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167-568: The Thiên Mụ Temple (meaning Temple of the Celestial Lady , Vietnamese: Chùa Thiên Mụ ; also called Linh Mụ Temple ) is a historic temple in the city of Huế in Vietnam . Its iconic seven-story Phước Duyên pagoda is regarded as the unofficial symbol of the city, and the temple has often been the subject of folk rhymes and ca dao about Huế. The temple sits on the Hà Khê hill, in

334-466: A central part of the military. Pigneau and other missionaries acted as business agents for Nguyễn Ánh, purchasing munitions and other military matériel. Pigneau also served as an advisor and de facto foreign minister until his death in 1799. Upon Pigneau's death, Gia Long's funeral oration described the Frenchman as "the most illustrious foreigner ever to appear at the court of Cochinchina". Pigneau

501-464: A daughter of one of his ministers. They had three sons, Nguyễn Phúc Đảm, Nguyen Phuc Dai and Nguyen Phuc Chan, and was posthumously given the title of Empress Thuận Thiên. After his conquest of Vietnam, Gia Long, took his third wife, Lê Ngọc Bình . A daughter of Lê Hiển Tông , the penultimate emperor of the Lê dynasty , she was betrothed by Emperor Quang Trung to his son Quang Toản . After Gia Long defeated

668-407: A degree on control over areas to the north such as Khanh Hoa , Phu Yen and Binh Thuan , their main presence in the northern areas were mainly through naval forces and not concentrated on land occupation. This was because those areas were not very fertile in terms of rice production and were often affected by famines, and occupying the land would have meant an obligation to feed the populace, putting

835-434: A design that mixed Chinese and European specifications, equipped with 14 guns. The Vietnamese learned European naval architecture by dismantling an old European vessel into its components, so that Vietnamese shipbuilders could understand the separate facets of European shipbuilding, before reassembling it. They then applied their newfound knowledge to create replicas of the boats. Nguyễn Ánh studied naval carpentry techniques and

1002-575: A figurehead to lend legitimacy. In 1775, Thuan was forced to share power with Dương by military leaders who supported the Nguyêns. At this time, Nguyễn Ánh was a minor member of the family and did not have any political support among court powerbrokers. However, Thuan lost his position as lord of southern Vietnam and was killed, along with Duong, during the Tây Sơn rebellion led by the brothers Nguyễn Nhạc , Nguyễn Huệ and Nguyễn Lữ in 1777. Nguyễn Ánh

1169-646: A historic tourist attraction. Roughly along the Perfume River from Huế lie myriad other monuments, including the tombs of several emperors, including Minh Mạng , Khải Định , and Tự Đức . Also notable is the Thiên Mụ Temple , the largest pagoda in Huế and the official symbol of the city. A number of French-style buildings lie along the south bank of the Perfume River . Among them are Hue High School for

1336-441: A keen personal interest in fortifications, ordering his French advisors to travel home and bring back books with the latest scientific and technical studies on the subject. The Nguyễn royal palace was built inside the citadel. With the southern region secured, Nguyễn Ánh turned his attention to agricultural reforms. Due to Tây Sơn naval raids on the rice crop via inland waterways, the area suffered chronic rice shortages. Although

1503-482: A key role in the city's socioeconomic development, it also has negative impacts on the environment and natural resource base. For example, services associated with tourism, such as travel, the development of infrastructure and its operation, and the production and consumption of goods, are all energy-intensive. Research by the Climate and Development Knowledge Network has identified traditional 'garden houses' as having

1670-651: A large area from Quy Nhon to Bình Thuận province , thereby weakening the authority and power of the Nguyễn lords. While the war between Tây Sơn rebellion and Nguyễn lord was being fought, the Trịnh lords sent south a massive army and easily captured Phú Xuân in 1775. After the capture of Phú Xuân, the Trịnh lords' general Hoàng Ngũ Phúc made a tactical alliance with Tây Sơn and withdrew almost all troops to Tonkin and left some troops in Phú Xuân. In 1786, Tây Sơn rebellion defeated

1837-550: A law against the flying of religious flags was selectively invoked; the Buddhist flag was banned from display on Vesak while the Vatican flag was displayed to celebrate the anniversary of the consecration of Archbishop Ngô Đình Thục , Diem's brother. The Buddhists defied the ban and a protest that began with a march starting from Từ Đàm Temple to the government broadcasting station was ended when government forces opened fire. As

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2004-465: A minority, including the one in Huế, were built in a four-sided traditional Chinese design. The fortresses were built at Vinh , Thanh Hóa , Bắc Ninh , Hà Tĩnh , Thái Nguyên and Hải Dương in the north, Huế, Quảng Ngãi , Khánh Hòa and Bình Định in the centre, and Vĩnh Long in the Mekong Delta. Construction was at its most intense in the early phase of Gia Long's reign, only one of the 11

2171-539: A perimeter measuring 4,176 meters in a Vauban model. The fortress was bordered on three sides by pre-existing waterways, bolstering its natural defensive capability. Following the construction of the citadel, the Tây Sơn never again attempted to sail down the Saigon River and try to recapture the city, its presence having endowed Nguyễn Ánh with a substantial psychological advantage over his opponents. Nguyễn Ánh took

2338-404: A permanent base in the area and prepare to build up for a decisive power struggle with the Tây Sơn. The area around Saigon, known as Gia Dinh, began to be referred to as its own region, because Nguyễn Ánh's presence was becoming entrenched, distinguishing and associating the area with a political base. Nguyễn Ánh's military was able to consolidate, and a civil service was reestablished. According to

2505-443: A postal service to operate along the highways and public storehouses were built to alleviate starvation in drought-affected years. Gia Long enacted monetary reform and implemented a more socialized agrarian policy. However, the population growth far outstripped that of land clearing and cultivation. There was little emphasis on innovation in agricultural technology, so the improvements in productivity were mainly derived from increasing

2672-504: A result, Buddhist protests were held across the country and steadily grew in size, asking for the signing of a Joint Communiqué to end religious inequality. Thien Mu Pagoda was a major organising point for the Buddhist movement and was often the location of hunger strikes, barricades and protests. In the early 1980s, a person was murdered near the pagoda and the site became the focal point of anti-communist protests, closing traffic around

2839-523: A rule, royal family members were named after a poem written by Minh Mạng, the second emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty . The poem, "Đế hệ thi", has been set as a standard frame to name every generation of the royal family, through which people can know the family order as well as the relationship between royal members. More importantly, the names reflect the essential personality traits that the royal regime would like their offspring to uphold. This name-giving tradition

3006-462: A seal of gilded silver. In 1812, Ang Chan refused a request from his brother Ang Snguon to share power, leading to a rebellion. Siam sent troops to support the rebel prince, hoping to enthrone him and wrest influence from Gia Long over Cambodia. In 1813, Gia Long responded by sending a large military contingent that forced the Siamese and Ang Snguon out of Cambodia. As a result, a Vietnamese garrison

3173-915: A sign of good faith. This came about after Nguyễn Ánh had considered enlisting English, Dutch, Portuguese and Spanish assistance. Pigneau advised against Nguyễn Ánh's original plan to seek Dutch aid from Batavia , fearing that the support of the Protestant Dutch would hinder the advancement of Catholicism. Pigneau left Vietnam in December, arriving in Pondicherry , India in February 1785 with Nguyễn Ánh's royal seal. Nguyễn Ánh had authorized him to make concessions to France in return for military assistance. The French administration in Pondicherry, led by acting governor Coutenceau des Algrains ,

3340-696: A small village between Samsen and Bangpho , and named it Long-kỳ (Thai: Lat Tonpho ). Ánh had stayed in Siam with a contingent of troops until August 1787. His soldiers served in Siam's war against Bodawpaya of Burma (1785–86) . On 18 December 1786, Nguyễn Ánh signed a treaty of alliance with the Portuguese in Bangkok. In the next year, António ( An Tôn Lỗi ), a Portuguese from Goa , came to Bangkok, brought Western soldiers and warships to Ánh. This disgusted

3507-453: A strain on resources. During this four-year period, Nguyễn Ánh sent missions to Siam, Cambodia and south to the Straits of Malacca and purchased more European military equipment. Over time, Nguyễn Ánh gradually reduced the military role of his French allies on the battlefield. In the naval battle at Thi Nai in 1792, Dayot led the Nguyễn naval attack, but by 1801, a seaborne offensive in

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3674-500: A vassal state. Born in Phú Xuân (modern-day Huế , central Vietnam) on 8 February 1762, he also had two other names in his childhood: Nguyễn Phúc Chủng (阮福種) and Nguyễn Phúc Noãn (阮福暖). Nguyễn Ánh was the third son of Nguyễn Phúc Luân and Nguyễn Thị Hoàn . Luan was the second son of Lord Nguyễn Phúc Khoát of southern Vietnam; the first son had already predeceased the incumbent Lord. There are differing accounts on which son

3841-570: A vassal state. Despite this, he was relatively isolationist in outlook towards European powers. Gia Long decided to join the Imperial Chinese Tributary System . He sent an embassy to Qing China and requested to change his country's name to Nam Việt (南越). Gia Long explained that the word Nam Việt derived from An Nam (安南) and Việt Thường (越裳), two toponyms mentioned in ancient Chinese records that were located in northern and southern Vietnam respectively, to symbolize

4008-412: A vestige of its royal cuisine. Hue cuisine is notable for often being very spicy. Hue cuisine has both luxurious and popular rustic dishes. It consists of several distinctive dishes from small and delicate creations, originally made to please the appetites of Nguyen feudal lords, emperors, and their hundreds of concubines and wives. Besides Bún bò Huế , other famous dishes include: Additionally, Hue

4175-506: Is 71.68 km (27.68 sq mi) and the population in 2012 is estimated at 344,581 people. As of 2021, after the territorial expansion, the city has a total area of 265.99 km (102.70 sq mi) and the population is 652,572 people (including those who are not registered residents). Located near Trường Sơn mountain range, Huế city is a plain area in the lower reaches of the Perfume River and Bo River , with an average altitude of 3–4 m above sea level and often flooded when

4342-519: Is also famous for its delicious sweet desserts such as Lotus seeds sweet soups, Lotus seed wrapped in logan sweet soup, Areca flower sweet soup, Grilled pork wrapped in cassava flour sweet soup, and Green sticky rice sweet soup. The imperial court practiced various religions such as Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism. The most important altar was the Esplanade of Sacrifice to the Heaven and Earth , where

4509-497: Is bordered by Quảng Điền district and South China Sea to the north, Hương Thủy town to the south and east, Phú Vang district to the east and Hương Trà town to the west. Located on the two banks of the Hương River , north of Hải Vân Pass , 105 km (65 mi) from Da Nang , 14 km (8.7 mi) from Thuận An Seaport and Phu Bai International Airport and 50 km (31 mi) from Chân Mây Port . The natural area

4676-599: Is from February to August, with high temperatures of 35 to 40 °C (95 to 104 °F). The rainy season is from August to January, with a flood season from October onwards. The average rainy season temperature is 20 °C (68 °F), although it has fallen as low as 9.5 °C (49.1 °F). The highest temperature recorded was 42.2 °C on 27 April 2024, while the lowest was 8.8 °C in January 1934. Hue comprises 36 administrative divisions, including 29 phường ( urban wards ): and 7 xã ( rural communes ): In

4843-852: Is one of three largest in the country along with Bach Mai Hospital in Hanoi and Cho Ray Hospital in Ho Chi Minh City , and is managed by the Ministry of Health. Huế railway station provides a rail connection to major Vietnamese cities, via the North–South railway . Phu Bai International Airport is just south of the city centre. [REDACTED] Geographic data related to Huế at OpenStreetMap Gia Long Gia Long ( Vietnamese: [zaː lawŋ] ( North ) , [jaː lawŋ] ( South ) ; 8 February 1762 – 3 February 1820), born Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (阮福暎) or Nguyễn Ánh ,

5010-417: Is proudly kept alive and nowadays people from Huế's royal family branches (normally considered 'pure' Huế) still have their names taken from the words in the poem. The design of the modern-day áo dài , a Vietnamese national costume , developed from the costumes worn by civilians in Đàng Trong in the 18th century after the costume reform of lord Nguyễn Phúc Khoát . A court historian of the time described

5177-404: Is said to be audible 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) away and has been the subject of many poems and songs, including one by Emperor Thiệu Trị of the Nguyễn dynasty who ruled in the 1840s. In 1714, Chu oversaw another series of major expansions and construction projects, the largest expansion phase in the pagoda's history. The main set of triple gates were erected, in addition to different shrines to

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5344-508: Is where most of their senior military and civil leadership's heritage derived from, but as a result of the Tây Sơn's initial successes, much of this old power base was destroyed and Nguyễn Ánh had to rebuild his support network among southerners, who later became the core of the regime when the Nguyễn dynasty was established. Nguyễn Ánh was sheltered by a Catholic priest Paul Nghi (Phaolô Hồ Văn Nghị) in Rạch Giá . Later, he fled to Hà Tiên on

5511-403: The ngũ thân to create the modern áo dài in the 1920s and 1930s. While the áo dài and nón lá are generally seen as a symbol of Vietnam as a whole, the combination is seen by Vietnamese as being particularly evocative of Hue. Violet-coloured áo dài are especially common in Huế, the color having a special connection to the city's heritage as a former capital. The cuisine of Huế forms

5678-559: The Battle of Huế , the city suffered considerable damage not only to its physical features but also to its reputation from combination of American military bombing of historic buildings held by the North Vietnamese and from the massacre at Huế . After the war's conclusion in 1975, many of the historic features of Huế were neglected because they were seen by the victorious communist regime and some other Vietnamese as "relics from

5845-554: The British East India Company to send John Roberts to Huế. However, Roberts's gifts were turned away and the negotiations for a commercial deal never started. The British then made a request for the exclusive right to trade with Vietnam and the cession of the island of Cham near Faifo , which was rejected, as were further approaches from the Netherlands . Both of these failed attempts were attributed to

6012-548: The Bộ luật Gia Long ( Gia Long Code ) was issued. Although Gia Long claimed that his new system was a mixture of the Le code and Qing dynasty system of China, most scholars regard it as being a near-complete copy of the Qing code. The code was later translated into French by Paul-Louis-Félix Philastre . It focused on strengthening the power and authority of the emperor, his mandarins, and

6179-682: The French colonial period , Hue was in the protectorate of Annam . It remained the seat of the Imperial Palace until 1945, when Emperor Bảo Đại abdicated and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) government was established with its capital at Ha Noi ( Hanoi ), in the north. While Bảo Đại was proclaimed "Head of the State of Vietnam " with the help of the returning French colonialists in 1949 (although not with recognition from

6346-684: The Gulf of Siam . Pigneau hoped that by playing a substantial role in a Nguyễn Ánh victory, he would be in position to lever important concessions for the Catholic Church in Vietnam, helping its expansion in Southeast Asia. In late 1777, the main part of the Tây Sơn army left Saigon to go north and attack the Trịnh lords , who ruled the other half of Vietnam. Nguyễn Ánh stealthily returned to

6513-470: The Nguyễn lords and the clan of the Trịnh lords . The Nguyễn lords chose Thừa Thiên , a northern territory of Thuận Hóa, as their family seat. In 1687 during the reign of Nguyễn lord Nguyễn Phúc Trăn , the construction of a citadel was started in Phú Xuân (later renamed as Huế) a village in Thừa Thiên province. The citadel was a powerful symbol of Nguyễn family rather than a defensive building because

6680-553: The Tripiṭaka canon and the Mahayana sutras, which comprised more than one thousand volumes, and interred them in the pagoda. During the 19th century, the temple was patronised by the emperors of the Nguyễn dynasty, which was founded in 1802 by Emperor Gia Long after his unification of modern Vietnam. His successor Minh Mạng funded further expansion and renovation of the temple. Emperor Thiệu Trị , who succeeded Minh Mạng, erected

6847-577: The Vịnh Mốc tunnels . Most of the hotels, bars, and restaurants for tourists in Hue are located in Pham Ngu Lao, Chu Van An and Vo Thi Sau street, which together form the backpacker district. In the first 11 months of 2012, Hue received 2.4 million visitors, an increase of 24.6% from the same period of 2011. 803,000 of those 2.4 million visitors were foreign guests, an increase of 25.7%. Although tourism plays

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7014-746: The protectorate of Annam during the French Indochina period. It contains a UNESCO -designated site, the Complex of Huế Monuments , which is a popular tourist attraction. Alongside its moat and thick stone walls the complex encompasses the Imperial City of Huế , with palaces and shrines; the Forbidden Purple City, once the emperor's home; and a replica of the Royal Theater. Nearly 4.2 million visitors had visited

7181-568: The 17th and 18th centuries, the Cambodian empire had been in decline and Vietnamese people migrated south into the Mekong Delta , which had previously been Khmer territory. Furthermore, Cambodia had been periodically invaded by both Vietnam and Siam. Cambodia lurched uneasily between both poles of domination as dictated by the internal strife of her two larger neighbors. In 1796, Ang Eng , a pro-Siamese king, had died, leaving Ang Chan , who

7348-641: The European-style vessels were built in the shipyard that Nguyễn Ánh had commissioned in Saigon. He took a deep personal interest in the naval program, directly supervising the work and spending several hours a day at the dockside. One witness noted "One principal tendency of his ambition is to naval science, as a proof of this he has been heard to say he would build ships of the line on the European plan." By 1792, fifteen frigates were under construction, with

7515-594: The Europeans continually urged Nguyễn Ánh to take the initiative and launch bold attacks against Tây Sơn installations. Nguyễn Ánh refused, preferring to proceed slowly, consolidating his gains in one area and strengthening his economic and military base, before attacking another. In the first four years after establishing himself in Saigon in 1788, Nguyễn Ánh focused on tightening his grip on the Gia Dinh area and its productive rice paddies, and although his forces exerted

7682-599: The French Catholic Bishop Pierre Pigneau de Behaine . Pigneau championed Nguyễn Ánh's cause to regain the throne to the French government and managed to recruit volunteers, however that soon fell through. From 1789, Nguyễn Ánh was once again in the ascendancy and began his northward march to defeat the Tây Sơn, reaching the border with the Qing dynasty by 1802, which had previously been under

7849-528: The Gia Long Emperor (Nguyễn Phúc Ánh) when differentiating between Khmer and Vietnamese. Minh Mạng implemented an acculturation integration policy directed at minority non-Vietnamese peoples. Thanh nhân (清人 Qingren ) was used to refer to ethnic Chinese by the Vietnamese while Vietnamese called themselves as Hán nhân (漢人 Hanren ) in Vietnam during the 1800s under Nguyễn rule. During

8016-570: The Gifted , the oldest high school in Vietnam, and Hai Ba Trung High School. The Huế Museum of Royal Fine Arts on 3 Le Truc Street also maintains a collection of various artifacts from the city. In addition to the various touristic attractions in Hue itself, the city also offers day-trips to the Demilitarized Zone lying approximately 70 km (43 mi) north, showing various war settings like The Rockpile , Khe Sanh Combat Base or

8183-402: The Nguyễn emperors was the Imperial City , which occupies a large, walled area on the north side of the Perfume River . Inside the citadel was a forbidden city where only the emperors, concubines, and those close enough to them were granted access; the punishment for trespassing was death. Today, little of the forbidden city remains, though reconstruction efforts are in progress to maintain it as

8350-490: The Nguyễn formed the central part of the empire ( vùng Kinh Kỳ ), with nine provinces, five of which were directly ruled by Gia Long and his mandarins from Huế. The central administration at Huế was divided into six ministries: Public affairs, finance, rites, war, justice, and public works. Each was under a minister, assisted by two deputies and two or three councilors. Each of these ministries had around 70 employees assigned to various units. The heads of these ministries formed

8517-498: The Nguyễn navy. In 1780, in an attempt to strengthen his political status, Nguyễn Ánh proclaimed himself Nguyễn vương ( Nguyễn king or Nguyễn ruler in Vietnamese) with the support of Nhon's Dông Sơn Army. In 1781, Nguyễn Ánh sent further forces to prop up the Cambodian regime against Siamese armies who wanted to reassert their control. Shortly thereafter, Nguyễn Ánh had Nhon brutally murdered. The reason remains unclear, but it

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8684-635: The Phú Xuân Bridge. The communist government responded by arresting monks on the charge of disturbing traffic flow and public order. The temple also houses the Austin motor vehicle in which Thích Quảng Đức was driven to his self-immolation in Saigon in 1963 against the Diem regime. It was the first of a series of self-immolations by members of the Buddhist clergy, which brought the plight of Buddhists to

8851-685: The Red River Delta, the old officials of the Le administration continued in office. In the south, Saigon was the capital of the four provinces of Cochinchina ( tổng trấn Gia Định ), as well as the seat of the military protector. The citadels in the respective cities directly administered their military defense zones. This system allowed Gia Long to reward his leading supporters with highly powerful positions, giving them almost total autonomy in ordinary administrative and legal matters. This system persisted until 1831–32, when his son Minh Mạng centralized

9018-664: The Siamese and Ánh had to refuse the aid from Portuguese. After this incident, Ánh was no longer trusted by the Siamese. Having consolidated their hold on southern Vietnam, the Tây Sơn decided to move north to unify the country. However, the withdrawal of troops from the Gia Dinh garrison weakened their hold on the south. This was compounded by reports that Nguyễn Nhạc was being attacked near Qui Nhơn by his own brother Nguyễn Huệ , and that more Tây Sơn troops were being evacuated from Gia Dinh by their commander Dang Van Tran in order to aid Nguyễn Nhạc. Sensing Tây Sơn vulnerability in

9185-502: The Supreme Council were selected from the high-ranking mandarins of the six ministries and the academies. Gia Long handled the northern and southern regions of Vietnam cautiously, not wanting them to be jarred by rapid centralization after centuries of national division. Tonkin , with the administrative seat of its imperial military protector ( quan tổng trấn ) at Hanoi , had thirteen provinces ( tổng trấn Bắc Thành ), and in

9352-520: The Supreme Council. A treasurer-general and a Chief of the Judicial Service assisted a governor-general, who was in charge of a number of provinces. The provinces were classified into trấn and dinh . These were in turn divided into phủ , huyện and châu . All important matters were examined by the Supreme Council in the presence of Gia Long. The officials tabled their reports for discussion and decision-making. The bureaucrats involved in

9519-432: The Trịnh garrison and occupied Phú Xuân. Under the reign of the emperor Quang Trung , Phú Xuân became the Tây Sơn dynasty capital. In 1802, Nguyen Ánh , a successor of the Nguyễn lords, recaptured Phú Xuân and unified the country. Nguyễn Ánh rebuilt the citadel entirely and made it the Imperial City capital of all of Vietnam. In 1802, Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (later Emperor Gia Long ) succeeded in establishing his control over

9686-555: The Trịnh lords' army could not breach Nguyễn lords' defense in the northern regions of Phú Xuân. In 1744, Phú Xuân officially became the capital of central and southern Vietnam after Nguyễn lord Nguyễn Phúc Khoát proclaimed himself Vo Vương ( Vo King or Martial King in Vietnamese). Among westerners living in the capital at this period was the Portuguese Jesuit João de Loureiro from 1752 onwards. However, Tây Sơn rebellions broke out in 1771 and quickly occupied

9853-411: The Tây Sơn and executed Quang Toan, he took her as his wife. Gia Long had almost 100 concubines who were daughters of his mandarins; Gia Long did not favor polygamy but he did so to secure the loyalty of his inner circle. As Crown Prince Nguyen Canh had died of smallpox during the war against the Tây Sơn, it was assumed that Canh's son would succeed Gia Long as emperor, but in 1816 Nguyễn Phúc Đảm ,

10020-401: The Tây Sơn heartland. Heavy fighting occurred at the fortress of Qui Nhơn until it was captured in 1799 by Nguyen Canh's forces. However, the city was quickly lost and was not regained until 1801. The superior firepower of the improved navy played the decisive role in the ultimate recapture of the city, supporting a large overland attack. With the capture of their stronghold at Qui Nhơn,

10187-614: The Tây Sơn in 1792 and 1793. In 1794, after a successful campaign in the Nha Trang region, Nguyễn Ánh ordered de Puymanel to build a citadel at Duyen Khanh , near the city, instead of retreating south with the seasonal northeasterly breeze. A Nguyen garrison was established there under the command of Nguyễn Ánh's eldest son and heir, Nguyễn Phúc Cảnh , assisted by Pigneau and de Puymanel. The Tây Sơn laid siege to Duyen Khanh in May 1794, but Nguyen forces were able to keep them out. Shortly after

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10354-535: The Tây Sơn naval fleet. Taking advantage of the more favorable situation, Nguyễn Ánh sent a diplomatic mission to Siam to propose a treaty of friendship. This potential pact, however, was derailed in 1779 when the Cambodians rose up against their pro-Siamese leader Ang Non II . Nguyễn Ánh sent Nhon to assist the revolt, which eventually saw Ang Non II defeated decisively and executed. Nhon returned to Saigon with high honor and concentrated his efforts on improving

10521-579: The Tây Sơn's hold on power . This forced Nguyễn Ánh to become a refugee in Siam in 1785. To make matters worse, the Tây Sơn regularly raided the rice-growing areas of the south during the harvesting season, depriving the Nguyễn of their food supply. Nguyễn Ánh eventually came to the conclusion that using Siamese military aid would generate a backlash among the populace, due to prevailing Vietnamese hostility towards Siam. Deflated by his situation, Nguyễn Ánh asked Pigneau to appeal for French aid, and allowed Pigneau to take his son Nguyễn Phúc Cảnh with him as

10688-436: The Tây Sơn. The Tây Sơn's downfall and defeat at the hands of Nguyễn Phúc Ánh was therefore due, at least in part, to the ethnic Chinese support given the Nguyễn. Gia Long's rule was noted for its strict Confucian orthodoxy. Upon toppling the Tây Sơn, he repealed their reforms and reimposed classical Confucian education and civil service systems. He moved the capital from Hanoi in the north to Huế in central Vietnam to reflect

10855-525: The Tây Sơn. In 1803, he founded the National Academy ( Quốc Tử Giám ) at Huế. Its objective was to educate the sons of mandarins and meritorious students in Confucian classical literature. In 1804, Gia Long promulgated edicts establishing similar schools in the provinces, as well as guidelines to regulate their staff and curriculum. He appointed Directors of Education ( quan đốc học ) to oversee

11022-409: The Từ Nhân Pagoda in 1844, which is now known as the Phước Duyên Pagoda. The brick pagoda stands 21 m and is of octagonal shape and has seven stories, each of which is dedicated to a different Buddha. The pagoda has stood there since, overlooking the Perfume River, and has become synonymous with the landscape of Huế and the Perfume River. Its impact is such that it has become the unofficial symbol of

11189-412: The Zen Master Shi Da Shan (Chinese: 釋大汕 ; pinyin: shìdàshān , or the Vietnamese transliteration "Thích Đại Sán"), a member of the Caodong school (Chinese: 曹洞宗 ; pinyin: cáodòngzōng , or the Vietnamese transliteration "Tào Động Tông"), arrived from China. He had been invited to come to Huế as a guest of the Nguyễn Lords to start a Buddhist congregation and oversee its development. He

11356-402: The amount of cultivated farmland. Although the civil war was over, Gia Long decided to add to the two citadels that had been built under the supervision of French officers. Gia Long was convinced of their effectiveness and during his 18-year reign, a further 11 citadels were built throughout the country. The majority were built in the Vauban style, with pentagonal or hexagonal geometry, while

11523-435: The army, public service and distribution of government aid. In the countryside, Catholics were de facto exempt from performing corvée labour and in some rural areas, Catholic priests led private armies against Buddhist villages. Discontent with Diem exploded into mass protest in Huế during the summer of 1963 when nine Buddhists died at the hand of Diệm's army and police on Vesak , the birthday of Gautama Buddha. In May 1963,

11690-431: The attention of the international community. [REDACTED] Media related to Pagoda of the Celestial Lady at Wikimedia Commons Hu%E1%BA%BF Huế ( Vietnamese: [hwě] ) is the capital of Thừa Thiên Huế province in the North Central Coast region of Vietnam , located near the center of Vietnam. The original site was a Cham city known as Kandarpapura and later as Amarendrapura and

11857-576: The capital from Hanoi south to Huế as the country's populace had also shifted south over the preceding centuries, and built up several fortresses and a palace in his new capital. Using French expertise, he modernized Vietnam's defensive capabilities. In deference to the assistance of his French friends, he tolerated the activities of Roman Catholic missionaries, something that became increasingly restricted under his successors. Under his rule, Vietnam strengthened its military dominance in Indochina, expelling Siamese forces from Cambodia and turning it into

12024-405: The captured Tây Sơn leadership who had executed his family in the 1770s. The surviving members of the family and its leading generals and their families were executed. The remains of Quang Trung and his queen were exhumed and desecrated, and his son, the last Tây Sơn monarch Quang Toản was bound to four elephants and torn apart. Gia Long repealed the changes enacted by Quang Trung and reverted to

12191-400: The center of Vietnam, Hue was the royal capital of Vietnam for approximately 150 years (1802–1945), and the royal lifestyle and customs have had a significant impact on the characteristics of the people of Hue. That impact can still be felt today. Historically, the qualities valued by the royal family were reflected in its name-giving customs, which came to be adopted by society at large. As

12358-528: The city in 2019 and many of its historic landmarks are still undergoing restoration. The oldest ruins in Huế belong to the Kingdom of Lâm Ấp , dating back to the 4th century AD. The ruins of its capital, the ancient city of Kandarpapura (lit. 'the city where Śiva burnt Kama'), is now located in Long Tho Hill, three kilometers to the west of the city. Kandarpapura might have only been established during

12525-488: The city's rising stature, Huế is due to become Vietnam's sixth centrally-governed municipality in 2025, annexing the rest of Thừa Thiên Huế province in the process. The city is located in central Vietnam on the banks of the Hương River , just a few miles inland from the South China Sea . It is about 700 km (430 mi) south of Hanoi and about 1,100 km (680 mi) north of Ho Chi Minh City . Huế

12692-427: The city. The temple also contains a statue of a large marble turtle , a symbol of longevity. Beside the tower on either side are structures that record the architectural history of the tower, as well as various poems composed by Thiệu Trị. The temple and its buildings were severely damaged in a cyclone in 1904. Emperor Thành Thái authorised reconstructions in 1907 and it has continued to the current day, although it

12859-711: The communists or the full acceptance of the Vietnamese people), his new capital was Sai Gon ( Saigon ), in the south. The city was also the battleground for the Battle of Huế , which was one of the longest and bloodiest battles of the Vietnam War . During the Republic of Vietnam , Hue, being very near the border between the North and South, was vulnerable in the Vietnam War. In the Tet Offensive of 1968, during

13026-422: The control of the Trịnh lords . Following their defeat, he succeeded in reuniting Vietnam after centuries of internecine feudal warfare, with a greater landmass than ever before, stretching from the Qing's borders down to the Gulf of Siam . Gia Long's rule was noted for its Confucian orthodoxy . He defeated the Tây Sơn rebellion and reinstated the classical Confucian education and civil service system. He moved

13193-499: The country's prosperity. She then vanished after making her prophecy. Upon hearing this, Hoang ordered the construction of a temple at the site, thus the beginning of Thiên Mụ Tự . The Goddess is an adaptation of a pre-existing Cham goddess, Po Nagar. The original temple was simply constructed, then later expanded and refurbished. In 1665, major construction was undertaken by the Nguyễn Lord Nguyễn Phúc Tần . In 1695,

13360-416: The court that if France invested in Nguyễn Ánh and acquired a few fortified positions on the Vietnamese coast in return, then they would have the capability to "dominate the seas of China and of the archipelago", and with it, control of Asian commerce. In November 1787, a treaty of alliance was concluded between France and Cochinchina, the European term for southern Vietnam, in Nguyễn Ánh's name. Pigneau signed

13527-455: The daughter of a Nguyen general. They had two sons, the first being Nguyễn Phúc Chiêu, who died shortly after birth in Phú Quốc island, and later Crown Prince Nguyễn Phúc Cảnh . Following Gia Long's ascension to the throne, she became Empress consort and was given the title of Empress Thừa Thiên posthumously. Around 1781, during the war with the Tây Sơn, he married his second wife Trần Thị Đang ,

13694-553: The doctor Despiau . All became high ranking mandarins and were treated well. They were given 50 bodyguards each, ornate residences and were exempt for having to prostrate before the emperor. Recommendations from French officials in Pondicherry to Napoleon Bonaparte suggesting the re-establishment of diplomatic relations with Vietnam were fruitless due to the preoccupation with war in Europe. However, French merchants from Bordeaux were later able to begin trading with Vietnam after

13861-409: The emphasis being on the military origin of this form of colonization. These were first used during the 15th-century reign of Lê Thánh Tông in the southward expansion of Vietnam. The central government supplied military units with agricultural tools and grain for nourishment and planting. The soldiers were then assigned land to defend, clear and cultivate, and had to pay some of their harvest as tax. In

14028-576: The examinations consisted of the Four Books and Five Classics , which focused on Chinese history leading up to the Song dynasty , while regarding other knowledge as irrelevant. Gia Long promulgated a new legal code to replace the system that had existed since the Hong Duc era of Lê Thánh Tông in the 15th century. Work started in 1811 under a group of scholars led by Nguyễn Văn Thành , and in 1815,

14195-403: The example of the former kings, I have established schools in order that learned and talented men will arise and the state may thus employ them. In 1807, Gia Long opened the first civil service examinations held under the Nguyễn dynasty, staged at regional level. From then on, the training and selection process for the imperial bureaucracy was largely centered on examinations. The curriculum for

14362-482: The feudal regime"; the Communist Party of Vietnam (then Workers' Party of Vietnam) doctrine described the Nguyễn dynasty as "feudal" and "reactionary". With the adoption of liberalizing reforms , however, these hostile policies have been abandoned. Many historic areas of the city are being restored, and the city is quickly developing into a tourism and transportation hub for central Vietnam. In recognition of

14529-575: The fighting occurred in and around the coastal towns of Nha Trang in central Vietnam and Qui Nhơn further to the north in Bình Định Province , the birthplace and stronghold of the Tây Sơn. Nguyễn Ánh began by deploying his expanded and modernized naval fleet in raids against coastal Tây Sơn territory. His fleet left Saigon and sailed northward on an annual basis during June and July, carried by southwesterly winds. The naval offensives were reinforced by infantry campaigns. His fleet would then return south when

14696-482: The further efforts of the Duc de Richelieu. Gia Long abolished all large landholding by princes, nobles, and high officials. He dismantled the 800-year-old practice of paying officials and rewarding or endowing nobles with a portion of the taxes from a village or a group thereof. Existing highways were repaired, and new ones constructed, with the north–south road from Saigon to Lạng Sơn put under restoration. He organized

14863-473: The heart of Central Vietnamese cuisine, but one of the most striking differences is the prominence of vegetarianism in the city. Several all-vegetarian restaurants are scattered in various corners of the city to serve the locals who have a strong tradition of eating a vegetarian meal twice a month, as part of their Buddhist beliefs. Nam Châu Hội Quán is a traditional dining hall. Hue dishes are known for their relatively small serving size with refined presentation,

15030-575: The heavenly realms, the Ngọc Hoàng , the Thập Điện Diêm Vương ( Chữ Hán : 十殿閻羅), halls for preaching dharma , towers for storing sutras , bell towers, drum towers, meditation halls and halls to venerate Avalokiteśvara and the Medicine Buddha and living quarters for the sangha . Chu also organised for the staging of the vassana retreat which occurs annually between the full moon of the fourth and

15197-425: The hierarchy destroyed; taxes were not being collected, lists of communal property had disappeared, proprietary titles were lost, fields abandoned; roads bridges and public granaries had not been maintained; work in the mines had ceased. The administration of justice had been interrupted, every province was a prey to pirates, and violation of law went unpunished, while even the law itself had become uncertain." During

15364-409: The historian Keith Taylor, this was the first time that the southern third of Vietnam was integrated "as a region capable of participating successfully in war and politics among Vietnamese speakers", which could "compete for ascendancy with all the other places inhabited by speakers of the Vietnamese language". A Council of High Officials consisting of military and civil officials was created in 1788, as

15531-401: The importance of their contribution to Gia Long's success is a point of dispute. Earlier scholars asserted that up to 400 Frenchmen enlisted, but more recent work has claimed that less than 100 soldiers were present, along with approximately a dozen officers. After more than a decade of conflict, Nguyễn Ánh had finally managed to gain control of Saigon for long enough to have time to start

15698-739: The influence of the French mandarins. In 1817, the French Prime Minister Armand-Emmanuel du Plessis dispatched the Cybele , a frigate with 52 guns to Tourane (now Da Nang ) to "show French sympathy and to assure Gia Long of the benevolence of the King of France". The captain of the vessel was turned away, ostensibly on grounds of protocol for not carrying a royal letter from the French king. Gia Long kept four French officers in his service after his coronation: Philippe Vannier , Jean-Baptiste Chaigneau , de Forsans and

15865-474: The land was extremely fertile, the region was agriculturally underexploited, having been occupied by Vietnamese settlers only relatively recently. Furthermore, agricultural activities had also been significantly curtailed during the extended warfare with the Tây Sơn. Nguyễn Ánh's agricultural reforms were based around extending to the south a traditional form of agrarian expansion, the đồn điền , which roughly translates as "military settlement" or "military holding",

16032-568: The main hall, there is a statue of Maitreya , flanked by Bồ Tát Văn Thù Sư Lợi ( Manjushri Bodhisattva) and Bồ Tát Phổ Hiền ( Samantabhadra Bodhisattva). During the summer of 1963, Thiên Mụ Temple, like many in South Vietnam , became a hotbed of anti-government protest. South Vietnam's Buddhist majority had long been discontented with the rule of President Ngo Dinh Diem since his rise to power in 1955. Diem had shown strong favouritism towards Catholics and discrimination against Buddhists in

16199-403: The mainland, rejoining his supporters and reclaimed the city of Saigon. He was crucially aided by the efforts of Do Thanh Nhon , a senior Nguyễn Lord commander who had organized an army for him, which was supplemented by Cambodian mercenaries and Chinese pirates. The following year, Nhon expelled additional Tây Sơn troops from the surrounding province of Gia Dinh and inflicted heavy losses on

16366-572: The mainstay of the fleet. By 1794, two European vessels were operating together with 200 Vietnamese boats against the Tây Sơn near Qui Nhơn . In 1799, a British trader by the name of Berry reported that the Nguyễn fleet had departed Saigon along the Saigon River with 100 galleys, 40 junks, 200 smaller boats, and 800 carriers, accompanied by three European sloops. In 1801, one naval division was reported to have included nine European vessels armed with 60 guns, five vessels with 50 guns, 40 with 16 guns, 100 junks, 119 galleys, and 365 smaller boats. Most of

16533-427: The middle and the most notable of the three Tây Sơn brothers, Nguyễn Huệ Quang Trung , who had gained recognition as Emperor of Vietnam by driving the Lê dynasty and China out of northern Vietnam, died suddenly. Nguyễn Ánh took advantage of the situation and attacked northwards. By now, the majority of the original French soldiers, whose number peaked at less than 80 by some estimates, had departed. The majority of

16700-491: The monarch would offer each year prayers to the Heaven and Earth. In Huế, Buddhism enjoyed stronger support than elsewhere in Vietnam, with more monasteries than anywhere else in the country serving as home to the nation's most famous monks. In 1963, Thích Quảng Đức drove from Huế to Saigon to protest anti-Buddhist policies of the South Vietnamese government, setting himself on fire on a Saigon street. Photos of

16867-410: The monsoon ended, on the back of northeasterly winds. The large European wind-powered vessels gave the Nguyễn navy a commanding artillery advantage, as they had a superior range to the Tây Sơn cannons on the coast. Combined with traditional galleys and a crew that was highly regarded for its discipline, skill and bravery, the European-style vessels in the Nguyễn fleet inflicted hundreds of losses against

17034-551: The naming. However, Gia Long copied the Imperial Chinese system, basing it on the Chinese Confucian model and attempting to create a Vietnamese Imperial tributary system. In 1805, Gia Long used " Trung Quốc " (中國) , the very same word and characters used to refer to China, as a name for Vietnam. It was said " Hán di hữu hạn " ( 漢 夷 有 限 , " the Vietnamese and the barbarians must have clear borders " ) by

17201-403: The national government. In his attempts to re-establish a stable administration after centuries of civil war, Gia Long was not regarded as being innovative, preferring the traditional administration framework. When Gia Long unified the country, it was described by Charles Maybon as being chaotic: "The wheels of administration were warped or no longer existed; the cadres of officials were empty,

17368-406: The navy was mainly attributed to budgetary constraints caused by heavy spending on fortifications and transport infrastructures such as roads, dykes, and canals. However, in 1819, a new phase of shipbuilding was launched, with Gia Long personally supervising the dockyards. In order to train and recruit government officials, Gia Long revived the Confucian court examinations that had been abolished by

17535-566: The north, all the way to the Gulf of Siam and the Cà Mau peninsula in the south. Gia Long's then petitioned the Qing dynasty of China for official recognition, which was promptly granted. The French failure to honor the treaty signed by Pigneau meant Vietnam was not bound to cede the territory and trading rights that they had promised. Due to a Tây Sơn massacre of ethnic Chinese, the Nguyễn were subsequently supported by most ethnic Chinese against

17702-441: The north, with Hanoi captured on 22 July 1802. After a quarter-century of continuous fighting, Gia Long had unified these formerly fractious territories, ultimately leading what is now modern Vietnam and elevated his family to a position never previously occupied by any Vietnamese royalty. Vietnam had never before occupied a larger landmass. Gia Long became the first Vietnamese ruler to reign over territory stretching from China in

17869-497: The notion that Luân was the designated heir was based on fact but was propagated by 19th century Nguyễn dynasty historians after Nguyễn Ánh had taken the throne as Gia Long to establish the emperor's legitimacy. According to Choi, Lord Khoát had originally chosen the ninth son, who then died, leaving Loan to install Lord Thuần. At the time, the alternative was the eldest son of the ninth son, Nguyễn Phúc Dương , whom opposition groups later tried unsuccessfully to convince to join them as

18036-497: The old citadel of Phú Xuân into a fortress stronghold . The structure was a square shape of 2.5 km per side. A 9 m rampart was encased with masonry and protected by protruding bastions, each defended by 36 guns. The exterior and interior were flanked and reinforced by a series of moats. The citadel's defenders included an 800-strong elephant troop. The new palace structure, protocol and court dress were all taken directly from Qing dynasty styles, and his palace and fortress

18203-467: The past, a military presence was required because the land had been seized from the conquered indigenous population. Under Nguyễn Ánh's rule, pacification was not usually needed but the basic model remained intact. Settlers were granted fallow land, given agricultural equipment, work animals, and grain. After several years, they were required to pay grain tax. The program greatly reduced the amount of idle, uncultivated land. Large surpluses of grain, taxable by

18370-402: The potential to increase tourist traffic and revenue. Apart from the environmental, economic and cultural benefits provided by garden houses, their promotion could pave the way for other low carbon development initiatives. The Huế Central Hospital , established in 1894, was the first Western hospital in Vietnam . The hospital, providing 2078 beds and occupying 120,000 square meters (30 acres),

18537-436: The prior Confucian orthodoxy. This included restoring the civil service to the forefront of decision making, ahead of the army, and reversed Quang Trung's education reforms, which put science before the study of Confucian literature. Gia Long had many wives, but the most famous consorts are Empress Thừa Thiên, Empress Thuận Thiên, and Consort Lê Ngọc Bình . In 1780, during the war against the Tây Sơn, he married Tống Thị Lan ,

18704-500: The provincial education system and the selection process for the entrance examinations to the National Academy, beginning in 1802. The Directors were assisted by Subordinate and Assistant Directors (phó đốc học or trợ-giáo). Gia Long explained to his court in 1814 that the goal was to create a cadre of classically educated, politically loyal administrators: The schools are where men of talent can be found. Wanting to follow

18871-585: The reign of Kandarpadharma (r. 629–640) and it was named after the king, certainly it may be not the name of the capital of former Lâm Ấp kingdom. Another Champa ruin in the vicinity, the ancient city of Hoa Chau is dated back to the 9th century. In 1306, the King of Champa, Chế Mân offered Vietnam two Cham prefectures, Ô and Lý, in exchange for marriage with a Vietnamese ( Trần dynasty ) princess named Huyền Trân . The Vietnamese King Trần Anh Tông accepted this offer. He took and renamed Ô and Lý prefectures to Thuan prefecture and Hóa prefecture, respectively,

19038-547: The river's headwaters Hương has medium and large rainfall. This plain area is relatively flat, although there are alternating hills and low mountains such as Ngự Bình mountain and Vong Canh Hill. Huế features a tropical monsoon climate ( Am ) under the Köppen climate classification , falling short of a tropical rainforest climate because there is less than 60 millimetres (2.4 in) of rain in March and April. The dry season

19205-556: The royal court for assistance. Arriving at the court of Louis XVI in Versailles in February 1787, Pigneau had difficulty in gathering support for a French expedition in support of Nguyễn Ánh. This was due to the parlous financial state of the country prior to the French Revolution . Pigneau was helped by Pierre Poivre , who had previously been involved in seeking French commercial interests in Vietnam. Pigneau told

19372-410: The rules of dress as follows: Thường phục thì đàn ông, đàn bà dùng áo cổ đứng ngắn tay, cửa ống tay rộng hoặc hẹp tùy tiện. Áo thì hai bên nách trở xuống phải khâu kín liền, không được xẻ mở. Duy đàn ông không muốn mặc áo cổ tròn ống tay hẹp cho tiện khi làm việc thì được phép. Outside court, men and women wear gowns with straight collars and short sleeves. The sleeves are large or small depending on

19539-402: The ruling Lê dynasty in Hanoi , but was the de facto independent ruler of central Vietnam. According to the royal annals, Hoang while touring the vicinity, was told of the local legend in which an old lady, known as Thiên Mụ (literally "celestial lady"), dressed in red and blue sat at the site, rubbing her cheeks. She foretold that a lord would come and erect a pagoda on the hill to pray for

19706-476: The same area was led by Nguyen Van Truong , Vo Duy Nguy and Lê Văn Duyệt , with Chaigneau, Vannier, and de Forsans in supporting positions. The infantry attack on Qui Nhơn in 1793 was conducted, according to Nguyen historiography, in cooperation with "Western soldiers". The same source recorded that by 1801, Nguyen operations in the same area were directed by Vietnamese generals, whereas Chaigneau and Vannier were responsible for organizing supply lines. In 1792,

19873-508: The same salaries in the Nguyễn administration. Nguyễn Ánh used his new Chu Su Naval workshop to improve his inferior navy, which was much smaller than the Tây Sơn fleet and hitherto unable to prevent their rice raids. Nguyễn Ánh had first attempted to acquire modern naval vessels in 1781, when on the advice of Pigneau, he had chartered Portuguese vessels of European design, complete with crew and artillery. This initial experience proved to be disastrous. For reasons that remain unclear, two of

20040-678: The self-immolation became some of the enduring images of the Vietnam War. Thích Nhất Hạnh , a world-famous Zen master who originated from Hue and lived for years in exile including France and the United States, returned to his home town in October 2018 and resided there at the Tu Hieu pagoda until his death in 2022. Huế is well known for its historic monuments, which have earned it a place in UNESCO 's World Heritage Sites . The seat of

20207-468: The seventh lunar month. The tradition had been inaugurated in the time of Gautama Buddha in ancient India to coincide in the rainy season. During this time, monks would stay in one place and pursue their spiritual activities, rather than wandering around and expounding the dharma to the populace, since they were prone to step on living beings during this time due to the water covering their paths. He also organised an expedition to China to bring back copies of

20374-455: The short term, as many southerners who were personally loyal to Nhon broke away and counter-attacked, it also allowed Nguyễn Ánh to gain autonomy and then take steps towards exerting direct control over the remaining local forces of the Dong Son who were willing to work with him. Nguyễn Ánh also benefited from the support of Chau Van Tiep , who had a power base in the central highlands between

20541-446: The siege ended, reinforcements arrived from Saigon and offensive operations against the Tây Sơn duly resumed. The campaign was the first time that the Nguyễn were able to operate in Tây Sơn heartland during an unfavorable season. The defensive success of the citadel was a powerful psychological victory for the Nguyễn, demonstrating their ability to penetrate Tây Sơn territory at any time of the year. The Nguyễn then proceeded to slowly erode

20708-528: The son of his second wife, was appointed instead, and ruled as Minh Mạng. Gia Long chose him for his strong character and his deep aversion to westerners, whereas Canh's lineage had converted to Catholicism and were reluctant to maintain their Confucian traditions such as ancestor worship. Before his accession, Nguyễn Phúc Đảm was reported to have praised the Japanese for having expelled and eradicated Christianity from their country. Gia Long told his son to treat

20875-536: The south, Nguyễn Ánh assembled his forces at home and abroad in preparation for an immediate offensive. Ánh secretly left Siam in the night, leaving a letter in his house, he decided to head for southern Vietnam by boat. As the Vietnamese refugees were preparing to leave, people nearby heard about it and reported it to Phraya Phrakhlang. Phraya Phrakhlang reported it to King Rama I and the Front Palace Maha Sura Singhanat . Sura Singhanat

21042-515: The southern coastal tip of Vietnam, where he met Pigneau de Behaine , a French priest who became his advisor and played a major part in his rise to power. Receiving information from Paul Nghi, Pigneau avoided the Tay Son army in Cambodia, and came back to assist Nguyễn Ánh. They hid in the forest to avoid the pursuit of Tay Son army. Together, they escaped to the island of Pulo Panjang in

21209-580: The southward migration of the population over the preceding centuries. The Emperor built new fortresses and a palace in his new capital. Using French expertise, Gia Long modernized Vietnam's defensive capabilities and, in recognition of the assistance of his French friends, he permitted the activities of Catholic missionaries, something, however, which was less tolerated by his successors. Under Gia Long's rule, Vietnam strengthened its military dominance in Indochina, expelling Siam from Cambodia and turning it into

21376-674: The state, soon resulted. By 1800, the increased agricultural productivity had allowed Nguyễn Ánh to support a sizeable army of more than 30,000 soldiers and a navy of more than 1,200 vessels. The surplus from the state granary was sold to European and Asian traders to facilitate the importation of raw materials for military purposes, in particular iron, bronze, and sulfur. The government also purchased caster sugar from local farmers and traded it for weapons from European manufacturers. The food surplus allowed Nguyễn Ánh to engage in welfare initiatives that improved morale and loyalty among his subjects, thereby increasing his support base. The surplus grain

21543-467: The strongholds of the Nguyễn and the Tây Sơn. In October 1782, the tide shifted again, when forces led by Nguyễn Phúc Mân , Nguyễn Ánh's younger brother, and Chau Van Tiep drove the Tây Sơn out of Saigon. Nguyễn Ánh returned to Saigon, as did Pigneau The hold was tenuous, and a counterattack by the Tây Sơn in early 1783 saw a heavy defeat to the Nguyễn, with Nguyen Man killed in battle. Nguyễn Ánh again fled to Phu Quoc, but this time his hiding place

21710-416: The traditional family unit. In cases of serious crimes, particularly those against the state, collective punishment was meted out to the family of the convict, including the death penalty. Now that Vietnam was unified, the center of gravity of the country moved further south, following centuries of southerly migration and conquest, so Gia Long moved the seat of government from Hanoi to Huế. Gia Long rebuilt

21877-439: The treaty as the "Royal Commissioner of France for Cochinchina". France promised four frigates, 1,650 fully equipped French soldiers and 250 Indian sepoys in return for the cession of Poulo-Condore (Côn Đảo) and Tourane ( Da Nang ), as well as tree trade to the exclusion of all other countries. However, the freedom to spread Christianity was not included. However, Pigneau found that Governor Thomas Conway of Pondicherry

22044-490: The two being often referred collectively to as Thuận Hóa region. In 1592, the Mạc dynasty was forced to flee to Cao Bằng province and the Lê emperors were enthroned as de jure Vietnamese rulers under the leadership of Nguyễn Kim, the leader of Lê dynasty loyalists. Later, Kim was poisoned by a Mạc dynasty general which paved the way for his son-in-law, Trịnh Kiểm , to take over the leadership. Kim's eldest son, Nguyen Uông,

22211-400: The unification of the country. The Qing Jiaqing Emperor of China refused his request because it had an identical name with the ancient kingdom of Nam Việt (Nanyue), and the territory of Nam Việt contained Liangguang which belonged to Qing China at that time. Instead, Jiaqing agreed to change it to Việt Nam (越南). Gia Long's Đại Nam thực lục contains the diplomatic correspondence over

22378-447: The vanquishing of the Tây Sơn was inevitable. In June, the central city of Huế , the former capital of the Nguyễn, fell and Nguyễn Ánh crowned himself emperor, under the reign name Gia Long. A common modern myth about this reign title is that was derived from Gia Định (Saigon) and Thăng Long (Hanoi) to symbolise the unification of northern and southern Vietnam, despite no contemporary evidence supporting this. He then quickly overran

22545-627: The vessels fled in the midst of the battle against the Tây Sơn, while angry Vietnamese soldiers killed the third crew. In 1789, Pigneau returned to Vietnam from Pondicherry with two vessels, which stayed in the Nguyễn service long-term. Over time, Vietnamese sailors replaced the original French and Indian crew under the command of French officers. These vessels became the foundation for an expanded military and merchant Nguyen naval force, with Nguyễn Ánh chartering and purchasing more European vessels to reinforce Vietnamese-built ships. However, traditional Vietnamese-style galleys and small sailing ships remained

22712-426: The war effort. The navy was trained by Jean-Marie Dayot , who supervised the construction of bronze-plated naval vessels. Olivier de Puymanel was responsible for training the army and the construction of fortifications. He introduced European infantry training, formations and tactics while also facilitating various methods of manufacturing and using European-style artillery, thereby making cannonry and projectiles

22879-400: The war era, Nguyễn Ánh had maintained an embryonic bureaucracy in an attempt to prove his leadership ability to the people. Due to the incessant warfare, military officers were generally the most prominent members of his inner circle. This dependency on military backing continued to manifest itself throughout his reign. Vietnam was divided into three administrative regions. The old patrimony of

23046-485: The ward of Hương Long in Huế. It is around 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) from the Citadel of Huế constructed by the first emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty on the site of a pre-existing shrine and sits on the northern bank of the Perfume River . Built in 1601 on the order of the first Nguyễn lords , Nguyễn Hoàng , who at that time was the governor of Thuận Hóa (now known as Huế). The Nguyen Lords were in name, officials of

23213-525: The warlord to join him but after having given his sister to the warlord as a concubine. He eventually succeeded in taking Mỹ Tho , made it the main staging point for his operations, and rebuilt his army. After a hard-fought battle, his soldiers captured Saigon on 7 September 1788. Eventually, Pigneau assembled four vessels to sail to Vietnam from Pondicherry, arriving in Saigon on 24 July 1789. The combined forces helped to consolidate Nguyễn Ánh's hold on southern Vietnam. The exact magnitude of foreign aid and

23380-416: The weather. There are seams on both sides running down from the sleeve, so the gown is not open anywhere. Men may wear a round collar and a short sleeve for more convenience. This outfit evolved into the áo ngũ thân , a type of five-part costume popular in Vietnam in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Inspired by Paris fashions, Nguyễn Cát Tường and other artists associated with Hanoi University redesigned

23547-455: The whole of Vietnam , thereby making Hue the national capital. The second emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty to rule from Huế, reigning from his birthday on 14 February 1820 until his death, on 20 January 1841 was Minh Mạng . He was a younger son of Emperor Gia Long , whose eldest son, Crown Prince Cảnh, had died in 1801. Minh Mạng was well known for his opposition to French involvement in Vietnam, and for his rigid Confucian orthodoxy . During

23714-416: Was a noted Buddhist scholar of the Qing dynasty and was patronised by the ruling Lord Nguyễn Phúc Chu and was appointed as the abbot of the pagoda. In the seventh month of 1696, he returned to China, but conferred bodhisattva vows on Chu. In 1710, Chu funded the casting of a giant bell, which weighs 3,285 kg, and was regarded as one of the most prized cultural relics of its time in Vietnam. The bell

23881-440: Was a tax collection system. In the same year, regulations were passed to force half the male population of Gia Dinh to serve as conscripts, and two years later, a system of military colonies was implemented to bolster the Nguyễn support base across all racial groups, including ethnic Khmers and Chinese. The French officers enlisted by Pigneau helped to train Nguyễn Ánh's armed forces and introduced Western technological expertise to

24048-485: Was also assassinated in order to secure Trịnh Kiểm's authority. Nguyễn Hoàng , another son of Nguyễn Kim , feared a fate like Nguyễn Uông's so he pretended to have a mental illness. He asked his sister Ngoc Bao, who was a wife of Trịnh Kiểm, to entreat Trịnh Kiểm to let Nguyễn Hoàng govern Thuận Hóa, the furthest south region of Vietnam at that time. Because Mạc dynasty loyalists were revolting in Thuận Hóa, and Trịnh Kiểm

24215-422: Was born in 1791. When Gia Long unified Vietnam, Eng was given investiture by Siam in order to hold out Vietnamese influence, but in 1803, a Cambodian mission paid tribute to Vietnam in attempt to placate Gia Long, something that became an annual routine. In 1807, Ang Chan requested formal investiture as a vassal of Gia Long. Gia Long responded by sending an ambassador bearing the book of investiture, together with

24382-408: Was built in the last six years of his rule. De Puymanel and Lebrun left Vietnam before the end of the war, so the forts were designed by Vietnamese engineers who oversaw the construction. The position of Citadel Supervision Officer was created under the Ministry of War and made responsible for the work, underlining the importance that Gia Long placed on fortifications. Gia Long's fortifications program

24549-417: Was buried in the presence of the crown prince, all mandarins of the court, the royal bodyguard of 12,000 men and 40,000 mourners. Following the recapture of Saigon, Nguyễn Ánh consolidated his power base and prepared the destruction of the Tây Sơn. His enemies had regularly raided the south and looted the annual rice harvests, so Nguyễn Ánh was keen to strengthen his defence. One of Nguyễn Ánh's first actions

24716-447: Was busy fighting the Mạc dynasty's forces in northern Vietnam during this time, Ngoc Bao's request was approved, and Nguyễn Hoàng went south. After Hoàng pacified Thuận Hóa, he and his heir Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên secretly made this region loyal to the Nguyễn family; then they rose against the Trịnh lords. Vietnam erupted into a new civil war between two de facto ruling families: the clan of

24883-506: Was conservative in outlook and resolutely opposed intervention in southern Vietnam. To compound the already complex situation, Pigneau was denounced by Spanish Franciscans in the Vatican , and he sought to transfer his political mandate to Portuguese forces. The Portuguese had earlier offered Nguyễn Ánh 56 ships to use against the Tây Sơn. In July 1786, after more than 12 months of fruitless lobbying in Pondicherry, Governor de Cossigny allowed Pigneau to travel back to France to directly ask

25050-405: Was deposited in granaries built along the northward route out of Saigon, following the advance of the Nguyễn army into Tây Sơn territory. This allowed his troops to be fed from southern supplies, rather than eating from the areas that he was attempting to conquer or win over. Newly acquired regions were given tax exemptions, and surrendered Tây Sơn mandarins were appointed to equivalent positions with

25217-471: Was discovered. He managed to escape the pursuing Tây Sơn fleet to Koh-rong island in the Bay of Kompongsom . Again, his hideout was discovered and encircled by the rebel fleet. However, a typhoon hit the area, and he managed to break the naval siege and escape to another island amid the confusion. In early-1784, Nguyễn Ánh went to seek Siamese aid, which was forthcoming, but the extra 20,000 men failed to weaken

25384-632: Was estimated at 300,000 in Tonkin and 60,000 in Cochinchina. However, he expressed dismay at the Catholic condemnation of the traditional ancestor worship , a basic tenet of Vietnamese culture. Gia Long was also known for his disdain for Buddhism , the religion practiced by the majority of the population. Despite its popularity among ladies of the court, Gia Long often restricted the activities of Buddhists. In August 1802, Gia Long retaliated against

25551-429: Was extremely angry, he chased them personally. At dawn, Sura Singhanat saw Ánh's boat at the mouth of the bay. Finally, the Vietnamese escaped successfully. Ánh arrived at Hà Tiên then to Long Xuyên ( Cà Mau ), but he failed in his first attempt to recapture Gia Dinh, having failed to convince the local warlord in the Mekong Delta, Vo Tanh to join his assault. The following year, Nguyễn Ánh finally managed to persuade

25718-658: Was generally dismissive of European commercial overtures. This was part of a policy of trying to maintain friendly relations with every European power by granting favors to none. In 1804, a British delegation attempted to negotiate trading privileges with Vietnam. It was the only offer of its kind until 1822, such was the extent of European disinterest in Asia during the Napoleonic Wars. Gia Long had purchased arms from British firms in Madras and Calcutta on credit, prompting

25885-567: Was intended to be a smaller copy of the Chinese Forbidden City in the 1800s. Gia Long tolerated the Catholic faith of his French allies and permitted unimpeded missionary activities out of respect to his benefactors. The missionary activity was dominated by the Spanish in Tonkin and French in the central and southern regions. At the time of his death, there were six European bishops in Vietnam. The population of Christians

26052-426: Was marred by accusations that the people labored all day and part of the night in all weather conditions, and that as a direct consequence, land went fallow. Complaints of mandarin corruption and oppressive taxation were often leveled at his government. Following his coronation, Gia Long drastically reduced his naval fleet, and by the 1810s, only two of the European-style vessels were still in service. The downsizing of

26219-612: Was permanently installed in the citadel at Phnom Penh , the Cambodian capital. Thereafter, Siam made no attempts to regain control of Cambodia during Gia Long's rule. Napoleon's aims to conquer Vietnam as a base to threaten Company rule in India never materialized, having been preoccupied by vast military ambitions on mainland Europe. However, France remained the only European power with permanent spokesmen in Vietnam during his reign. Pigneau's aborted deal with France allowed Gia Long to keep his country closed to western trade. Gia Long

26386-587: Was postulated that he did so because Nhon's fame and military success was overshadowing him. At the time, Nhon had much, if not dominant power, behind the scenes. According to later Nguyễn dynasty chronicles, Nhon's powers included that of deciding who would receive the death penalty, and allocating budget expenditures. Nhon also refused to allocate money for royal spending. Nhon and his men were also reported to have acted in an abrasive and disrespectful manner to Nguyễn Ánh. The Tây Sơn brothers reportedly broke out in celebration upon hearing of Nhon's execution, as Nhon

26553-490: Was said to be adept at it, and learned navigational theory from the French books that Pigneau translated, particularly Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert 's Encyclopédie . The Saigon shipyard was widely praised by European travelers. Despite his extensive reliance on French officers in matters of military technology, Nguyễn Ánh limited his inner military circle to loyal Vietnamese. The Frenchmen decried his refusal to take their tactical advice. Chaigneau reported that

26720-418: Was still substantially less grand and expansive as its halcyon days of the Nguyễn dynasty before the storm. Today, a tourist facility is also present among the gardens and grounds of the temple, and a stupa has been erected in honour of Hòa Thượng Thích Ðôn Hậu, the abbot of the temple during its reconstruction phase in the 20th century. His holy body is entombed in the stupa, which is a garden of pine trees. In

26887-415: Was the Nguyễn officer whom they feared the most. Large parts of Nhon's supporters rebelled, weakening the Nguyễn army, and within a few months, the Tây Sơn had recaptured Saigon mainly on the back of naval barrages. Nguyễn Ánh was forced to flee to Ha Tien, and then onto the island of Phu Quoc . Meanwhile, some of his forces continued to resist in his absence. While the murder of Nhon weakened Nguyễn Ánh in

27054-474: Was the capital of the Champa Kingdom from 192 to 605. Following the conquest of the city in 1307 by Vietnam, it was renamed to Huế. Huế ( Thuận Hóa ) was the capital of Đàng Trong from 1738 to 1775 and of Vietnam during the Nguyễn dynasty from 1802 to 1945. The city served as the old Imperial City and administrative capital for the Nguyễn dynasty and later functioned as the administrative capital of

27221-423: Was the designated successor. According to one theory, Luân was the designated heir, but a high-ranking mandarin named Trương Phúc Loan changed Khoat's will of succession on his deathbed, and installed Luan's younger brother Nguyễn Phúc Thuần , the sixteenth son, on the throne in 1765. Luan was jailed and died in the 1765, the same year as Thuan's installation. However, the historian Choi Byung Wook claims that

27388-464: Was the founding emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty , the last dynasty of Vietnam . His dynasty would rule the unified territories that constitute modern-day Vietnam until 1945. A nephew of the last Nguyễn lord who ruled over south Vietnam , Nguyễn Ánh was forced into hiding in 1777 as a fifteen-year-old when his family was slain in the Tây Sơn revolt . After several changes of fortune in which his loyalists regained and again lost Saigon , he befriended

27555-427: Was the most senior member of the ruling family to have survived the Tây Sơn victory, which pushed the Nguyễn from their heartland in central Vietnam, southwards towards Saigon and into the Mekong Delta region in the far south. This turn of events changed the nature of the Nguyễn power hierarchy; the family and the first leader Nguyễn Hoàng had originally come from Thanh Hoa Province in northern Vietnam, and this

27722-401: Was to ask the French officers to design and supervise the construction of a modern European-style citadel in Saigon. The citadel was designed by Theodore Lebrun and de Puymanel, with 30,000 people mobilized for its construction in 1790. The townsfolk and the mandarins were punitively taxed for the work and the laborers were so over-worked that they revolted. When finished, the stone citadel had

27889-593: Was unwilling to fulfill the agreement; Conway had been instructed by Paris to determine when to organize the aid, if at all. Pigneau was thus forced to use funds raised in France to enlist French volunteers and mercenaries. He also managed to procure several shipments of arms and munitions from Mauritius and Pondicherry. Meanwhile, the Royal Court of Siam in Bangkok, under King Rama I , warmly welcomed Nguyễn Ánh. The Vietnamese refugees were allowed to build

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