriptural. Critics of the Trinity doctrine argue that, for a teaching described as fundamental, it lacks direct scriptural support. Proponents of the doctrine assert that although the doctrine is not stated directly in the New Testament, it is instead an interpretation of elements contained therein that imply the doctrine that

630-586: A congregation in whose "territory" they usually reside and attend weekly services they call "meetings", scheduled by congregation elders. The meetings are largely devoted to study of Watch Tower Society literature and the Bible. The meetings' format is established by the group's headquarters, and the subject matter for most meetings is the same worldwide. Congregations meet for two sessions each week, comprising five distinct meetings that total about three-and-a-half hours, typically gathering midweek (three meetings) and on

756-511: A house of worship; volunteers were housed in a nearby residence he named Bethel . He identified the religious movement as "Bible Students", and more formally as the International Bible Students Association . By 1910, about 50,000 people worldwide were associated with the movement and congregations reelected him annually as their pastor. Russell died on October 31, 1916, at the age of 64 while returning from

882-558: A hundred questions about their own lifestyles as well as the denomination's beliefs. People undergoing baptism must also affirm publicly that dedication and baptism identify them "as one of Jehovah's Witnesses in association with God's spirit-directed organization," though Witness publications say baptism symbolizes personal dedication to God and not "to a man, work or organization." Meetings for worship and study are held at Kingdom Halls , which are typically functional in character, and do not contain religious symbols. Witnesses are assigned to

1008-473: A journal article that sorted relevant biblical verses into three classes. He described the following block as "texts that seem to imply that the title 'God' was not used for Jesus" and are "negative evidence which is often somewhat neglected in Catholic treatments of the subject": he lists these as "texts where, by reason of textual variants or syntax, the use of 'God' for Jesus is dubious": and only finds

1134-633: A ministerial speaking tour. In January 1917, the Watch Tower Society's legal representative, Joseph Franklin Rutherford , was elected as its next president. His election was disputed , and members of the Board of Directors accused him of acting in an autocratic and secretive manner. The divisions between his supporters and opponents triggered a major turnover of members over the next decade. In June 1917, he released The Finished Mystery as

1260-520: A pagan symbol. Accordingly, they refrain from using the word "crucifixion" when referring to Jesus' death. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus was resurrected with a "spirit body", and that he assumed human form only temporarily after his resurrection. Biblical references to the Archangel Michael , Abaddon (Apollyon), and the Word are interpreted as names for Jesus in various roles. Jesus

1386-605: A paradise like the Garden of Eden . They thus depart from the mainstream Christian belief that the " second coming " of Matthew 24 refers to a single moment of arrival on earth to judge humans. Jehovah's Witnesses do not currently suggest any specific date for the end of the world, but Watch Tower Society literature has previously made such statements about 1914, 1925 and 1975. These failed predictions were presented as "beyond doubt" and "approved by God". Some Watch Tower Society publications state that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses and

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1512-448: A recreational activity. Traveling overseers appoint local elders and ministerial servants, while branch offices may appoint regional committees for matters such as Kingdom Hall construction or disaster relief. Each congregation has a body of appointed unpaid male elders and ministerial servants. Elders maintain general responsibility for congregational governance, setting meeting times, selecting speakers and conducting meetings, directing

1638-583: A religious community and administrative unit. Their living expenses and those of other full-time volunteers are covered along with a basic monthly stipend . These volunteers are called Bethelites and are assigned specific tasks such as printing literature or doing laundry. They are allowed to marry but must leave Bethel if they have children. Bethelites are expected to read the Bible cover-to-cover during their first year of service. Consultants are sometimes hired for specialized tasks such as legal advice. Regular Jehovah's Witness members are encouraged to visit Bethel as

1764-574: A seventh volume of Russell's Studies in the Scriptures series. The book, published as Russell's posthumous work, was a compilation of his commentaries on the Bible books of Ezekiel and Revelation with numerous additions by Bible Students Clayton Woodworth and George Fisher. It strongly criticized Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in the Great War . As a result, Watch Tower Society directors were jailed for sedition under

1890-938: A shunned individual. Shunned individuals may eventually be reinstated if deemed repentant. Former members may experience significant mental distress as a result of being shunned, and some seek reinstatement to keep contact with their friends and family. The group's position on conscientious objection to military service and refusal to salute state symbols (like national anthems and flags ) has brought it into conflict with some governments . Some Jehovah's Witnesses have been persecuted, and their activities banned or restricted in some countries. Persistent legal challenges by Jehovah's Witnesses have influenced legislation related to civil rights in several countries. The organization has been criticized regarding biblical translation, doctrines, and alleged coercion of its members. The Watch Tower Society has made various unfulfilled predictions about major biblical events, such as Jesus' Second Coming ,

2016-663: A significant amount of literature as part of its evangelism activities. In 2010, The Watchtower and Awake! were the world's most widely distributed magazines. The denomination archives most of its literature online, although certain entries have been changed after publication. Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that they are under a biblical command to engage in public preaching. They are instructed to devote as much time as possible to their ministry and required to submit an individual monthly "Field Service Report". Those who do not submit reports for six consecutive months are termed "inactive". From 1920 to 2023, every active Jehovah's Witness

2142-789: A small minority of modern Christians. After the denominations in the Oneness Pentecostal movement, the largest nontrinitarian Christian denominations are the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , Jehovah's Witnesses , La Luz del Mundo , and Iglesia ni Cristo . There are a number of other smaller groups, including Christadelphians , Church of the Blessed Hope , Christian Scientists , Dawn Bible Students , Living Church of God , Assemblies of Yahweh , Members Church of God International , Unitarian Christians , Unitarian Universalist Christians , The Way International ,

2268-534: A state of non-existence. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Satan was originally a perfect angel who developed feelings of self-importance and craved worship. Satan influenced Adam and Eve to disobey God, and humanity subsequently became participants in a challenge involving the competing claims of Jehovah and Satan to universal sovereignty. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus began to rule invisibly in heaven as king of God's kingdom in October 1914 and that Satan

2394-409: A talk to the congregation. Once married, a husband is considered to have spiritual headship over his wife, unless he is not one of Jehovah's Witnesses. Contraception is allowed. Divorce is forbidden if not sought on the grounds of adultery , which is called a "scriptural divorce". If a divorce is obtained for any other reason, remarriage is considered adulterous unless the former spouse has died or

2520-499: A three-day "regional convention", usually at rented stadiums or auditoriums. Their most important and solemn event is the "Lord's Evening Meal", or " Memorial of Christ's Death ", which is observed on the fourteenth day of the Jewish month Nisan during Passover . Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their efforts to spread their beliefs , most notably by visiting people's homes, distributing Watch Tower Society literature. The objective

2646-560: A title to signify a formal clergy-laity division, though elders may employ ecclesiastical privilege regarding confession of sins. Much of the denomination's funding is donated, primarily by members. There is no tithing or collection. In 2001 Newsday listed the Watch Tower Society as one of New York 's 40 richest corporations, with revenues exceeding $ 950 million. In 2016, it ranked eighteenth for donations received by registered charities in Canada at $ 80 million. From 1969 until 2015,

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2772-457: Is God the Son . Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Mary conceived Jesus as a virgin but do not believe that she was born free from sin or that she remained a virgin after his birth . Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus served as a redeemer and a ransom sacrifice to pay for the sins of humanity. They believe that he died on a single upright post rather than a cross , which they regard as

2898-519: Is considered the inspired , inerrant word of God. Regular personal Bible reading is frequently recommended. Members are discouraged from formulating doctrines and "private ideas" reached through Bible research independent of Watch Tower Society publications and are cautioned against reading other religious literature. The organization makes no provision for members to criticize or contribute to its teachings. Witness publications strongly discourage followers from questioning doctrine and counsel received from

3024-469: Is considered the only intercessor and high priest between God and humanity, appointed by God as the king and judge of his kingdom. His role as a mediator (referred to in 1 Timothy 2:5) is applied to the "anointed" class, though the "other sheep" are said to also benefit from the arrangement. Jehovah's Witnesses believe death is a state of nonexistence with no consciousness . There is no Hell of fiery torment; Hades and Sheol are understood to refer to

3150-465: Is considered to have committed sexual immorality . Spouses may separate in cases of domestic violence . Baptism is a requirement for membership as a Jehovah's Witness. Baptisms performed by other denominations are not considered valid. Jehovah's Witnesses do not practice infant baptism but allow children to be baptized as long as they meet the same requirements as other candidates. To qualify for baptism, an individual must correctly answer more than

3276-946: Is discouraged and trade schools are suggested as an alternative. Post-secondary education is considered "spiritually dangerous". Anthony Morris III, a former member of the Governing Body, has said, "the most intelligent and eloquent professors will be trying to reshape the thinking of your child, and their influence can be tremendous." Jehovah's Witnesses do not celebrate religious holidays such as Christmas and Easter, nor do they observe birthdays, national holidays, or other celebrations they consider to honor people other than Jesus. They believe that these and many other customs have pagan origins or reflect nationalistic spirit. Members are told that spontaneous giving at other times can help their children to not feel deprived of birthdays or other celebrations. Wedding anniversaries are allowed. Nontrinitarian According to churches that consider

3402-514: Is essential to the Shema . In Matthew 26:39 Jesus prays with a distinction between God and himself, "O my Father, if it be possible, let this cup pass from me: nevertheless not as I will, but as thou wilt.". In John 1:1 there is a distinction between God and the Logos. Non-trinitarians claim a mistranslation of the second part of John 1:1 which, when literally translated word-for-word reads "and

3528-633: Is no personal distinction between God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The two titles "Father" and "Holy Spirit" (as well as others) are said to not reflect separate "persons" within the Godhead, but rather two different ways in which the one God reveals himself to his creatures. The Oneness view of Bible verses that mention God and his Spirit (e.g. Isaiah 48:16) is that they do not imply two "persons" any more than various scriptural references to

3654-523: Is not explicitly biblical. Nontrinitarians cite other examples of terms or phrases not found in the Bible; multiple "persons" in relation to God, the terms " God the Son ", " God-Man ", " God the Holy Spirit ", " eternal Son ", and " eternally begotten ". While the Trinitarian term hypostasis is found in the Bible, it is used only once in reference to God where it states that Jesus is the express image of God's person. The Bible does not explicitly use

3780-571: Is not in the Bible, the substance or drift of the doctrine is definitely biblical, if not explicitly than at least implicitly.' Nontrinitarian views about the Holy Spirit differ from mainstream Christian doctrine and generally fall into several distinct categories. Most scriptures traditionally used in support of the Trinity refer to the Father and the Son, but not to the Holy Spirit . Groups with Unitarian theology such as Polish Socinians ,

3906-482: Is plausible that Thomas is addressing the Lord Jesus and then the Father. Another possible answer is that Jesus himself said, "Is it not written in your law, I said, Ye are gods?" ( John 10:34 ) referring to Psalm 82:6–8. The word "gods" in verse   6 and "God" in verse   8 is the same Hebrew word "'elohim", which means, "gods in the ordinary sense; but specifically used (in the plural thus, especially with

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4032-622: Is simply a masculine singular "one". And that because of that, there is no valid reason to believe that the Hebrew word for "one" in Deuteronomy 6 ( echad ) was necessarily a "plural one", rather than just simply numerical "one". At Deuteronomy 6:4, the Tetragrammaton appears twice in this verse, leading Jehovah's Witnesses and certain Jewish scholars to conclude that belief in a singular (and therefore indivisible) supremely powerful God

4158-727: Is that homoousios came straight from Constantine's Hermetic background. ... The Plato recalled by Constantine is just a name used to cover precisely the Egyptian and Hermetic theology of the "consubstantiality" of the Logos-Son with the Nous-Father, having recourse to a traditional apologetic argument. In the years of the outbreak of the Arian controversy, Lactantius might have played a decisive role in influencing Constantine's Hermetic interpretation of Plato's theology and consequently

4284-560: Is the only solution to all of humanity's problems. The group emerged in the United States from the Bible Student movement founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell , who also co-founded Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society in 1881 to organize and print the movement's publications. A leadership dispute after Russell's death resulted in several groups breaking away, with Joseph Franklin Rutherford retaining control of

4410-451: Is to start a regular "Bible study" with anyone who is not already a member, with the intention that the student be baptized as a member of the group; members are advised to consider discontinuing Bible study with students who show no interest in becoming members. Converts as a result of their door-to-door evangelism are rare and happen at a rate comparable with other denominations that practice similar preaching methods. The denomination produces

4536-407: Is viewed as the means by which God will accomplish his original purpose for the earth, transforming it into a paradise without sickness or death. A central teaching of Jehovah's Witnesses is that the world faces imminent destruction through intervention by God and Jesus Christ. This belief has been present since the group's founding. They believe that Jesus' inauguration as king in 1914 is a sign that

4662-516: The Espionage Act in 1918 and members were subjected to mob violence; the directors were released in March 1919 and charges against them were dropped in 1920. Rutherford centralized organizational control of the Watch Tower Society. In 1919, he instituted the appointment of a director in each congregation, and a year later all members were instructed to report their weekly preaching activity to

4788-466: The German Peasants' War of 1524–1525, large areas of Northern Europe were Protestant, and forms of nontrinitarianism began to surface among some " Radical Reformation " groups, particularly Anabaptists . The first recorded English antitrinitarian was John Assheton (1548), an Anglican priest. The Italian Anabaptist " Council of Venice " (1550) and the trial of Michael Servetus (1553) marked

4914-553: The New Testament , together with seven other books to be read "for instruction in the word of godliness"; it also excluded what Athanasius called apocryphal writings, falsely presented as ancient. Elaine Pagels writes: "In AD 367, Athanasius , the zealous bishop of Alexandria ... issued an Easter letter in which he demanded that Egyptian monks destroy all such unacceptable writings, except for those he specifically listed as 'acceptable' even 'canonical'—a list that constitutes

5040-606: The Philadelphia Church of God , The Church of God International , the United Church of God , Church of God General Conference , Restored Church of God , Christian Disciples Church , and Church of God of the Faith of Abraham. Nontrinitarian views differ widely on the nature of God , Jesus , and the Holy Spirit . Various nontrinitarian philosophies, such as adoptionism and monarchianism , existed prior to

5166-467: The Unitarian Church itself began to decline in numbers and influence after the 1870s. Nontrinitarian Christians with Arian or Semi-Arian views contend that the weight of scriptural evidence supports Subordinationism , the Son's total submission to the Father, and God's paternal supremacy over the Son in every aspect. They acknowledge the Son's high rank at God's right hand , but teach that

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5292-492: The article of theos is anarthrous , lacking a definite article, they believe the verse refers to Jesus' pre-human existence as "a god" or a divine one as distinct from "the God". Nontrinitarians also contend that the author of John's gospel could have written kai ho theos ên ho logos ("and the Word was the God") if that were his intended meaning. John 10:30 – Nontrinitarians such as Arians believe that when Jesus said, "I and

5418-722: The great tribulation is about to take place. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that all other present-day religions are false, identifying them with Babylon the Great , the "harlot" of Revelation 17 . They also believe that the United Nations is the scarlet-colored wild beast . Satan will subsequently use world governments to attack Jehovah's Witnesses, which will prompt God to begin the war of Armageddon , during which all forms of government and all people not counted as Jesus' sheep will die. After Armageddon, God will extend his heavenly kingdom to include earth, which will be transformed into

5544-632: The "harvest of the Gospel age", and that 1914 would mark the end of a 2,520-year period called "the Gentile Times", at which time world society would be replaced by the full establishment of God's kingdom on earth. Beginning in 1878, Russell and Barbour jointly edited a religious magazine, Herald of the Morning . In June 1879, the two split over doctrinal differences, and in July, Russell began publishing

5670-487: The 18th–19th-century Unitarian Church and Christadelphians consider the Holy Spirit to be an aspect of God's power rather than a person. Christadelphians believe that the phrase Holy Spirit refers to God's power or character, depending on the context. Similarly, Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Holy Spirit is not an actual person but is God's "active force" that he uses to accomplish his will. Groups with Binitarian theology, such as Armstrongites , believe that

5796-695: The 19th   century. The doctrine of the Trinity, as held in mainstream Christianity, is not present in the other major monotheistic Abrahamic religions . Christian apologists and other Church Fathers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, having adopted and formulated the Logos Christology , considered the Son of God as the instrument used by the supreme God, the Father, to bring the creation into existence. Justin Martyr , Theophilus of Antioch , Hippolytus of Rome and Tertullian in particular state that

5922-516: The Brooklyn headquarters. Significant changes in doctrine and administration were regularly introduced during Rutherford's 25 years as president, including the 1920 announcement that the Hebrew patriarchs (such as Abraham and Isaac ) would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of Christ 's thousand-year earthly kingdom . Because of disappointment over the changes and unfulfilled predictions , tens of thousands of defections occurred during

6048-680: The Father are one," he did not mean that they were actually "one substance", or "one God", or co-equal and co-eternal, but rather that he and the Father have a "unity of purpose", and that the context indicates that Jesus was saying that they were "one" in pastoral work . The point being that the Father and the Son were united in the divine work of saving the 'sheep'. Nontrinitarian Christians also cite John 17:21 , wherein Jesus prayed regarding his disciples: "That they may all be one, as you, Father, are in me, and I in you, that they may be in us," adding "that they may be one even as we are one". They argue that

6174-469: The Father frequently; the Gospel of John emphasized the divinity of the Son; several New Testament books treat the Holy Spirit as divine. The ancient theologians did not violate biblical teaching but sought to develop its implications.   [...] [Arius'] potent arguments forced other Christians to refine their thinking about the Trinity. At two ecumenical councils, Nicea I in 325 and Constantinople I in 381,

6300-420: The Father is still greater than the Son in all things. While acknowledging that the Father, Son, and Spirit are essential in creation and salvation, they argue that that in itself does not confirm that the three are each co-equal or co-eternal. They also affirm that God is only explicitly identified as "one" in the Bible, and that the doctrine of the Trinity, which word literally meaning a set of three , ascribes

6426-629: The Father. 2 Corinthians 13:14 – "The Grace of the Lord Jesus Christ and the love of God and the sharing in the Holy Spirit be with all of you." It is argued by Trinitarians that the appearance of "Father, Son, and Spirit" together in Paul's prayer for Grace on all believers, and are considered essential for salvation, that the verse is consistent with a triune godhead. Nontrinitarians such as Arians reply that they do not disagree that all three are necessary for salvation and grace, but argue that

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6552-417: The Governing Body, reasoning that it is to be trusted as part of "God's organization". The denomination does not tolerate dissent over doctrines and practices; members who openly disagree with the group's teachings are expelled and shunned. Jehovah's Witnesses have a complementarian view of women. Only men may hold positions of authority, such as ministerial servant or elder. Women may actively participate in

6678-509: The Governing Body, which assumes responsibility for interpreting and applying scripture. The Governing Body does not issue a single, comprehensive statement of faith, but expresses its doctrinal positions in a variety of ways through publications published by the Watch Tower Society. The publications teach that doctrinal changes and refinements result from a process of progressive revelation , in which God gradually reveals his will and purpose, and that such enlightenment or "new light" results from

6804-839: The Holy Scriptures . Adherents commonly call their body of beliefs "The Truth" and consider themselves to be "in the Truth". They consider human society morally corrupt and under the influence of Satan , and most limit their social interaction with non-Witnesses. The denomination is directed by a group of elders known as the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses , which establishes all doctrines . Congregational disciplinary actions include formal expulsion and shunning , for what they consider serious offenses. Baptized people who formally leave are considered disassociated and are also shunned. Members are not allowed to socialize with

6930-492: The Holy Spirit had no beginning, but believe it is not an actual person. Nontrinitarians contend that it is obvious that God the Father in the passage is the One who is ultimately reached, and therefore is greater than the other two entities, and that a "co-equal trinity" is not explicitly taught in the passage, but only inferred. "The term 'Trinity' is not in the Bible", and some nontrinitarians use this as an argument to state that

7056-517: The International Bible Students as a modern-day prophet. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that dating should only occur if the couple is seriously considering marriage. Dating outside the denomination is strongly discouraged and can lead to religious sanctions . Some Jehovah's Witnesses remain single by choice , while others wish to be in a relationship but have a lack of options. Dating Jehovah's Witnesses are encouraged to have

7182-488: The Logos and God the Father are co-equal and co-eternal, but they do not believe that the Holy Spirit is an actual person, like the Father and the Son. They believe the Holy Spirit is the Power, Mind, or Character of God, depending on the context. They teach, "The Holy Spirit is the very essence, the mind, life and power of God. It is not a Being. The Spirit is inherent in the Father and the Son, and emanates from Them throughout

7308-620: The New Testament, nor did Jesus and his followers intend to contradict the Shema in the Old Testament: "Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord" (Deuteronomy 6:4).   [...] The doctrine developed gradually over several centuries and through many controversies.   [...] by the end of the 4th century, under the leadership of Basil of Caesarea , Gregory of Nyssa , and Gregory of Nazianzus (the Cappadocian Fathers),

7434-467: The New Testament. The New Catholic Encyclopedia states: The doctrine of the Holy Trinity is not taught [explicitly] in the [Old Testament]   [...] The formulation 'one God in three Persons' was not solidly established [by a council]   [...] prior to the end of the 4th century. Similarly, Encyclopedia Encarta states: The doctrine is not taught explicitly in the New Testament, where

7560-875: The Pharisees accusing Jesus of making himself God shouldn't be the center of attention, when reading this passage. Instead, they emphasize that Jesus' response to the accusations in John 10:34-36 is of much greater concern. In fact, he refuses to be God but instead claims to be the son of God and makes a direct reference to Psalms 82:6 in which God calls his children Gods without taking away from his own glory. John 20:28 –29 – "And Thomas answered and said to Him, "My Lord and my God!" Jesus said to him, "Thomas, because you have seen Me, you have believed. Blessed are those who have not seen and yet have believed"". Since Thomas called Jesus God , Jesus's statement appears to endorse Thomas's assertion. Nontrinitarians sometimes respond that it

7686-455: The Society, as well as to symbolize the instigation of new outlooks and the promotion of fresh evangelizing methods. In 1932, Rutherford eliminated the system of locally elected elders and in 1938, he introduced what he called a theocratic (literally, God-ruled ) organizational system, under which appointments in congregations worldwide were made from the Brooklyn headquarters. From 1932, it

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7812-401: The Trinity, and the burning up of the world. In 1876, he met Nelson H. Barbour . Later that year they jointly produced the book Three Worlds , which combined restitutionist views with end time prophecy. The book taught that God's dealings with humanity were divided dispensationally , each ending with a "harvest", that Jesus had returned as an invisible spirit being in 1874, inaugurating

7938-501: The Watch Tower Society and its properties. Rutherford made significant organizational and doctrinal changes, including adoption of the name Jehovah's witnesses in 1931 to distinguish the group from other Bible Student groups and symbolize a break with the legacy of Russell's traditions . Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their door-to-door preaching, distributing literature such as The Watchtower and Awake! , and for refusing military service and blood transfusions . They consider

8064-462: The absolute thing itself, and therefore they argue that the passage does not explicitly teach either co-equality, co-eternity, or consubstantiality. Hebrews 9:14 – "How much more will the Blood of Christ, who through an eternal Spirit, offered himself without blemish to God, cleanse our consciences from dead works, that we may render sacred service to the living God?" Most nontrinitarians agree that

8190-657: The advent of God's kingdom, and Armageddon. Their policies for handling cases of child sexual abuse have been the subject of various formal inquiries. Scholarly analysis of Jehovah's Witnesses is limited in Western academia, with most works focusing on legal challenges faced by the group. The denomination does not cooperate with scholars beyond limited communication from anonymous individuals. Consequently, academics often rely on literature written by former members such as James Penton and Raymond Franz to understand its inner workings. The denomination has been variously described as

8316-452: The application of reason and study. Sociologist Andrew Holden's ethnographic study of the group concluded that pronouncements of the Governing Body, through Watch Tower Society publications, carry almost as much weight as the Bible. Jehovah's Witnesses consider the Bible scientifically and historically accurate and reliable and interpret much of it literally , but accept parts of it as symbolic . The entire Protestant canon of scripture

8442-489: The argument that the passage is simply saying that Christ did not consider equality with God something graspable, and that better English translations make it clearer. Another point is that the original Greek had no definite article for "form of God", which would mean "a form of divinity", and also that the term "morphe" for "form" in Koine Greek would simply mean a general external quality or station, but not necessarily

8568-470: The article) of the supreme God; occasionally applied by way of deference to magistrates; and sometimes as a superlative", and can also refer to powers and potentates, in general, or as "God, god, gods, rulers, judges or angels", and as "divine ones, goddess, godlike one". Therefore, the point being that Jesus was a power or mighty one to the Apostles, as the resurrected Messiah, and as the reflection of God

8694-440: The attention of the elders who will then evaluate possible consequences. Members that have violated the group's standards—for example, dating a non-member—but not otherwise committed a serious sin may be marked . Congregation members who are aware of another member's errant behaviour are advised to limit social contact with the marked individual. Elders may decide to form a committee in cases involving serious sin, which may result in

8820-470: The book, Shepherd the Flock of God , provided only to elders. The practice of shunning may serve to deter other members from dissident behavior. Shunning also helps maintain a "uniformity of belief". Former members may experience significant mental distress as a result of being shunned and some seek reinstatement to keep contact with their friends and family. Expelled individuals may eventually be reinstated to

8946-504: The church at large defined the Trinity in the way now so familiar to us from the Nicene Creed. This exemplifies development of doctrine at its best. The Bible may not use the word 'Trinity', but trinitarian theology does not go against the Bible. On the contrary, Catholics believe that trinitarianism has carefully developed a biblical teaching for later generations. American Catholic priest and Trinitarian, R.E. Brown (1928–1988), wrote

9072-853: The clear emergence of markedly antitrinitarian Protestants. Though the only organised nontrinitarian churches were the Polish Brethren who split from the Calvinists (1565, expelled from Poland 1658), and the Unitarian Church of Transylvania (founded 1568). Nonconformists , Dissenters and Latitudinarians in Britain were often Arians or Unitarians , and the Doctrine of the Trinity Act 1813 allowed nontrinitarian worship in Britain. In America, Arian and Unitarian views were also found among some Millennialist and Adventist groups, though

9198-758: The codification of the Trinity doctrine in AD 325, 381, and 431, at the Councils of Nicaea , Constantinople , and Ephesus . Nontrinitarianism was later renewed by Cathars in the 11th through 13th centuries, in the Unitarian movement during the Protestant Reformation , in the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th   century, and in some groups arising during the Second Great Awakening of

9324-400: The condition of death, termed the common grave . They consider the soul a life or a living body that can die. They believe that humanity is in a sinful state, from which release is possible only by means of Jesus' shed blood as a ransom, or atonement , for humankind's sins. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that a "little flock" of 144,000 selected humans go to heaven, but that God will resurrect

9450-464: The congregation if deemed repentant by congregation elders. Reinstatement is a long process, which may be experienced as mentally and emotionally draining. Shunned individuals may experience suicide ideation and often struggle with feelings of low self esteem , shame, and guilt. Former members may also experience ambiguous loss or panic attacks . Funerals for expelled members may not be performed at Kingdom Halls. Baptized children are also subject to

9576-484: The decisions of ecumenical councils final, trinitarianism was definitively declared to be Christian doctrine at the 4th-century ecumenical councils, that of the First Council of Nicaea (325), which declared the full divinity of the Son , and the First Council of Constantinople (381), which declared the divinity of the Holy Spirit . In terms of number of adherents, nontrinitarian denominations comprise

9702-534: The denomination in order to be subject to their disciplinary procedures. The denomination does not tolerate dissent over doctrines and practices; members who openly disagree with the group's teachings are expelled, shunned, and condemned as apostates who are "mentally diseased". Some adherents "fade" and stop attending meetings without being subject to the group's disciplinary procedures, although some former members have still experienced shunning through this method. Members accused of persistent wrongdoing are brought to

9828-618: The denomination's headquarters were housed in Brooklyn , with plans to completely move its operations to Warwick in 2017. The property was sold to Kushner Companies for $ 340 million in 2016. The denomination is led by the Governing Body—an all-male group that varies in size. The Governing Body directs several committees that are responsible for administrative functions, including publishing, assembly programs and evangelizing activities. Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses are established by

9954-478: The doctrine of the Trinity relies on non-biblical terminology, and that the number three is never clearly associated with God necessarily, other than within the Comma Johanneum which is of spurious or disputed authenticity. They argue that the only number clearly unambiguously ascribed to God in the Bible is one, and that the Trinity, literally meaning three-in-one, ascribes a co-equal threeness to God that

10080-461: The doctrine of the Trinity took substantially the form it has maintained ever since. The Anchor Bible Dictionary states: One does not find in the NT the trinitarian paradox of the coexistence of the Father, Son, and Spirit within a divine unity. Catholic historian Joseph F. Kelly, speaking of legitimate theological development, writes: The Bible may not use the word 'Trinity', but it refers to God

10206-449: The emperor's decision to insert homoousios in the Creed of Nicaea ." Trinitarians see the absence of the actual word "Trinity" and other Trinity-related terms in the Bible as no more significant than the absence in the Bible of the words "monotheism", "omnipotence", "oneness", "Pentecostal", "apostolic", "incarnation" and even "Bible" itself. They maintain that, 'while the word Trinity

10332-409: The entire universe." Oneness Pentecostalism , as with other modalist groups, teach that the Holy Spirit is a mode of God, rather than a distinct or separate person in the godhead, and that the Holy Spirit is another name for God the Father. According to Oneness theology, the Holy Spirit is the Father operating in a certain capacity or manifestation. The United Pentecostal Church teaches that there

10458-472: The first half of Rutherford's tenure, leading to the formation of several Bible Student organizations independent of the Watch Tower Society, most of which still exist. By mid-1919, as many as one in seven of Russell-era Bible Students had ceased their association with the Society, and as many as three-quarters by the end of the 1920s. On July 26, 1931, at a convention in Columbus, Ohio , Rutherford introduced

10584-626: The following three as "texts where clearly Jesus is called God": The Septuagint translate אלוהים ‎ (Elohim) as θεος (Theos). At Deuteronomy 6:4 (the Shema Yisrael , quoted by Jesus at Mark 12:29 ), the plural form of the Hebrew word "God" ( Elohim ) is used, generally understood to denote majesty, excellence, and the superlative. It has been stated that in the original Greek in Mark 12:29, there are no "plural modifiers" in that Greek word there for "one" ( heis ), but that in Mark 12 it

10710-407: The format he recommended for conducting meetings. In 1881, Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was presided over by William Henry Conley , and in 1884, Russell incorporated the society as a nonprofit business to distribute tracts and Bibles. He also published a six book series entitled Studies in the Scriptures . By about 1900, Russell had organized thousands of part- and full-time colporteurs , and

10836-598: The frontier, and was himself baptized by an Arian bishop, Eusebius of Nicomedia . His successors as Christian emperors promoted Arianism, until Theodosius I came to the throne in 379 and supported Nicene Christianity. The Easter letter that Athanasius issued in 367, when the Eastern Empire was ruled by the Arian Emperor Valens , specified the books that belong to the Old Testament and

10962-586: The gender they were assigned at birth and view gender-affirming surgery as mutilation. Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasized for both men and women. Jehovah's Witnesses believe their denomination is a restoration of first-century Christianity . Older books published by the Watch Tower Society such as those by Charles Russell and Joseph Rutherford are usually unfamiliar to a modern Jehovah's Witness, although some congregations have these publications in their libraries. Jehovah's Witnesses have "considerable worldwide uniformity", as all congregations study

11088-482: The group places more emphasis on God than on Christ. They believe that the Holy Spirit is God's applied power or "active force", rather than a person. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus is God's only direct creation, that everything else was created through him by means of God's power, and that the initial unassisted act of creation uniquely identifies Jesus as God's "only-begotten Son". However, as part of their nontrinitarian beliefs, they do not believe that Jesus

11214-497: The idea that Armageddon must occur during the lives of the generation that was alive in 1914. Jehovah's Witnesses are organized hierarchically , in what the leadership calls a theocratic organization, reflecting their belief that it is God's visible organization on earth. Jehovah's Witnesses establish local branch offices to centralize their activities in any given country. These branch offices are also referred to as Bethel. Supporting staff live on these properties where they operate as

11340-432: The individual is deemed to be an apostate. Parents are also no longer prohibited from attending judicial committees with minors. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Bible condemns mixing religions, on the basis that there can only be one truth from God, and therefore reject interfaith and ecumenical movements. They believe that only Jehovah's Witnesses represent true Christianity and that other denominations fail to meet all

11466-400: The internal Logos of God (Gr. Logos endiathetos , Lat. ratio )—his impersonal divine reason—was begotten as Logos uttered (Gr. Logos prophorikos , Lat. sermo, verbum ), the Word personified, becoming an actual person to be used for the purpose of creation. The Encyclopædia Britannica (11th edition) states: "to some Christians the doctrine of the Trinity appeared inconsistent with

11592-427: The magazine Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence , saying its purpose was to demonstrate that the world was in "the last days" and that a new age of earthly and human restitution under Jesus' reign was imminent. From 1879, Watch Tower supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible topically. Thirty congregations were founded, and during 1879 and 1880, Russell visited each to provide

11718-493: The majority (the "other sheep") to a cleansed earth after Armageddon. They interpret Revelation 14:1–5 to mean that the number of Christians going to heaven is limited to exactly 144,000, who will rule with Jesus as kings and priests over earth. They believe that baptism as a Jehovah's Witness is vital for salvation, and do not recognize baptism from other denominations as valid. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that some people who died before Armageddon will be resurrected, will be taught

11844-464: The member being reproved or shunned. This process requires three elders to meet with the accused. These cases usually involve sexual misconduct or apostasy. Other serious sins involve accepting blood transfusions, smoking, using recreational drugs, divorce, celebration of holidays or birthdays, abortion (which is considered murder), and political activities such as voting in elections. Procedures related to congregational discipline are primarily described in

11970-445: The mid-1930s, the timing of the beginning of Jesus' presence (Greek: parousía ), his enthronement as king, and the start of the last days were each moved to 1914. As their interpretations of the Bible evolved, Witness publications decreed that saluting national flags is a form of idolatry, which led to a new outbreak of mob violence and government opposition in the United States, Canada , Germany , and other countries. Nathan Knorr

12096-488: The new name Jehovah's witnesses , based on Isaiah 43:10: "'Ye are my witnesses, saith the Lord, and my servant whom I have chosen: that ye may know and believe me, and understand that I am he: before me there was no God formed, neither shall there be after me'" (King James Version). It was adopted by resolution. The name was chosen to distinguish his group of Bible Students from other independent groups that had severed ties with

12222-498: The number of active members exceeded two million. Membership declined during the late 1970s after expectations for 1975 were unfulfilled. Watch Tower Society literature did not say that 1975 would definitely mark the end, but in 1980 the Watch Tower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope for that year. The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments made from headquarters (and later by branch committees too). It

12348-565: The passage does not explicitly say that all three are co-equal or co-eternal. Philippians 2:5 –6 – "Have this mind among yourselves, which is yours in Christ Jesus, [or "which was also in Christ Jesus",] who, though he was in the form of God, did not count equality with God a thing to be grasped" (ESV). The word translated in the English Standard Version as "a thing to be grasped" is ἁρπαγμόν. Other translations of

12474-477: The point of death). After the First Council of Nicaea , Roman Emperor Constantine I issued an edict against Arius ' writings, which included systematic book burning . In spite of the decree, Constantine ordered the readmission of Arius to the church, removed the bishops (including Athanasius ) who upheld the teaching of Nicaea, allowed Arianism to grow within the Empire and to spread to Germanic tribes on

12600-1002: The present 'New Testament'". Nontrinitarians see the Nicene Creed and the results of the Council of Chalcedon as essentially political documents, resulting from the subordination of true doctrine to state interests by leaders of the Catholic Church , so that the church became, in their view, an extension of the Roman Empire. Nontrinitarians (both Modalists and Unitarians) assert that Athanasius and others at Nicaea adopted Greek Platonic philosophy and concepts, and incorporated them in their views of God and Christ. The author H. G. Wells , later famous for his contribution to science-fiction, wrote in The Outline of History : "We shall see presently how later on all Christendom

12726-522: The proper way to worship God, and face a final test at the end of the millennial reign . This judgment will be based on their actions after resurrection rather than past deeds. At the end of the thousand years, Jesus will hand all authority back to God. Then a final test will take place when Satan is released to mislead humankind. Those who fail will die, along with Satan and his demons. They also believe that those who rejected their beliefs while still alive will not be resurrected and will continue to experience

12852-451: The public preaching work, and creating judicial committees to investigate and decide disciplinary action for cases involving sexual misconduct or doctrinal breaches. New elders are appointed by a traveling overseer after recommendation by the existing body of elders. Ministerial servants—appointed in a similar manner as elders—fulfill clerical and attendant duties, but may also teach and conduct meetings. Jehovah's Witnesses do not use elder as

12978-418: The public preaching work, serve at Bethel , and profess to be members of the 144,000 . They are not typically allowed to address the congregation directly. In rare circumstances, women can substitute in certain capacities if there are no eligible men. In these situations, women must wear a head covering if they are performing a teaching role. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that transgender people should live as

13104-463: The question. The Geneva City Council , in accord with the judgment of the cantons of Zürich, Bern, Basel, and Schaffhausen, condemned Servetus to be burned at the stake for this and his opposition to infant baptism. The Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics describes the five stages that led to the formulation of the doctrine of the Trinity: By 1530, following the Protestant Reformation , and

13230-488: The relationships between the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit . Although nontrinitarian beliefs continued and were dominant among some peoples—for example, the Lombards , Ostrogoths , Visigoths and Vandals —for hundreds of years, the Trinity doctrine eventually gained prominence in the Roman Empire. Nontrinitarians typically argue that early nontrinitarian beliefs, such as Arianism , were systematically suppressed (often to

13356-442: The requirements set by God and refer to them as "false religion". Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that it is vital to remain "separate from the world." Their literature defines the "world" as "the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah's approved servants" and teach that it is morally contaminated and ruled by Satan. Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that association with "worldly" people presents a danger to their faith. Attending university

13482-426: The same Greek word ( hen ) for "one" throughout John 17 indicates that Jesus did not expect for his followers to literally become a single Being, or "one in substance", with each other, or with God, and therefore that Jesus also did not expect his hearers to think that he and God the Father were one entity either. While Trinitarians often use John 10:33 as proof for the divinity of Jesus, unitarian critics argue that

13608-415: The same materials on a schedule. Jehovah's Witnesses emphasize the use of God's name, and they prefer the form Jehovah —a vocalization of God 's name based on the Tetragrammaton . They believe that Jehovah is the only true god, the creator of all things, and the "Universal Sovereign". They believe that all worship should be directed toward him, and that he is not part of a Trinity ; consequently,

13734-580: The same moral standards and consequences for failing to comply. They are allowed to stay with their families until reaching the age of majority . Jehovah's Witnesses lost additional funding as a religious community in Norway because of its shunning policy, with the country concluding that it was psychological violence directed towards children. Subsequently, the group made some changes to its shunning policy in 2024; individuals may offer "simple greetings" to shunned members instead of completely avoiding them, unless

13860-488: The term new religious movement because it also has negative connotations. Chryssides refers to the denomination as an "old new religion". In 1870, Charles Taze Russell and others formed a group in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania , to study the Bible. During his ministry, Russell disputed many of mainstream Christianity's tenets, including immortality of the soul, hellfire, predestination, the physical return of Jesus Christ,

13986-525: The term in relation to the Holy Spirit nor explicitly mentions the Son having a distinct hypostasis from the Father. The First Council of Nicaea included in its Creed the major term homoousios (of the same essence), which was used also by the Council of Chalcedon to speak of a double consubstantiality of Christ, "consubstantial with the Father as touching his Godhead, and consubstantial with us as touching his manhood". Nontrinitarians accept what Pier Franco Beatrice wrote: "The main thesis of this paper

14112-477: The unity of God. ... they therefore denied it, and accepted Jesus Christ, not as incarnate God, but as God's highest creature by whom all else was created. ... [this] view in the early Church long contended with the orthodox doctrine." Although the Trinitarian view became the orthodox doctrine in mainstream Christianity, variations of the nontrinitarian view are still held by a relatively small number of Christian groups and denominations. Various views exist regarding

14238-483: The use of God's name vital for proper worship. They reject Trinitarianism , inherent immortality of the soul , and hellfire , which they consider unscriptural doctrines. They do not observe Christmas , Easter , birthdays , or other holidays and customs they consider to have pagan origins incompatible with Christianity. They prefer to use their own Bible translation, the New World Translation of

14364-443: The weekend (two meetings). Until 2009, congregations met three times each week; these meetings were condensed, with the intention that members dedicate an evening for family worship. Gatherings are opened and closed with hymns called Kingdom songs and brief prayers. Twice each year, Jehovah's Witnesses from a number of congregations that form a "circuit" gather for a one-day assembly. Larger groups of congregations meet annually for

14490-462: The word God almost invariably refers to the Father.   [...] The term trinitas was first used in the 2nd century, by the Latin theologian Tertullian, but the concept was developed in the course of the debates on the nature of Christ   [...] In the 4th century, the doctrine was finally formulated. Encyclopædia Britannica says: Neither the word Trinity nor the explicit doctrine appears in

14616-495: The word [logos] was with the God [ho theos]." Trinitarians contend that the third part of the verse (John 1:1c) translates as "and the Word was God", pointing to a distinction as subjects between God and the Logos but an equivalence in nature. Some nontrinitarians assert that the Koine Greek ( kai theos ên ho logos ) should be translated as "and a God was the Word" (or "and the Word was a god"). Based on their contention that

14742-613: The word are indicated in the Holman Christian Standard Bible : "Make your own attitude that of Christ Jesus, who, existing in the form of God, did not consider equality with God as something to be used for His own advantage" [or "to be grasped", or "to be held on to"]. The King James Version has: "Let this mind be in you, which was also in Christ Jesus: Who, being in the form of God, thought it not robbery to be equal with God." Nontrinitarians make

14868-479: Was also marked by increased use of explicit instructions guiding Jehovah's Witnesses' lifestyle and conduct and a greater use of congregational judicial procedures to enforce a strict moral code. From 1966, Witness publications and convention talks built anticipation of the possibility that Jesus' thousand-year reign might begin in 1975 or shortly thereafter. The number of baptisms increased significantly, from about 59,000 in 1966 to more than 297,000 in 1974. By 1975,

14994-467: Was announced that, as of September 2014, appointments would be made by traveling overseers. In a major organizational overhaul in 1976, the power of the Watch Tower Society president was diminished, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions passed to the Governing Body . Since Knorr's death in 1977, the presidency has been held by Frederick Franz , Milton Henschel , Don Alden Adams and Robert Ciranko . In 1995, Jehovah's Witnesses abandoned

15120-486: Was appointed as third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1942. He commissioned a new translation of the Bible, the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures , the full version of which was released in 1961. He organized large international assemblies, instituted new training programs for members, and expanded missionary activity and branch offices throughout the world. Knorr's presidency

15246-514: Was appointing foreign missionaries and establishing branch offices. By the 1910s, Russell's organization maintained nearly a hundred "pilgrims", or traveling preachers. Russell engaged in significant global publishing efforts during his ministry, and by 1912, he was the most distributed Christian author in the United States. He also directed The Photo-Drama of Creation . Russell moved the Watch Tower Society's headquarters to Brooklyn , New York, in 1909, combining printing and corporate offices with

15372-464: Was expected to submit the amount of hours they spent preaching in their monthly field service report. As of November 1, 2023, this requirement was modified to only members who have agreed to a specific hour requirement (for example, pioneers ). Other members will only be required to check to indicate they engaged in some form of ministry during the month, along with any Bible studies they conducted. Jehovah's Witnesses require individuals to be baptized by

15498-412: Was later formulated in the 4th century. William Barclay , a Church of Scotland minister, stated that: It is important and helpful to remember that the word Trinity is not itself a New Testament word. It is even true in at least one sense to say that the doctrine of the Trinity is not directly New Testament doctrine. It is rather a deduction from and an interpretation of the thought and the language of

15624-457: Was subsequently ousted from heaven to the earth . They base this belief on a rendering of the Greek word parousia —usually translated as "coming" when referring to Jesus—as "presence". Jehovah's Witnesses believe that they are the kingdom's representatives on earth. They also believe that they must remain separate from human governments, which they consider to be controlled by Satan. The kingdom

15750-432: Was taught that the "little flock" of 144,000 would not be the only people to survive Armageddon. Rutherford explained that in addition to the 144,000 anointed who would be resurrected—or transferred at death—to live in heaven to rule over earth with Jesus, a separate class of members, the "great multitude", would live in a paradise restored on earth; from 1935, new converts to the movement were considered part of that class. By

15876-465: Was torn by disputes about the Trinity. There is no evidence that the apostles of Jesus ever heard of the Trinity, at any rate from him." The question of why such a central doctrine to the Christian faith would never have been explicitly stated in scripture or taught in detail by Jesus himself was sufficiently important to 16th century historical figures such as Michael Servetus to lead them to argue

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