Misplaced Pages

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91-621: Several specific elements of the Act contributed to the isolation of vocational education from other parts of the comprehensive high school curriculum. To powers to cooperate ... with the Federal Board for Vocational Education." Each State board was required to establish a plan: "... showing the kinds of vocational education for which it is proposed that the appropriation shall be used; the kinds of schools and equipment; courses of study; methods of instruction; qualifications of teachers; ... plans for

182-640: A U.S. citizen for seven years for the House and nine years for the Senate, and be an inhabitant of the state which they represent. Members in both chambers may stand for re-election an unlimited number of times. The Congress was created by the U.S. Constitution and first met in 1789, replacing the Congress of the Confederation in its legislative function. Although not legally mandated, in practice since

273-685: A college preparatory course program and one or more foreign language, scientific or vocational course programs. The tracking system is a way to group students into different class levels based on their academic abilities in comprehensive high school. For example, the English course is a mandatory course for all students; there are four tracks: gifted, advanced, average, and remedial. This tracking system allows teachers to guide students more efficiently with customized learning needs and speeds and make sure students match courses with their ability levels. However, it also brings equity problems that reinforce

364-478: A federal structure with two overlapping power centers so that each citizen as an individual is subject to the powers of state government and national government. To protect against abuse of power, each branch of government – executive, legislative, and judicial – had a separate sphere of authority and could check other branches according to the principle of the separation of powers . Furthermore, there were checks and balances within

455-444: A powerful effect of waking up a somewhat dormant Congress which investigated presidential wrongdoing and coverups; the scandal "substantially reshaped" relations between the branches of government, suggested political scientist Bruce J. Schulman . Partisanship returned, particularly after 1994; one analyst attributes partisan infighting to slim congressional majorities which discouraged friendly social gatherings in meeting rooms such as

546-524: A revised constitution with a two-chamber or bicameral Congress. Smaller states argued for equal representation for each state. The two-chamber structure had functioned well in state governments. A compromise plan, the Connecticut Compromise , was adopted with representatives chosen by population (benefiting larger states) and exactly two senators chosen by state governments (benefiting smaller states). The ratified constitution created

637-401: A six-year term, with terms staggered , so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, so currently, there are 100 senators for the 50 states. Article One of the U.S. Constitution requires that members of Congress be at least 25 years old for the House and at least 30 years old for the U.S. Senate, be

728-529: A state's at-large representation to the federal government by senators. Most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent. The historical records of the House of Representatives and the Senate are maintained by the Center for Legislative Archives, which is a part of the National Archives and Records Administration . Congress

819-414: A useful or productive basis, such instruction to extend over not less than nine months per year and not less than thirty hours per week". (Section 12) Thus, the law required the following: If a high-school student was taught one class by a teacher paid in full or in part from Federal vocational funds, that same student could receive no more than fifty per cent academic instruction. The Federal Vocational Board

910-487: A well-rounded education to its students, as opposed to the practice in some places in which examinations are used to sort students into different high schools for different populations. Other types of high schools specialize in university-preparatory school academic preparation, remedial instruction , or vocational instruction . The typical comprehensive high school offers more than one course program of specialization to its students. Comprehensive high schools generally offer

1001-693: Is directly responsible for the governing of the District of Columbia , the current seat of the federal government. The First Continental Congress was a gathering of representatives from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies . On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence , referring to the new nation as the "United States of America". The Articles of Confederation in 1781 created

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1092-440: Is elected and gives each House the power to create its own structure. Section Seven lays out the process for creating laws, and Section Eight enumerates numerous powers. Section Nine is a list of powers Congress does not have, and Section Ten enumerates powers of the state, some of which may only be granted by Congress. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from

1183-493: Is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day. Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux. In recent times, the American South and West have gained House seats according to demographic changes recorded by the census and includes more women and minorities . While power balances among the different parts of government continue to change,

1274-433: Is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress: Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies, our ethnic, religious, and racial diversity, our multitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government's most representative body   ... Congress

1365-569: Is important to incorporate digital learning tools and personalized education plans, which allow a more equitable education system and ensure all students can access high-quality education. This article relating to education in the United States is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . United States Congress This is an accepted version of this page Minority (49) Minority (212) Vacant (3) [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The United States Congress

1456-410: Is more likely to happen bullying issues, and schools in low-income areas tend to have bullying in school. The future of comprehensive high schools may involve reforms that deal with the limitations of the current tracking systems. By reducing the hierarchy of tracks and implementing more flexible courses, comprehensive high schools will be more supportive of students from diverse backgrounds. Also, it

1547-597: Is quite uncommon. Article One of the United States Constitution states, "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives." The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process – legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers. The Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while

1638-759: Is the legislature of the federal government of the United States . It is bicameral , composed of a lower body, the United States House of Representatives , and an upper body, the United States Senate . It meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. Members are chosen through direct election , though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a governor 's appointment. Congress has 535 voting members: 100 senators and 435 representatives. The vice president of

1729-529: The tabloidization of media coverage. Others saw pressure to squeeze a political position into a thirty-second soundbite. A report characterized Congress in 2013 as unproductive, gridlocked, and "setting records for futility". In October 2013, with Congress unable to compromise, the government was shut down for several weeks and risked a serious default on debt payments, causing 60% of the public to say they would "fire every member of Congress" including their own representative. One report suggested Congress posed

1820-544: The Board of Education . Congress began reasserting its authority. Lobbying became a big factor despite the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act . Political action committees or PACs could make substantive donations to congressional candidates via such means as soft money contributions. While soft money funds were not given to specific campaigns for candidates, the money often benefited candidates substantially in an indirect way and helped reelect candidates. Reforms such as

1911-541: The Commerce Clause , the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v. Maryland , have effectively widened the scope of Congress's legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section Eight. Constitutional responsibility for the oversight of Washington, D.C. , the federal district and national capital, and the U.S. territories of Guam , American Samoa , Puerto Rico ,

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2002-469: The Congress of the Confederation , a unicameral body with equal representation among the states in which each state had a veto over most decisions. Congress had executive but not legislative authority, and the federal judiciary was confined to admiralty and lacked authority to collect taxes, regulate commerce, or enforce laws. Government powerlessness led to the Convention of 1787 which proposed

2093-609: The Conservative Coalition . Democrats maintained control of Congress during World War II . Congress struggled with efficiency in the postwar era partly by reducing the number of standing congressional committees. Southern Democrats became a powerful force in many influential committees although political power alternated between Republicans and Democrats during these years. More complex issues required greater specialization and expertise, such as space flight and atomic energy policy. Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited

2184-523: The Northern Mariana Islands . These six members of Congress enjoy floor privileges to introduce bills and resolutions, and in recent Congresses they vote in permanent and select committees, in party caucuses and in joint conferences with the Senate. They have Capitol Hill offices, staff and two annual appointments to each of the four military academies. While their votes are constitutional when Congress authorizes their House Committee of

2275-449: The second-wave feminism movement , when activists moved into electoral politics. Beginning in the 1970s, donors and political action committees like EMILY's List began recruiting, training and funding women candidates. Watershed political moments like the confirmation of Clarence Thomas and the 2016 presidential election created momentum for women candidates, resulting in the Year of

2366-484: The "biggest risk to the U.S. economy" because of its brinksmanship , "down-to-the-wire budget and debt crises" and "indiscriminate spending cuts", resulting in slowed economic activity and keeping up to two million people unemployed. There has been increasing public dissatisfaction with Congress, with extremely low approval ratings which dropped to 5% in October 2013. In 2009, Congress authorized another delegate for

2457-608: The 1930s, Federal influence in vocational programs remained largely unchanged. However a significant change did occur in the 1930s—the emphasis on vocational courses in what were then called " junior colleges " (which later evolved into community colleges ). In the next decade, the War Production Training Act , as implemented by the War Manpower Commission introduced the concept of "open-entry, open-exit" programs. A collateral Federal effort

2548-439: The 1960s opened the possibility for Black, Asian American, Latina and other non-white women candidates to run for Congress. Racially polarized voting, racial stereotypes and lack of institutional support still prevent women of color from reaching Congress as easily as white people . Senate elections, which require victories in statewide electorates, have been particularly difficult for women of color. Carol Moseley Braun became

2639-591: The 19th century, members of Congress are typically affiliated with one of the two major parties , the Democratic Party or the Republican Party , and only rarely with a third party or independents affiliated with no party. In the case of the latter, the lack of affiliation with a political party does not mean that such members are unable to caucus with members of the political parties. Members can also switch parties at any time, although this

2730-846: The 2002 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act limited campaign donations but did not limit soft money contributions. One source suggests post-Watergate laws amended in 1974 meant to reduce the "influence of wealthy contributors and end payoffs" instead "legitimized PACs" since they "enabled individuals to band together in support of candidates". From 1974 to 1984, PACs grew from 608 to 3,803 and donations leaped from $ 12.5   million to $ 120   million along with concern over PAC influence in Congress. In 2009, there were 4,600 business, labor and special-interest PACs including ones for lawyers , electricians , and real estate brokers . From 2007 to 2008, 175 members of Congress received "half or more of their campaign cash" from PACs. From 1970 to 2009,

2821-574: The American response as a "police action". According to Time magazine in 1970, "U.S. presidents [had] ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times." In 1993, Michael Kinsley wrote that "Congress's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution," and that the "real erosion [of Congress's war power] began after World War   II." Disagreement about

Smith–Hughes Act - Misplaced Pages Continue

2912-462: The Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause . Congress has authority over financial and budgetary policy through the enumerated power to "lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States". There is vast authority over budgets, although analyst Eric Patashnik suggested that much of Congress's power to manage

3003-622: The George–Barden Act of 1946. The first amendment, Title II, Vocational Education in Practical Nursing, was a reflection of a Congressional interest in "the health of the people". Several years later, Title VIII sought to stimulate technical training programs in the wake of the launching of Sputnik. During the 1960s, vocational education experienced especially heavy enrollment growth. All the while, technological advances were producing increasing employment dislocation. The gap between

3094-604: The Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union. One of Congress's foremost non-legislative functions is the power to investigate and oversee the executive branch. Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress's subpoena power. Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing

3185-546: The House expanded delegates, along with their powers and privileges representing U.S. citizens in non-state areas, beginning with representation on committees for Puerto Rico's resident commissioner in 1970. In 1971, a delegate for the District of Columbia was authorized, and in 1972 new delegate positions were established for U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam . In 1978, an additional delegate for American Samoa were added. In

3276-448: The House initiates revenue -raising bills. The House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before an impeached person can be removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a particular meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years; the current one, the 118th Congress , began on January 3, 2023, and will end on January 3, 2025. Since

3367-477: The House of Representatives have equal legislative authority, although only the House may originate revenue and appropriation bills . Congress has an important role in national defense , including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces , and to make rules for the military. Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress's constitutionally defined task of declaring war. While historically presidents initiated

3458-625: The Jeffersonian Republican Party and began the era of the First Party System . In 1800, Thomas Jefferson 's election to the presidency marked a peaceful transition of power between the parties. John Marshall , 4th chief justice of the Supreme Court , empowered the courts by establishing the principle of judicial review in law in the landmark case Marbury v. Madison in 1803, effectively giving

3549-635: The Supreme Court a power to nullify congressional legislation. The Civil War , which lasted from 1861 to 1865, which resolved the slavery issue and unified the nation under federal authority but weakened the power of states' rights . The Gilded Age (1877–1901) was marked by Republican dominance of Congress. During this time, lobbying activity became more intense, particularly during the administration of President Ulysses S. Grant in which influential lobbies advocated for railroad subsidies and tariffs on wool. Immigration and high birth rates swelled

3640-500: The Uniform Congressional Redistricting Act requires that they be elected from single-member constituencies or districts . It is also required that the congressional districts be apportioned among states by population every ten years using the U.S. census results, provided that each state has at least one congressional representative. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for

3731-476: The United States , as President of the Senate, has a vote in the Senate only when there is a tie. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members . Congress convenes for a two-year term , commencing every other January. Elections are held every even-numbered year on Election Day . The members of the House of Representatives are elected for the two-year term of a Congress. The Reapportionment Act of 1929 established that there be 435 representatives, and

Smith–Hughes Act - Misplaced Pages Continue

3822-628: The United States and something less than $ 3 million was spent annually on their training. Forty years later, enrollment had increased to 3.4 million students and expenditures stood at $ 176 million. Smith–Hughes required dollar for dollar matching of Federal money by the States, local governments, or some combination thereof. As the decade of the 1950s closed—the last decade for the Smith–Hughes version of categorical intervention—Federal funds were over-matched by both State and local funds, taken separately. On

3913-608: The United States then, offered little to students who were interested in technical subjects (conceived as subjects that offer close harmony in the more or less simultaneous interplay of theory and practice). The policies and positions taken by the United States Congress in their enactment of Smith-Hughes have been extraordinarily powerful forces in determining the current status of vocational education. Remarkably, these central segregating and separating provisions have proven to be largely impervious to change in spite of

4004-554: The White House a little more in favor of the executive branch", according to one account. Past presidents, including Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , and George W. Bush , have made public statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it, and commentators, including the American Bar Association , have described this practice as against

4095-504: The Whole votes, recent Congresses have not allowed for that, and they cannot vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives. On January 6, 2021, the Congress gathered to confirm the election of Joe Biden, when supporters of the outgoing president Donald Trump attacked the building . The session of Congress ended prematurely, and Congress representatives evacuated. Trump supporters occupied Congress until D.C police evacuated

4186-552: The Woman and the election of members of The Squad , respectively. Women of color faced additional challenges that made their ascension to Congress even more difficult. Jim Crow laws , voter suppression and other forms of structural racism made it virtually impossible for women of color to reach Congress prior to 1965. The passage of the Voting Rights Act that year , and the elimination of race-based immigration laws in

4277-420: The academic divisions in the education system. There are critics of the tracking system that it affects students placed on lower tracks by providing less challenging education, lowering their self-worth and self-esteem, which can restrict their potential academic achievement, personal growth, and future aspirations. Other than the comprehensive high school, there are many other types of high schools. Studies show

4368-502: The academic research community has shown scant interest to the issues facing vocational education. Finally, until recently, there have been few pressures from the community to materially change the way vocational education is offered. As a result, policy influences affecting vocational education have been left, almost by default, to vocational educators. Because the Federal purposes in vocational education appeared to coincide so closely with

4459-544: The adoption of the Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution , the Congress has started and ended at noon on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators; members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. Scholar and representative Lee H. Hamilton asserted that the "historic mission of Congress has been to maintain freedom" and insisted it

4550-639: The affluent and the disadvantaged widened; poverty in areas of economic depression could not be ignored. Congress responded by enacting the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1961 (MDTA), followed by the Vocational Education Act of 1963 (VEA). It is surprising to note that almost 50 years after the Smith–Hughes Act, in spite of all the intervening changes, the definition and purpose of vocational education as set out in

4641-662: The area. The event was the first time since the Burning of Washington by the British during the War of 1812 that the United States Congress was forcefully occupied. Various social and structural barriers have prevented women from gaining seats in Congress. In the early 20th century, women's domestic roles and the inability to vote forestalled opportunities to run for and hold public office. The two party system and

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4732-417: The budget has been lost when the welfare state expanded since "entitlements were institutionally detached from Congress's ordinary legislative routine and rhythm." Another factor leading to less control over the budget was a Keynesian belief that balanced budgets were unnecessary. The Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 extended congressional power of taxation to include income taxes without apportionment among

4823-497: The central, most traditional dimensions, the Smith–Hughes formulas had to be considered an enormous success by its strongest advocates. It had directly pumped hundreds of millions of dollars into the vocational education system. Its matching requirements had generated hundreds of millions of additional State and local funds all devoted to vocational education programs. Even more impressively, vocational education enrollments had grown seventeenfold. During this period of phenomenal growth,

4914-400: The comprehensive high school. Other than studying the outcomes, researchers examined the bullying problem between these two types of high schools and revealed that students in career academy high schools experience less bullying than students in comprehensive high schools. The potential factors are the size of the school and income level. Comprehensive high schools are usually larger, which

5005-477: The difference in multiple aspects of the difference comparing comprehensive high schools and STEM-focused high schools or career academy high schools. In comparison with STEM -focused high schools , comprehensive high schools don't show a significant difference in providing STEM opportunities for students, which breaks people's assumption that specialized programs must offer more in that area. In comparison with career academy high schools , researchers compared

5096-409: The driving force of the Act was labor shortages, one would expect it to contain processes to identify shortages and time-controlled means to meet them. Surely the 50–25–25 pro-ration of students' time fits the development of some kinds of skills better than others. The ultimate effect of the Act, though never stated explicitly, was to identify certain students and teachers as "vocational", and to protect

5187-399: The early 1900s from the need to "train boys and girls for work", envisioned as national defense strategy in the 1920s, focused on unemployment in the 1930s, now encountered both the need to assist with the war effort during the 1940s, and the need to provide a transition to a peace-time economy. During this period and into the 1960s, States experienced first the burgeoning of industry related to

5278-612: The early years as political parties became pronounced. With the passage of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights , the anti-federalist movement was exhausted. Some activists joined the Anti-Administration Party that James Madison and Thomas Jefferson were forming about 1790–1791 to oppose policies of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton ; it soon became the Democratic-Republican Party or

5369-487: The electorate. Lame duck reforms according to the Twentieth Amendment reduced the power of defeated and retiring members of Congress to wield influence despite their lack of accountability. The Great Depression ushered in President Franklin Roosevelt and strong control by Democrats and historic New Deal policies. Roosevelt 's election in 1932 marked a shift in government power towards

5460-633: The establish a board separate from the State Board of Education. Thus some states had two separate governance education structures. This in turn fostered the notion of vocational schools as separate and distinct from general secondary schools, and of vocational education as separate from "academic" education. This was the case dido act. Smith–Hughes spelled out the Federal Government's intent that vocational teachers should be "...persons who have had adequate vocational experience or contact in

5551-425: The exclusive power of removal , allowing impeachment and removal of the president, federal judges and other federal officers. There have been charges that presidents acting under the doctrine of the unitary executive have assumed important legislative and budgetary powers that should belong to Congress. So-called signing statements are one way in which a president can "tip the balance of power between Congress and

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5642-595: The executive branch. Numerous New Deal initiatives came from the White House rather initiated by Congress. President Roosevelt pushed his agenda in Congress by detailing Executive Branch staff to friendly Senate committees (a practice that ended with the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946). The Democratic Party controlled both houses of Congress for many years. During this time, Republicans and conservative southern Democrats formed

5733-463: The extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation's history. Congress can establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights , fix standards of weights and measures, establish Courts inferior to the Supreme Court , and "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in

5824-564: The fear of communism during the Second Red Scare and conducted televised hearings. In 1960, Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy narrowly won the presidency and power shifted again to the Democrats who dominated both chambers of Congress from 1961 to 1980, and retained a consistent majority in the House from 1955 to 1994. Congress enacted Johnson's Great Society program to fight poverty and hunger. The Watergate Scandal had

5915-412: The first woman of color to reach the Senate in 1993. The second, Mazie Hirono , won in 2013. In 2021, Kamala Harris became the first female President of the Senate , which came with her role as the first female Vice President of the United States . Article One of the Constitution creates and sets forth the structure and most of the powers of Congress. Sections One through Six describe how Congress

6006-402: The internal structure of Congress is important to understand along with its interactions with so-called intermediary institutions such as political parties , civic associations , interest groups , and the mass media . The Congress of the United States serves two distinct purposes that overlap: local representation to the federal government of a congressional district by representatives and

6097-486: The lack of term limits favored incumbent white men, making the widow's succession – in which a woman temporarily took over a seat vacated by the death of her husband – the most common path to Congress for white women. Women candidates began making substantial inroads in the later 20th century, due in part to new political support mechanisms and public awareness of their underrepresentation in Congress. Recruitment and financial support for women candidates were rare until

6188-431: The large-scale shifts in emphasis which have occurred since its original enactment. In fact, these provisions were later augmented and reinforced by subsequent actions. It will be useful to examine briefly how the emphasis on vocational-technical education has been altered through the years. While the policy emphasis at the Federal level moved from the original focus on national defense to the severe unemployment problems in

6279-430: The late 20th century, the media became more important in Congress's work. Analyst Michael Schudson suggested that greater publicity undermined the power of political parties and caused "more roads to open up in Congress for individual representatives to influence decisions". Norman Ornstein suggested that media prominence led to a greater emphasis on the negative and sensational side of Congress, and referred to this as

6370-488: The law. Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress. Congress also has implied powers deriving from the Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause which permit Congress to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". Broad interpretations of this clause and of

6461-441: The legislature since there were two separate chambers. The new government became active in 1789. Political scientist Julian E. Zelizer suggested there were four main congressional eras, with considerable overlap, and included the formative era (1780s–1820s), the partisan era (1830s–1900s), the committee era (1910s–1960s), and the contemporary era (1970–present). Federalists and anti-federalists jostled for power in

6552-508: The line of work..". (Section 12) in which they were to hold classes. Federal funds, as well as State and local funds for vocational education, as specified in the State plans, could be spent on salaries of teachers with vocational experience, but not on salaries of academic teachers. Although the Act’s intent was to avoid "raiding" of vocational funds by other segments of the comprehensive high school ,

6643-421: The mandates contained in the Federal law. Rather than establish state priorities, describe organizational systems, or identify state goals, activities, or accountability mechanisms, the purpose of a state plan was to serve as a contract between the state and Federal governments, assuring adherence to Federal requirements and procedures. The requirement to establish a Board of Vocational Education led some States to

6734-632: The new VEA remained largely the same. In sum, the essential nature of Federal vocational education remained constant from 1917 until 1963, though authorizations for Federal allocations were raised under both the George–Barden Act of 1946 and the National Defense Education Act of 1958. Measured in terms of funding and enrollment, this early form of categorical assistance was successful. In 1917, just before implementation of Smith–Hughes, there were 200,000 vocational students in

6825-584: The other branches of government. In the Plame affair , critics including Representative Henry A. Waxman charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. There have been concerns about congressional oversight of executive actions such as warrantless wiretapping , although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of presidential decisions. Political scientists Ornstein and Mann suggested that oversight functions do not help members of Congress win reelection. Congress also has

6916-597: The process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812 , the Mexican–American War , the Spanish–American War , World War I , and World War II , although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get congressional approval. In the early days after the North Korean invasion of 1950 , President Truman described

7007-703: The ranks of citizens and the nation grew at a rapid pace. The Progressive Era was characterized by strong party leadership in both houses of Congress and calls for reform; sometimes reformers said lobbyists corrupted politics. The position of Speaker of the House became extremely powerful under leaders such as Thomas Reed in 1890 and Joseph Gurney Cannon . By the beginning of the 20th century, party structures and leadership emerged as key organizers of Senate proceedings. A system of seniority, in which long-time members of Congress gained more and more power, encouraged politicians of both parties to seek long terms. Committee chairmen remained influential in both houses until

7098-504: The reforms of the 1970s. Important structural changes included the direct popular election of senators according to the Seventeenth Amendment , ratified on April 8, 1913. Supreme Court decisions based on the Constitution's commerce clause expanded congressional power to regulate the economy. One effect of popular election of senators was to reduce the difference between the House and Senate in terms of their link to

7189-412: The result was to separate the vocational education program from the mainstream of a school’s operations. The key restrictive section of the Act applied, however, not to teachers but to students. Smith–Hughes required that schools or classes giving instruction "to persons who have not entered upon employment shall require that at least half of the time of such instruction shall be given to practical work of

7280-436: The salaries of the latter by reserving for them (exclusively) certain amounts of Federal money matched by state and local contributions. Some critics infer that the authorities saw programs of practical instruction so endangered from a dominant academic elite that they required such protection by Federal law. The result, however, was to segregate academic teachers and students from vocational teachers and students and to strengthen

7371-413: The several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. The Constitution also grants Congress the exclusive power to appropriate funds, and this power of the purse is one of Congress's primary checks on the executive branch. Congress can borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. Generally, the Senate and

7462-507: The social alienation that early critics of these steps had feared. Predictably, vocational teachers emphasized job-specific skills to the almost complete exclusion of theoretical content. One result was that the intellectual development of vocational students tended to be limited at a relatively early age. Another result was that students so trained were ill-equipped to pass skills along in the workplace or to learn new skills when their jobs disappeared through technological change. High schools in

7553-736: The spirit of the Constitution. There have been concerns that presidential authority to cope with financial crises is eclipsing the power of Congress. In 2008, George F. Will called the Capitol building a "tomb for the antiquated idea that the legislative branch matters". The Constitution enumerates the powers of Congress in detail. In addition, other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of African Americans, including voting rights , due process , and equal protection under

7644-489: The students’ engagement in college and career readiness activities as an outcome of adopting students in future preparation. The researchers found that students in schools with high-level fidelity NAF (an organization aid to evaluate and improve schools) have higher engagement than students in comprehensive high school, while students in schools with low or medium fidelity in the NAF don't show a significant difference from students in

7735-466: The training of teachers. ... Such plans shall be submitted by the State Board to the Federal Board of Vocational Education. The State Board shall make an annual report to the Federal Board for Vocational Education ... on the work done in the State and the receipts and expenditures of money under the provisions of this Act." (Section 8) The term "state plan" has been a misnomer from the outset. The plan does not arise from state policy and leadership, but from

7826-410: The war effort, and later, growth in the junior college system and adult education. Influences on vocational education during the 1950s were characterized by light industries springing from new technology, the emergence of the health occupations careers, and the inclusion of work experience as an appropriate part of public education. In addition, social policy at the Federal level led to two amendments to

7917-644: The whole arena of vocational education policy was left pretty much to the vocational education practitioners. There are several reasons for this phenomenon. Historically, vocational-technical education has not been a high priority area for the typical education reformer. Much more attention has been given over the years by education reformers and policy makers to concerns over the quality of preparation for postsecondary education. Several factors contributed to this "benign neglect". Most educators in positions to exercise authority at Federal, State or local levels have little or no experience with vocational education. Additionally,

8008-411: The wishes of the vocational education community, i.e., to protect and expand practical training in secondary schools in the United States against the assumed opposition of the academic elite, the Federal acts were, practically speaking, self-enforcing. Comprehensive high school Comprehensive high schools are the most popular form of public high schools around the world, designed to provide

8099-540: Was a "driving force in American government" and a "remarkably resilient institution". Congress is the "heart and soul of our democracy", according to this view, even though legislators rarely achieve the prestige or name recognition of presidents or Supreme Court justices ; one wrote that "legislators remain ghosts in America's historical imagination." One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played an active role in shaping government policy and

8190-461: Was quickly able to extend the control of students' time to what came to be known as the 50–25–25 rule: fifty percent of the time in shop work; twenty-five percent in closely related subjects, and twenty-five percent in academic course work. This rule became a universal feature of State plans from the 1920s to the early 1960s. The 1917 Act was virtually silent on manpower projections and on centralized assignment of training quotas to school districts. If

8281-511: Was the Rural War Production Training Act which emphasized agriculture related programs. By this time it had become abundantly clear that within vocational-technical education three restricted and restrictive program tracks were in force: a general education effort, a vocational education program, and various job training programs. During the 1940s and 1950s, the program of vocational education which had developed in

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