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88-839: Summer-season construction began in 1910 including ten reinforced concrete bridges. The longest was a 200-foot (61 m) span over the Presumpscot River There was a 100-foot (30 m) span over the Little Androscoggin River in Auburn and a span of similar length near West Falmouth. Approximately 30 miles (48 km) of 70-pound (32 kg) steel rail was laid in 33-foot (10 m) lengths over private right-of-way connecting segments of trackage rights over Portland, Lewiston, and Auburn city streetcar lines. Scheduled interurban service began on 7 July 1914. At Gray , odd-numbered northbound trains took

176-691: A few PLI stock cars of cattle or bulky loads for PLI's ten flatcars . Hydroelectricity provided by the Androscoggin Electric Company Deer Rips generators on the Androscoggin River could be supplemented by a steam power plant in Lewiston. Three-phase 60-cycle power was transmitted to the Danville substation over the 10,000-volt lines used for residential distribution in the Lewiston service area, and

264-543: A film production studio. For much of Augusta's history, the central business district was on and near Water Street on the west bank of the Kennebec River. The street, laid out in the late 1700s, was the location of the area's commercial and industrial life. Many fires damaged this concentrated area, including one in 1865 that destroyed nearly 100 buildings. In 1890, the first trolley line began operation down Water Street, connecting Augusta with Gardiner and Hallowell to

352-486: A household in the city was $ 29,921, and the median income for a family was $ 42,230. Males had a median income of $ 31,209 versus $ 22,548 for females. The per capita income for the city was $ 19,145. About 11.4% of families and 15.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.2% of those under age 18 and 9.8% of those age 65 or over. Augusta is governed by a mayor and council-manager system. The City Council oversees all City government activities and establishes

440-453: A major role in the evolution of concrete construction as a proven and studied science. Without Hyatt's work, more dangerous trial and error methods might have been depended on for the advancement in the technology. Joseph Monier , a 19th-century French gardener, was a pioneer in the development of structural, prefabricated and reinforced concrete, having been dissatisfied with the existing materials available for making durable flowerpots. He

528-506: A male householder with no wife present, and 49.0% were non-families. 39.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.08 and the average family size was 2.76. The median age in the city was 43.2 years. 18.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26% were from 25 to 44; 29.4% were from 45 to 64; and 18% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of

616-545: A publishing and shipping center. Today, government and post-secondary education are important businesses. Since the mid-eighteenth century, there has been a military presence in Augusta. Fort Western has not had troops garrisoned there since the 1790s, but in 1828, the U.S. Government built an arsenal to protect their interests from Britain. During the Civil War , Augusta was a rendezvous point for Union soldiers traveling to

704-419: A reduction in its durability. Corrosion and freeze/thaw cycles may damage poorly designed or constructed reinforced concrete. When rebar corrodes, the oxidation products ( rust ) expand and tends to flake, cracking the concrete and unbonding the rebar from the concrete. Typical mechanisms leading to durability problems are discussed below. Cracking of the concrete section is nearly impossible to prevent; however,

792-502: A siding to cross even-numbered southbound trains on the following route from north to south: The four original Laconia Car Company interurban cars were 46 feet (14 m) long with an enclosed vestibule at either end. Each car contained a 6-foot (1.8 m) smoking compartment with longitudinal leather seats, and a 30-foot (9.1 m) compartment with twenty plush cross-seats for non-smoking passengers. Cars were equipped with two trolley poles for operation in either direction. Each axle of

880-576: A trackage rights agreement with the PLI. When the A&;K completely abandoned its service east of Lewiston to Augusta in July 1932, PLI made an agreement to transfer express at Lewiston to Hodgdon's Motor Express Company highway trucks for continued service to Augusta. As increasing numbers of riders left PLI cars for automobiles through the 1920s and Great Depression , interurban service ended on 29 June 1933 and

968-426: A well-chosen concrete mix will provide additional protection for many applications. Uncoated, low carbon/chromium rebar looks similar to standard carbon steel rebar due to its lack of a coating; its highly corrosion-resistant features are inherent in the steel microstructure. It can be identified by the unique ASTM specified mill marking on its smooth, dark charcoal finish. Epoxy-coated rebar can easily be identified by

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1056-626: Is January, with an average low of 10 °F (−12.2 °C). Most snowfall occurs from December through March. There is usually little or no snow in April and November, and snow is rare in May and October. See or edit raw graph data . As of the census of 2010, there were 19,136 people, 8,802 households, and 4,490 families residing in the city. The population density was 347.1/sq mi (134.0/km ). There were 9,756 housing units at an average density of 177.0/sq mi (68.3/km ). The racial makeup of

1144-658: Is a mixture of coarse (stone or brick chips) and fine (generally sand and/or crushed stone) aggregates with a paste of binder material (usually Portland cement ) and water. When cement is mixed with a small amount of water, it hydrates to form microscopic opaque crystal lattices encapsulating and locking the aggregate into a rigid shape. The aggregates used for making concrete should be free from harmful substances like organic impurities, silt, clay, lignite, etc. Typical concrete mixes have high resistance to compressive stresses (about 4,000 psi (28 MPa)); however, any appreciable tension ( e.g., due to bending ) will break

1232-528: Is coating them with zinc phosphate . Zinc phosphate slowly reacts with calcium cations and the hydroxyl anions present in the cement pore water and forms a stable hydroxyapatite layer. Penetrating sealants typically must be applied some time after curing. Sealants include paint, plastic foams, films and aluminum foil , felts or fabric mats sealed with tar, and layers of bentonite clay, sometimes used to seal roadbeds. Corrosion inhibitors , such as calcium nitrite [Ca(NO 2 ) 2 ], can also be added to

1320-504: Is located across the bay from San Francisco . Two years later, El Campanil survived the 1906 San Francisco earthquake without any damage, which helped build her reputation and launch her prolific career. The 1906 earthquake also changed the public's initial resistance to reinforced concrete as a building material, which had been criticized for its perceived dullness. In 1908, the San Francisco Board of Supervisors changed

1408-541: Is one in which both the compressive and tensile zones reach yielding at the same imposed load on the beam, and the concrete will crush and the tensile steel will yield at the same time. This design criterion is however as risky as over-reinforced concrete, because failure is sudden as the concrete crushes at the same time of the tensile steel yields, which gives a very little warning of distress in tension failure. Steel-reinforced concrete moment-carrying elements should normally be designed to be under-reinforced so that users of

1496-428: Is one in which the concrete element is only reinforced near the tensile face and the reinforcement, called tension steel, is designed to resist the tension. A doubly reinforced beam is the section in which besides the tensile reinforcement the concrete element is also reinforced near the compressive face to help the concrete resist compression and take stresses. The latter reinforcement is called compression steel. When

1584-430: Is one in which the tension capacity of the tension steel is greater than the combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel (over-reinforced at tensile face). So the "over-reinforced concrete" beam fails by crushing of the compressive-zone concrete and before the tension zone steel yields, which does not provide any warning before failure as the failure is instantaneous. A balanced-reinforced beam

1672-542: Is part of the Portland, Maine television market , and receives most of that market's channels. WCBB channel 10, licensed to Augusta, is the local television outlet for the Maine Public Broadcasting Network . Interstate 95 passes by the western outskirts of Augusta. U.S. 202 runs east–west through the city. U.S. 201 runs north–south through the city. Augusta State Airport (AUG), in

1760-660: Is the capital of the U.S. state of Maine and the county seat of and most populous city in Kennebec County . The city's population was 18,899 at the 2020 census , making it the 12th most populous city in Maine , and 3rd least populous state capital in the United States after Montpelier, Vermont , and Pierre, South Dakota . The area was explored in 1607 by English settlers from the Popham Colony at

1848-579: Is the theoretical failure point with a certain probability. It is stated under factored loads and factored resistances. Reinforced concrete structures are normally designed according to rules and regulations or recommendation of a code such as ACI-318, CEB, Eurocode 2 or the like. WSD, USD or LRFD methods are used in design of RC structural members. Analysis and design of RC members can be carried out by using linear or non-linear approaches. When applying safety factors, building codes normally propose linear approaches, but for some cases non-linear approaches. To see

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1936-446: Is transferred from the concrete to the bar interface so as to change the tensile stress in the reinforcing bar along its length. This load transfer is achieved by means of bond (anchorage) and is idealized as a continuous stress field that develops in the vicinity of the steel-concrete interface. The reasons that the two different material components concrete and steel can work together are as follows: (1) Reinforcement can be well bonded to

2024-529: Is water. Augusta is drained by Bond's Brook, Woromontogus Stream and the Kennebec River . The city is crossed by Interstate 95 , U.S. Route 201 , State Route 11 , U.S. Route 202 , State Route 9 , State Route 3 , State Route 100 , State Route 27 , State Route 8 , State Route 104 , and State Route 105 . Augusta borders the towns of Manchester to its west, Sidney and Vassalboro to its north, Windsor to its east, Chelsea to its south, and

2112-715: The Maine Narrow Gauge Railroad Museum , but those plans were since abandoned and the museum remains in Portland. The interurban car Narcissus has been preserved at the Seashore Trolley Museum . [REDACTED] Media related to Portland–Lewiston Interurban at Wikimedia Commons Reinforced concrete Reinforced concrete , also called ferroconcrete , is a composite material in which concrete 's relatively low tensile strength and ductility are compensated for by

2200-513: The University of Maine at Augusta . Because of the city's position on the Kennebec, downtown Augusta is vulnerable to floods in spring. The Maine flood of 1987 , known as the "Great Flood", affected the city. Bond Brook runs from northwest to southeast through the city center, and has been called the "Home of wild Atlantic Salmon". The city has five different residential areas, including

2288-468: The tensile strength of concrete was improved by the reinforcing. Before the 1870s, the use of concrete construction, though dating back to the Roman Empire , and having been reintroduced in the early 19th century, was not yet a proven scientific technology. Ernest L. Ransome , an English-born engineer, was an early innovator of reinforced concrete techniques at the end of the 19th century. Using

2376-468: The "west side", a historic neighborhood north of the state capitol complex, and the "east side", which is situated on the opposite side of the Kennebec. The city's northwest quadrant includes both a retail center and neighborhoods. Augusta State Airport serves the city, offering both commercial service and general aviation. Although the airport is owned by the State of Maine, it is managed and operated by

2464-719: The 1890s, Wayss and his firm greatly contributed to the advancement of Monier's system of reinforcing, established it as a well-developed scientific technology. One of the first skyscrapers made with reinforced concrete was the 16-story Ingalls Building in Cincinnati, constructed in 1904. The first reinforced concrete building in Southern California was the Laughlin Annex in downtown Los Angeles , constructed in 1905. In 1906, 16 building permits were reportedly issued for reinforced concrete buildings in

2552-697: The City of Los Angeles, including the Temple Auditorium and 8-story Hayward Hotel. In 1906, a partial collapse of the Bixby Hotel in Long Beach killed 10 workers during construction when shoring was removed prematurely. That event spurred a scrutiny of concrete erection practices and building inspections. The structure was constructed of reinforced concrete frames with hollow clay tile ribbed flooring and hollow clay tile infill walls. That practice

2640-607: The English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. In 1877, Thaddeus Hyatt , published a report entitled An Account of Some Experiments with Portland-Cement-Concrete Combined with Iron as a Building Material, with Reference to Economy of Metal in Construction and for Security against Fire in the Making of Roofs, Floors, and Walking Surfaces , in which he reported his experiments on the behaviour of reinforced concrete. His work played

2728-542: The Midwest. Excellent soil provided for agriculture, and water power from streams provided for the industry. In 1837, a dam was built across the Kennebec where the falls drop 15  feet at the head of a tide. By 1838, 10 sawmills were contracted. With the arrival of the Kennebec & Portland Railroad in 1851, Augusta became an even more productive mill town . In 1883, the property of A. & W. Sprague Company

Portland–Lewiston Interurban - Misplaced Pages Continue

2816-511: The PLI cars. The Maine Statehood Centennial Exposition in Portland on 5 July 1920 created the PLI's heaviest daily passenger load. Coach-smoker Maine was purchased for the Exposition, and the box express cars were temporarily fitted with benches to carry all the passengers. Two extra cars carrying the Auburn high school basketball team and students to a Portland game collided at Deering Junction on 24 January 1924. The following Maine rammed

2904-695: The actual available length is inadequate for full development, special anchorages must be provided, such as cogs or hooks or mechanical end plates. The same concept applies to lap splice length mentioned in the codes where splices (overlapping) provided between two adjacent bars in order to maintain the required continuity of stress in the splice zone. In wet and cold climates, reinforced concrete for roads, bridges, parking structures and other structures that may be exposed to deicing salt may benefit from use of corrosion-resistant reinforcement such as uncoated, low carbon/chromium (micro composite), epoxy-coated, hot dip galvanized or stainless steel rebar. Good design and

2992-461: The actual bond stress varies along the length of a bar anchored in a zone of tension, current international codes of specifications use the concept of development length rather than bond stress. The main requirement for safety against bond failure is to provide a sufficient extension of the length of the bar beyond the point where the steel is required to develop its yield stress and this length must be at least equal to its development length. However, if

3080-539: The alkalinity of the concrete protects the steel rebar from corrosion . Reinforcing schemes are generally designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the concrete that might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure. Modern reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel, polymers or alternate composite material in conjunction with rebar or not. Reinforced concrete may also be permanently stressed (concrete in compression, reinforcement in tension), so as to improve

3168-417: The behavior of the final structure under working loads. In the United States , the most common methods of doing this are known as pre-tensioning and post-tensioning . For a strong, ductile and durable construction the reinforcement needs to have the following properties at least: François Coignet used iron-reinforced concrete as a technique for constructing building structures. In 1853, Coignet built

3256-507: The camp. As the airport grew, the use of the camp as a training facility was no longer possible. Today, it is still used for administrative and logistical purposes by the National Guard. In the 19th century, Augusta got a regular steamboat service and the railroad. The city installed gas lights in 1859. A telephone service was available in 1880 and a local hospital in 1898. In the early 20th century, Augusta built two movie houses and

3344-543: The chief reasons for the failure of reinforcement bars in concrete. The relative cross-sectional area of steel required for typical reinforced concrete is usually quite small and varies from 1% for most beams and slabs to 6% for some columns. Reinforcing bars are normally round in cross-section and vary in diameter. Reinforced concrete structures sometimes have provisions such as ventilated hollow cores to control their moisture & humidity. Distribution of concrete (in spite of reinforcement) strength characteristics along

3432-449: The city of Hallowell to its southwest. Augusta's climate is classified as a humid continental climate ( Köppen : Dfb ). Summers are typically warm, rainy, and humid, while winters are cold, windy, and snowy. Spring and fall are usually mild, but conditions are widely varied, depending on wind direction and jet stream positioning. The hottest month is July, with an average high temperature of 80 °F (26.7 °C). The coldest month

3520-540: The city was 48.6% male and 51.4% female. As of the census of 2000, there were 18,560 people, 8,565 households, and 4,607 families residing in the city. The population density was 335.1 inhabitants per square mile (129.4/km ). There were 9,480 housing units at an average density of 171.2 per square mile (66.1/km ). The racial makeup of the city was 96.21% White , 0.50% Black or African American , 0.48% Native American , 1.35% Asian , 0.01% Pacific Islander , 0.16% from other races , and 1.3% from two or more races. 0.86% of

3608-445: The city was 94.1% White , 1.1% African American , 0.7% Native American , 1.5% Asian , 0.1% Pacific Islander , 0.4% from other races , and 2.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.8% of the population. There were 8,802 households, of which 23.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.2% were married couples living together, 11.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.0% had

Portland–Lewiston Interurban - Misplaced Pages Continue

3696-756: The city's building codes to allow wider use of reinforced concrete. In 1906, the National Association of Cement Users (NACU) published Standard No. 1 and, in 1910, the Standard Building Regulations for the Use of Reinforced Concrete . Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced concrete elements including slabs , walls , beams , columns , foundations , frames and more. Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete . Designing and implementing

3784-605: The city. Interstate 95 passes by the western outskirts of Augusta, and both U.S. 202 and U.S. 201 run through the city. The area was first explored by the English of the short-lived Popham Colony in September 1607. Twenty-one years later, English settlers from the Plymouth Colony settled in the area in 1628 as part of a trading post on the Kennebec River . The settlement was known by its Native American name Cushnoc (or Coussinoc or Koussinoc), meaning "head of

3872-477: The completion of the Maine State House in 1832, designed by Charles Bulfinch . Augusta was incorporated as a city in 1849. After being named the state capital and the introduction of new industry, the city flourished. In 1840 and 1850, the city ranked among the 100 largest urban populations in the country. During the next decade, however, the city was quickly bypassed by rapidly growing metropolises in

3960-422: The compression zone of a concrete is inadequate to resist the compressive moment (positive moment), extra reinforcement has to be provided if the architect limits the dimensions of the section. An under-reinforced beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tensile reinforcement is smaller than the combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel (under-reinforced at tensile face). When

4048-541: The concrete resists compression and reinforcement " rebar " resists tension can be made into almost any shape and size for the construction industry. Three physical characteristics give reinforced concrete its special properties: As a rule of thumb, only to give an idea on orders of magnitude, steel is protected at pH above ~11 but starts to corrode below ~10 depending on steel characteristics and local physico-chemical conditions when concrete becomes carbonated. Carbonation of concrete along with chloride ingress are amongst

4136-412: The concrete roof and floors in the two-story house he was constructing. His positioning of the reinforcement demonstrated that, unlike his predecessors, he had knowledge of tensile stresses. Between 1869 and 1870, Henry Eton would design, and Messrs W & T Phillips of London construct the wrought iron reinforced Homersfield Bridge bridge, with a 50' (15.25 meter) span, over the river Waveney, between

4224-416: The concrete, thus they can jointly resist external loads and deform. (2) The thermal expansion coefficients of concrete and steel are so close ( 1.0 × 10 to 1.5 × 10 for concrete and 1.2 × 10 for steel) that the thermal stress-induced damage to the bond between the two components can be prevented. (3) Concrete can protect the embedded steel from corrosion and high-temperature induced softening. Because

4312-495: The concrete, which occurs when compressive stresses exceed its strength, by yielding or failure of the rebar when bending or shear stresses exceed the strength of the reinforcement, or by bond failure between the concrete and the rebar. Carbonation, or neutralisation, is a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide in the air and calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate in the concrete. Augusta, Maine Augusta ( / ə ˈ ɡ ʌ s t ə / ə- GUSS -tə )

4400-403: The cross-section of vertical reinforced concrete elements is inhomogeneous. The reinforcement in a RC structure, such as a steel bar, has to undergo the same strain or deformation as the surrounding concrete in order to prevent discontinuity, slip or separation of the two materials under load. Maintaining composite action requires transfer of load between the concrete and steel. The direct stress

4488-579: The downtown area. Augusta is located at 44°18′38″N 69°46′46″W  /  44.31056°N 69.77944°W  / 44.31056; -69.77944 , making it the easternmost state capital in the United States. According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 58.03 sq mi (150.30 km ), of which 55.13 sq mi (142.79 km ) is land and 2.90 sq mi (7.51 km )

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4576-622: The eastern bank of the Kennebec River. It was intended as a supply depot for Fort Halifax upriver, as well as a regional defense from French attack. Later, during the American Revolutionary War , Benedict Arnold and his 1,100 troops would use Fort Western as a staging area before continuing their journey up the Kennebec to the Battle of Quebec . Cushnoc was incorporated as part of Hallowell in 1771. Known as "the Fort", it

4664-403: The examples of a non-linear numerical simulation and calculation visit the references: Prestressing concrete is a technique that greatly increases the load-bearing strength of concrete beams. The reinforcing steel in the bottom part of the beam, which will be subjected to tensile forces when in service, is placed in tension before the concrete is poured around it. Once the concrete has hardened,

4752-505: The first concrete buildings constructed in the United States was a private home designed by William Ward , completed in 1876. The home was particularly designed to be fireproof. G. A. Wayss was a German civil engineer and a pioneer of the iron and steel concrete construction. In 1879, Wayss bought the German rights to Monier's patents and, in 1884, his firm, Wayss & Freytag , made the first commercial use of reinforced concrete. Up until

4840-511: The first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four-story house at 72 rue Charles Michels in the suburbs of Paris. Coignet's descriptions of reinforcing concrete suggests that he did not do it for means of adding strength to the concrete but for keeping walls in monolithic construction from overturning. The, 1872–1873, Pippen building in Brooklyn stands as a testament to his technique. In 1854, English builder William B. Wilkinson reinforced

4928-399: The four public elementary schools that are located in the city. Cony serves students in grades 7–12 from Augusta and the surrounding towns; Cony comprises Cony Middle School and Cony High School . St. Michaels is a private Catholic school ; it charges tuition to its students. The University of Maine at Augusta is third-largest university in the University of Maine System . Augusta

5016-571: The front. Many of the soldiers camped on the green in front of the capitol building. In 1862, Camp E.D. Keyes was established in the northwestern portion of the city. During World War I , Camp Keyes was used as a mobilization and training camp for soldiers. The camp eventually became a headquarters for the Maine National Guard . In 1929, the state legislature approved the placement of the Augusta State Airport next to

5104-480: The inclusion of reinforcement having higher tensile strength or ductility. The reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing bars (known as rebar ) and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before the concrete sets. However, post-tensioning is also employed as a technique to reinforce the concrete. In terms of volume used annually, it is one of the most common engineering materials. In corrosion engineering terms, when designed correctly,

5192-660: The knowledge of reinforced concrete developed during the previous 50 years, Ransome improved nearly all the styles and techniques of the earlier inventors of reinforced concrete. Ransome's key innovation was to twist the reinforcing steel bar, thereby improving its bond with the concrete. Gaining increasing fame from his concrete constructed buildings, Ransome was able to build two of the first reinforced concrete bridges in North America. One of his bridges still stands on Shelter Island in New Yorks East End, One of

5280-515: The leading Azalea as it slowed in heavy fog. There were no serious injuries, but the game was cancelled and both cars required repairs. Although the other concrete bridges proved durable, the Presumpscot River bridge was weakened by paper mill waste and required replacement by a steel span in 1927. In September 1929 the competing Androscoggin and Kennebec (A&K) electric railway abandoned its parallel line south of Lewiston in favor of

5368-449: The legislative policies of the city, adopts and amends ordinances and local laws, appropriates municipal resources, and sets the tax rate. The City Manager serves as the chief executive officer and purchasing agent of the city. The mayor presides at all meetings of the council, and is recognized ceremonially as the official head of the city. The city maintains a police department ; it is remarkable for not having had an officer killed in

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5456-824: The light green color of its epoxy coating. Hot dip galvanized rebar may be bright or dull gray depending on length of exposure, and stainless rebar exhibits a typical white metallic sheen that is readily distinguishable from carbon steel reinforcing bar. Reference ASTM standard specifications A1035/A1035M Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Low-carbon, Chromium, Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement, A767 Standard Specification for Hot Dip Galvanized Reinforcing Bars, A775 Standard Specification for Epoxy Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars and A955 Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Stainless Bars for Concrete Reinforcement. Another, cheaper way of protecting rebars

5544-489: The line of duty for over a century. Augusta has historically been Democratic . In the 2012 presidential election , Barack Obama received 5,192 of the votes to Mitt Romney 's 3,339. In the 2020 presidential election , Joe Biden won 5,248 votes to Donald Trump 's 4,155. The city has not voted for a Republican presidential candidate since George H. W. Bush in the Republican landslide of 1988 . Democrats are

5632-498: The majority political affiliation in all four voting wards. There are more voters who are not enrolled than there are registered Republicans in the city. There are five public schools, one private school, and one college (the University of Maine at Augusta ). There are two public libraries in Augusta, the city-operated Lithgow Public Library and the Maine State Library . Farrington, Gilbert, Hussey, and Lincoln are

5720-438: The microscopic rigid lattice, resulting in cracking and separation of the concrete. For this reason, typical non-reinforced concrete must be well supported to prevent the development of tension. If a material with high strength in tension, such as steel , is placed in concrete, then the composite material, reinforced concrete, resists not only compression but also bending and other direct tensile actions. A composite section where

5808-656: The most efficient floor system is key to creating optimal building structures. Small changes in the design of a floor system can have significant impact on material costs, construction schedule, ultimate strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and end use of a building. Without reinforcement, constructing modern structures with concrete material would not be possible. When reinforced concrete elements are used in construction, these reinforced concrete elements exhibit basic behavior when subjected to external loads . Reinforced concrete elements may be subject to tension , compression , bending , shear , and/or torsion . Concrete

5896-532: The mouth of the Kennebec River . Before European settlement, Algonquian-speaking Indians lived in the area. In 1625, representatives of Plymouth Colony chose the east shore of the Kennebec for a trading post, which was likely built in 1628 and became known as " Cushnoc ". The Kennebec Proprietors, successors to the Plymouth Company , built Fort Western near the site of the abandoned trading post in 1754 and began settlement efforts. The new village

5984-448: The passivation of steel at the anodic oxidation sites. Nitrite is a much more active corrosion inhibitor than nitrate , which is a less powerful oxidizer of the divalent iron. A beam bends under bending moment , resulting in a small curvature. At the outer face (tensile face) of the curvature the concrete experiences tensile stress, while at the inner face (compressive face) it experiences compressive stress. A singly reinforced beam

6072-439: The population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 8,565 households, out of which 24.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.1% were married couples living together, 10.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.2% were non-families. 38.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size

6160-551: The rails were lifted in 1934. The Danville substation was retained by Central Maine Power Company, but the Gray and West Falmouth substations were sold as residential dwellings, and the Lewiston car barn was converted to a Red and White food store . Much of the right-of-way between Portland and West Falmouth was used for the Maine Turnpike ; but a portion of the right-of-way through Gray was on planning to be restored for use by

6248-433: The reinforced concrete element is subject to increasing bending moment, the tension steel yields while the concrete does not reach its ultimate failure condition. As the tension steel yields and stretches, an "under-reinforced" concrete also yields in a ductile manner, exhibiting a large deformation and warning before its ultimate failure. In this case the yield stress of the steel governs the design. An over-reinforced beam

6336-581: The size and location of cracks can be limited and controlled by appropriate reinforcement, control joints, curing methodology and concrete mix design. Cracking can allow moisture to penetrate and corrode the reinforcement. This is a serviceability failure in limit state design . Cracking is normally the result of an inadequate quantity of rebar, or rebar spaced at too great a distance. The concrete cracks either under excess loading, or due to internal effects such as early thermal shrinkage while it cures. Ultimate failure leading to collapse can be caused by crushing

6424-533: The south. In 1932, buses replaced the trolley line. With the completion of the Maine Turnpike and Interstate 95 in 1955, local commercial developments began to move away from Water Street and closer to the highway. Among the results was a storefront vacancy rate downtown of about 60 percent. Since the late 2000s, there has been a renewed and ongoing focus by city officials, the Augusta Downtown Alliance, and private developers to revitalize

6512-399: The speed required for express service. They were used exclusively for the slower schedules making local stops. Powered box express cars operated as extra trains making two round trips daily handling less than carload freight including cans of raw milk from rural dairy farms to a Portland milk processor. The Baldwin electric locomotive ran on these extra runs with a PLI boxcar when there were

6600-474: The structure will receive warning of impending collapse. The characteristic strength is the strength of a material where less than 5% of the specimen shows lower strength. The design strength or nominal strength is the strength of a material, including a material-safety factor. The value of the safety factor generally ranges from 0.75 to 0.85 in Permissible stress design . The ultimate limit state

6688-454: The tension on the reinforcing steel is released, placing a built-in compressive force on the concrete. When loads are applied, the reinforcing steel takes on more stress and the compressive force in the concrete is reduced, but does not become a tensile force. Since the concrete is always under compression, it is less subject to cracking and failure. Reinforced concrete can fail due to inadequate strength, leading to mechanical failure, or due to

6776-535: The tide". Fur trading was at first profitable, but because of Native uprisings and declining revenues, Plymouth Colony sold the Kennebec Patent in 1661. Cushnoc would remain unoccupied for the next 75 years. The area around Cushnoc was inhabited by the Kennebec , a band of the larger Abenaki nation. During the 17th century, they were on friendly terms with the English settlers in the region. A hotbed of Abenaki hostility toward British settlements

6864-440: The two- truck cars was equipped with a 90 horsepower (67 kW) motor geared for a top speed of 59 miles (95 km) per hour. Cars were capable of multiple unit operation, but difficulties operating over municipal streetcar tracks discouraged the practice. Two more coaches without separate smoking compartments were purchased in 1915. These coaches had less powerful 75 horsepower (56 kW) traction motors and were incapable of

6952-403: The water mix before pouring concrete. Generally, 1–2 wt. % of [Ca(NO 2 ) 2 ] with respect to cement weight is needed to prevent corrosion of the rebars. The nitrite anion is a mild oxidizer that oxidizes the soluble and mobile ferrous ions (Fe ) present at the surface of the corroding steel and causes them to precipitate as an insoluble ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH) 3 ). This causes

7040-402: Was 2.10 and the average family size was 2.77. In the city, the population was spread out, with 20.5% under the age of 18, 8.7% from 18 to 24, 28.3% from 25 to 44, 24.8% from 45 to 64, and 17.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.5 males. The median income for

7128-485: Was boosted to 33,000 volts at Danville for more efficient transmission to the substations in Gray and Falmouth. Overhead catenary providing 650-volt DC was supported by wooden poles at intervals of 120 feet (37 m), and these poles carried a separate telephone wire allowing continuous communication between trains and headquarters. Service was interrupted during the spring of 1916 by snowmelt freshets causing extensive washouts between Gray and West Falmouth. Fifty dollars

7216-404: Was granted a patent for reinforcing concrete flowerpots by means of mixing a wire mesh and a mortar shell. In 1877, Monier was granted another patent for a more advanced technique of reinforcing concrete columns and girders, using iron rods placed in a grid pattern. Though Monier undoubtedly knew that reinforcing concrete would improve its inner cohesion, it is not clear whether he even knew how much

7304-514: Was incorporated as Hallowell in 1771, and the upriver part of town separated in 1797 to form the town of Harrington. On June 9, 1797, Harrington changed its name to Augusta and, in 1827, it was designated capital of Maine. Augusta is the easternmost state capital in the United States. Located on the Kennebec River at the head of tide , it is the principal city in the Augusta-Waterville micropolitan statistical area and home to

7392-484: Was located further up the Kennebec at Norridgewock . In 1722, the tribe and its allies attacked Fort Richmond (now Richmond ) and destroyed Brunswick . In response, English forces sacked Norridgewock in 1724 during Dummer's War , when the English gained tentative control of the Kennebec. During the height of the French and Indian War , in 1754, the English colonists built a blockhouse named Fort Western at Cushnoc on

7480-566: Was purchased by the Edwards Manufacturing Company, which erected extensive brick mills for manufacturing cotton textiles. They imported cotton from the South for processing and export to Europe. In the late 19th century, a paper and pulp plant was constructed. Other Augusta firms produced lumber, sash , doors, window shutters, broom handles, stone cutters' tools, shoes, headstones, ice and furniture. The city developed as

7568-764: Was set off and incorporated by the Massachusetts General Court in February 1797 as Harrington. In August, however, the name was changed to Augusta after Pamela Augusta Dearborn, daughter of Henry Dearborn . In 1799, it was designated as the county seat for the newly created Kennebec County. Maine became a state in 1820 as a result of the Missouri Compromise . Augusta was designated as its capital in 1827, over Portland , and rival communities Brunswick and Hallowell. The Maine State Legislature continued meeting in Portland , however, until

7656-601: Was stolen when the last daily train from Lewiston to Portland was robbed at Fairview Junction on 18 March 1917. Heavy snow collapsed the roof of the Gray car barn on 11 February 1918, but it was rebuilt. Express car 32 and Gladiolus suffered repairable minor damage in a slow head-on collision in Falmouth on 1 March 1918. Androscoggin Electric Company merged into Central Maine Power in 1919. The blizzard of 6 March 1920 caused cancellation of many Maine trains including

7744-422: Was strongly questioned by experts and recommendations for "pure" concrete construction were made, using reinforced concrete for the floors and walls as well as the frames. In April 1904, Julia Morgan , an American architect and engineer, who pioneered the aesthetic use of reinforced concrete, completed her first reinforced concrete structure, El Campanil, a 72-foot (22 m) bell tower at Mills College , which

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