Second Sino-Japanese War
157-696: Taishō period Shōwa period Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups Operation Ichi-Go ( Japanese : 一号作戦 , romanized : Ichi-gō Sakusen , lit. 'Operation Number One') was a campaign of a series of major battles between the Imperial Japanese Army forces and the National Revolutionary Army of the Republic of China , fought from April to December 1944. It consisted of three separate battles in
314-525: A better negotiating position. General Yasuji Okamura was placed in charge of Ichi-Go. By early February, preparations along the Yangtze included repairs to a major bridge and air field maintenance. The IJA mobilized 500,000 troops, 100,000 horses, 1,500 pieces of artillery, 800 tanks, 15,000 mechanised vehicles, and 200 bombers for the offensive. They were supplied with eight months of fuel and two years of ammunition. According to historian Hara Takeshi, it
471-504: A counter-offensive for fall of 1945, called "White Tower" and "Iceman", to recapture the coastal ports in south-west China as routes for Allied aid. The 1958 novel The Mountain Road , by Theodore White , a Time magazine correspondent in China at the time of the offensive, was based on an interview with former OSS Major Frank Gleason, who led a demolition group of American soldiers during
628-1026: A defensive radar network in Cairo. The Cairo meeting was held at a residence of Alexander Comstock Kirk , the American ambassador to Egypt , near the Giza pyramid complex , about 8 miles (13 km) from the centre of Cairo . In addition to the leaders of the three countries, members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff of the United Kingdom and the United States attended the meeting. Chinese generals included General Shang Zhen, Lieutenant General Lin Wei, Lieutenant General Zhou Zhirou, Lieutenant General Yang Xuancheng, Yu Jishi etc. Chiang Kai-shek also invited American Chief of Staff Joseph Warren Stilwell to attend
785-529: A great sense of social confusion in the areas of China that it affected. Chinese Communist guerrillas were able to exploit this confusion to gain influence and control of greater areas of the countryside in the aftermath of Ichi-Go. This along with the aforementioned rapid deterioration of the Nationalist forces, Nationalist unpopularity both internally and abroad, Communist popularity both internally and externally, Kuomintang corruption and other factors allowed
942-523: A major influence in the prewar Seiyūkai cabinets, had become the first commoner to serve as prime minister. He took advantage of long-standing relationships he had throughout the government, won the support of the surviving genrō and the House of Peers, and brought into his cabinet as army minister Tanaka Giichi , who had a greater appreciation of favorable civil-military relations than his predecessors. Nevertheless, major problems confronted Hara: inflation,
1099-573: A massive amphibious landing offensive. It was decided that the Allies, including the ROC National Army at Langga should be committed to the battlefield first, several months before the ROC National Army departed from Yunnan in the spring of 1944. However, Roosevelt did not issue written assurances of naval operations in the Bay of Bengal. On the subject of military aid, Roosevelt agreed to increase
1256-774: A massive amphibious offensive in the Bay of Bengal and to support Chiang in his struggle against imperialism. Both men agreed that the Indochina Peninsula should not be returned to the French as a colony. They also discussed Soviet interests in East Asia, especially the Soviet desire to have access to the sea in north-eastern China. Roosevelt tried to persuade Chiang to negotiate with the communists, and Chiang countered by demanding that Roosevelt obtain assurances from Stalin that he would not interfere with Chiang's relations with
1413-538: A meeting of US Army officers, Marshall made clear his disapproval of Chiang's insistence for the US Air Force to airlift 10,000 tonnes of supplies to China each month despite British and American opposition. He further disapproved of the use of American ground troops, but Roosevelt overruled the military's decision. At a later meeting, Roosevelt promised an early amphibious landing to attack Burma. He also promised Chiang that Operation Tarzan would be supplemented by
1570-546: A meeting of the three leaders. On 1 November, and Roosevelt telegraphed an invitation to Chiang Kai-shek. Stalin noted that the Soviet Union had not declared war on Japan and was not ready to meet with Chiang to avoid angering Japan, because of its non-aggression pact. Chiang was less than willing to meet Stalin, as he was unhappy with the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact and with the Soviet Union's aid to
1727-515: A new order in the Pacific region. Japan's economic problems made a naval buildup nearly impossible and, realizing the need to compete with the United States on an economic rather than a military basis, rapprochement became inevitable. Japan adopted a more neutral attitude toward the civil war in China, dropped efforts to expand its hegemony into China proper , and joined the United States, Britain, and France in encouraging Chinese self-development. In
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#17327759264191884-711: A plan to attack Japan from the Pacific without going through mainland China, and the US military hierarchy doubted the strategic importance of China. Regarding the European Theatre, Churchill and Roosevelt had several disagreements. Churchill wanted to meet Roosevelt alone before the Cairo Conference to discuss the Grand Alliance plan of action in Europe for fear of heavy casualties to British forces, but
2041-681: A preliminary meeting. John Patton Davies, Second Secretary of the US Embassy in Chongqing, sent a memorandum to Roosevelt against the use of US troops to help the British, Dutch, and French rebuild their colonial empires by pointing out the levels of corruption and incompetence of the Chinese National Army and suggesting the value of opening an overland line of communication to China from northern Burma. On Tuesday, November 23,
2198-415: A soldier, as he opposed war films because of their inaccuracy. It is generally believed he made an exception for this film because it was antiwar. Taish%C5%8D period The Taishō era ( 大正時代 , Taishō jidai , [taiɕoː dʑidai] ) was a period in the history of Japan dating from 30 July 1912 to 25 December 1926, coinciding with the reign of Emperor Taishō . The new emperor
2355-636: A stronger ground force, which prevented Chinese troops from being trained at Langga in India, nor agree to equip the army in Yunnan. Stilwell presented a memorandum proposing alternative actions: aid northern Burma; fight for overland lines of communication to China; train and increase the combat power of the Chinese Army; intensify bombing of Japan, Taiwan, and the Philippines; prevent Japanese control of
2512-551: A third power, and miscellaneous other political, economic and military controls, which, if achieved, would have reduced China to a Japanese protectorate. In the face of slow negotiations with the Chinese government, widespread anti-Japanese sentiment in China and international condemnation forced Japan to withdraw the final group of demands and treaties were signed in May of 1915. Japan's hegemony in northern China and other parts of Asia
2669-619: A three-pronged attack against the Empire of Japan, with the British forces spearheading amphibious operations in southern Burma, the Chinese Expeditionary Force joining the British Indian troops to invade northern Burma, and ROC National Army and the U.S. Army attacking eastern Burma together from Yunnan. Operational plans were tasked to General Stilwell. Roosevelt also promised that Operation Tarzan be coupled with
2826-604: Is the key to the entire Asian campaign." That afternoon, a meeting of the British and American Joint Chiefs of Staff was held to discuss plans for an offensive on Burma. Chiang eventually decided not to attend that meeting and was represented by his generals. He arrived at 3:30 p.m. the British and American officials had believed that the Chinese would show up only while the Chiefs of Staff were discussing issues of interest to them. Marshall criticised Chiang for being too keen to acquire US transports. However, he could neither guarantee
2983-502: The Gen'yōsha ( 玄洋社 , "Black Ocean Society", founded in 1881) and its later offshoot, the Kokuryūkai ( 黒竜会 , "Black Dragon Society" or "Amur River Society", founded in 1901) . These groups became active in domestic and foreign politics, helped foment pro-war sentiments, and supported ultra-nationalist causes through the end of World War II . After Japan's victories over China and Russia,
3140-583: The Seiyūkai and the Rikken Minseitō alternated in power. Despite the political realignments and hope for more orderly government, domestic economic crises plagued whichever party held power. Fiscal austerity programs and appeals for public support of such conservative government policies as the Peace Preservation Law—including reminders of the moral obligation to make sacrifices for
3297-763: The Allied expeditionary force sent to Siberia in July 1918 as part of the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War . On October 9, 1916, Terauchi Masatake took over as prime minister from Ōkuma Shigenobu . On November 2, 1917, the Lansing–Ishii Agreement noted the recognition of Japan's interests in China and pledges of keeping an " Open Door Policy " ( 門戸開放政策 ) . From July to September 1918, rice riots erupted due to increasing price of rice. The large scale rioting and collapse of public order led to
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#17327759264193454-616: The Burma campaign , leaving China insufficiently protected. Stilwell was replaced as Chief of Staff to Chiang Kai-shek and commander of the U.S. Forces, China Theater (USFCT) by Major General Albert Wedemeyer . Stilwell's other command responsibilities in the China Burma India Theater were divided up and allocated to other officers. Although Chiang was successful in removing Stilwell, the public relations damage suffered by his Chinese Nationalist Party ( Kuomintang ) regime
3611-658: The Comintern . The Comintern realized the importance of Japan in achieving successful revolution in East Asia and actively worked to form the Japanese Communist Party , which was founded in July 1922. The announced goals of the Japanese Communist Party in 1923 included the unification of the working class as well as farmers, recognition of the Soviet Union, and withdrawal of Japanese troops from Siberia, Sakhalin, China, Korea, and Taiwan. In
3768-681: The First Cairo Conference , was one of 14 summit meetings during World War II , which took place on November 22–26, 1943. The Conference was held at Cairo in Egypt between China, the United Kingdom and the United States. Attended by Chairman Chiang Kai-shek , British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and US President Franklin D. Roosevelt , it outlined the Allied position against the Empire of Japan during World War II and made decisions about post-war Asia . The Conference agenda
3925-612: The Four-Power Treaty on Insular Possessions signed on December 13, 1921, Japan, the United States, Britain, and France agreed to recognize the status quo in the Pacific, and Japan and Britain agreed to formally terminate the Anglo-Japanese Alliance . The Washington Naval Treaty , signed on February 6, 1922, established an international capital ship ratio for the United States, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy (5, 5, 3, 1.75, and 1.75, respectively) and limited
4082-575: The General Election Law in 1925 benefited communist candidates, even though the Japan Communist Party itself was banned. A new Peace Preservation Law in 1928, however, further impeded communist efforts by banning the parties they had infiltrated. The police apparatus of the day was ubiquitous and quite thorough in attempting to control the socialist movement. By 1926, the Japan Communist Party had been forced underground, by
4239-702: The Kingdom of Italy and Nazi Germany surrendered, the British Navy still preferred to field its spare forces in the Pacific Ocean, rather than Burma. Lord Alan Brooke , the British Chief of Staff , was even more contemptuous of China. There was a fundamental difference between the British and the Americans in their post-war expectations. Churchill wanted the post-war world to be dominated by
4396-514: The Meiji Restoration in 1868 had seen not only the fulfillment of many domestic and foreign economic and political objectives—without Japan suffering the colonial fate of other Asian nations—but also a new intellectual ferment, in a time when there was worldwide interest in communism and socialism and an urban proletariat was developing. Universal male suffrage , social welfare , workers' rights , and nonviolent protests were ideals of
4553-584: The Pacific Ocean . Politically, after the Japanese Army conquered Burma, the Burmese became pro-Japanese and anti-British. Roosevelt raised the notion of an independent Burma yet again, but since Burma would cease to be a British colony after the war, the British were wholly uninterested. In October 1942, British and American generals had already reached a preliminary agreement to participate in
4710-492: The Republic of China signed a new treaty, formally renouncing their extraterritoriality in China and upholding China's sovereignty. On January 11, Britain and the United States issued a joint declaration, announcing the abrogation of all unequal treaties against China over the past century. On the other hand, Sino-British relations were not harmonious, as it became apparent that the British sphere of influence in East Asia
4867-525: The Russian Revolution . Wanting to seize the opportunity, the Japanese army planned to occupy Siberia as far west as Lake Baikal . To do so, Japan had to negotiate an agreement with China allowing the transit of Japanese troops through Chinese territory. Although the force was scaled back to avoid antagonizing the United States, more than 70,000 Japanese troops joined the much smaller units of
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5024-621: The Shōwa era . The two kanji characters in Taishō ( 大正 ) were from a passage of the Classical Chinese I Ching : 大亨以正 天之道也 (Translated: "Great prevalence is achieved through rectitude, and this is the Dao of Heaven.") The term could be roughly understood as meaning "great rectitude", or "great righteousness". On 30 July 1912, Emperor Meiji died and Crown Prince Yoshihito succeeded to
5181-482: The 1920s, Japan changed its direction toward a democratic system of government. However, parliamentary government was not rooted deeply enough to withstand the economic and political pressures of the 1930s, during which military leaders became increasingly influential. These shifts in power were made possible by the ambiguity and imprecision of the Meiji Constitution , particularly regarding the position of
5338-571: The Andaman Islands. The Chiefs of Staff then agreed to drive Japan out of Burma and reopen land links with China, with Stilwell conducting the ground attack in the north and Mountbatten commanding the amphibious landing in the south, attacking the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal. The amphibious landing in Burma would be pursued "as soon as possible," but it was not appropriate to set a date. The Southeast Asia Command could propose changes to
5495-481: The Bay of Bengal, and Churchill told Chiang that the navy could not be dispatched to the Indian Ocean until after the defeat of Italy. Churchill further insisted that land operations in northern Burma were not necessarily dependent on naval operations in the Bay of Bengal and that amphibious operations did not affect land operations. Chiang disagreed by pointing out that amphibious operations could attract some of
5652-683: The British Fourteenth Army 's XV Corps to concentrate their men in Chittagong and cross the Maungdaw-Buthidaung line in mid-January and, the following year, to capture the Burmese coast in order to defend Chittagong and occupy Sittwe on the Burmese coast. Three divisions of IV Corps , assembled at Imphal, would then move east with the objective of destroying Japanese lines of communication and advancing to Arak and various parts of Sidon in northern Burma. In March,
5809-421: The British forces at Lashio and Bhamo. In the Bay of Bengal, a massive amphibious offensive would be launched, with 3,000 British and American long-range infiltration troops participating. Lord Mountbatten pointed out that overland communications to China depended on the army in Yunnan operating in conjunction with the British. Stilwell, on the other hand, was optimistic and insisted that they could compensate for
5966-604: The British long-range infiltration force "Chindit" Special Forces would be parachuted into Burma, behind the Japanese lines. The Chinese Expeditionary Force (CEF) in India would cross the Ho Kang Valley and advance eastward into Myitkyina. The Chindit special forces would then support the Chinese forces and occupy Bhamo in April, while the Yunnan Army would begin operations on 15 March and advance to Lashio in April to join
6123-461: The Chinese Army's personnel shortage. The Chinese generals present did not comment on Mountbatten's plans but repeatedly stressed the need to plan for an early counteroffensive against the Japanese in Burma and the reopening of Chinese supply lines. Chiang believed that any offensive on land should be timed with naval operations, because the Japanese were very motivated to defend and reinforce their important position in Burma and would also benefit from
6280-540: The Chinese Communist forces, and not on fighting, and obstructed Stilwell's training program simply because there was no one else in China to lead, except Chiang. Churchill originally only wanted Chiang and his wife to visit the Pyramids as a holiday, while military decisions were to be discussed between him and Roosevelt alone, complaining that the meetings with Chiang were too long and a waste of time. He
6437-482: The Chinese Communists. Chiang asked for a first separate meeting with Roosevelt. If that meeting could not be arranged, Chiang would rather postpone the meeting with the Soviet Union. Thus, the planned meeting was split into two and held in two places instead, Cairo, for Chiang Kai-shek, and Tehran, for Stalin. Churchill, fearing that Roosevelt would favour China and make too many promises that would affect
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6594-624: The Chinese front, specifically the Nationalist forces, General Joseph Stilwell saw Operation Ichi-Go as an opportunity to win his political struggle against Chiang, China's leader, and gain full command of all Chinese armed forces. He was able to convince General George Marshall to have President Franklin D. Roosevelt send an ultimatum to Chiang threatening to end all American aid unless Chiang "at once" placed Stilwell "in unrestricted command of all your forces". Stilwell immediately delivered this letter to Chiang despite pleas from Patrick Hurley , Roosevelt's special envoy in China, to delay delivering
6751-537: The Chinese government, put China still deeper into Japan's debt. Toward the end of the war, Japan increasingly filled orders for its European allies' needed war material, thus helping to diversify the country's industry, increase its exports, and transform Japan from a debtor to a creditor nation for the first time. Japan's power in Asia grew following the collapse of the Imperial Russian government in 1917 after
6908-564: The Chinese provinces of Henan , Hunan and Guangxi . These battles were the Japanese Operation Kogo or Battle of Central Henan, Operation Togo 1 or the Battle of Changheng , and Operation Togo 2 and Togo 3 , or the Battle of Guilin–Liuzhou , respectively. The two primary goals of Ichi-go were to open a land route to French Indochina , and capture air bases in southeast China from which American bombers were attacking
7065-502: The Chinese troops to support the British in their recovery of Burma and suggested for him to be in command all Chinese troops entering Burma along with the Allied Southeast Asian Command. China believed that the counterattack on Burma should be carried out simultaneously in southern and northern Burma and that fighting in southern Burma should be to cut off the enemy's rear and that otherwise attacking from only
7222-457: The Communists to gain victory in the resumed Chinese Civil War after World War II . Historian Hans van de Ven argues that the impact Ichi-Go had on the political situation in China was as important to the post-war world order as Operation Overlord and Operation Bagration were in Europe. In the spring of 1945, the US agreed to train and equip 36 Chinese divisions. China also wanted to withdraw some of its troops from China. China began planning
7379-469: The Emperor in relation to the constitution. By coincidence, Taishō year numbering just happens to be the same as that of the Minguo calendar of the Republic of China, and the Juche calendar of North Korea . To convert any Gregorian calendar year between 1912 and 1926 to Japanese calendar year in Taishō era, subtract 1911 from the year in question. Attribution Cairo Conference The Cairo Conference (codenamed Sextant ), also known as
7536-444: The Empire of Japan from the Republic of China after the September 18 Incident (including the Lushun and Dalian leases), such as Manchuria , Formosa , and the Pescadores , shall be restored to the Republic of China ", "Japan will also be expelled from all other territories which she has taken by violence and greed", and that "Japanese public and private industries in China, as well as Japanese merchant ships, should be fully received by
7693-452: The European Theatre, asked for a meeting with Roosevelt before the Cairo Conference, but Roosevelt feared that such a move would arouse suspicion from China and the Soviet Union and so he decided to attend the Cairo Conference directly. He telegraphed to Churchill to assure that both of them would have another opportunity to discuss privately before meeting with Chiang and Stalin. Roosevelt further invited Churchill and Chiang to meet at Cairo at
7850-420: The European theater. In January 1944, Chiang warned US President Franklin D. Roosevelt that prioritizing Europe would encourage Japan to attack and knock China out of the war. In late-March, China believed a Japanese offensive was "imminent"; the US received corroborating reports from Clarence E. Gauss , the American ambassador to China . China sought to reinforce the defense with Yunnan -based Y Force , which
8007-402: The Generalissimo's basic unwillingness to risk his armies in battle with the Japanese. Atkinson, who had visited Mao Zedong in the communist capital of Yenan , saw his Communist Chinese forces as a democratic movement (after Atkinson visited Mao, his article on his visit was titled Yenan: A Chinese Wonderland City ), and the Nationalists in turn as hopelessly reactionary and corrupt. This view
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#17327759264198164-488: The Japanese advanced slowed approximately 300 miles from Chongqing as it experienced shortages of trained soldiers and materiel . Although Operation Ichi-Go achieved its goals of seizing United States air bases and establishing a potential railway corridor from Manchukuo to Hanoi, it did so too late to impact the result of the broader war. American bombers in Chengdu were moved to the Mariana Islands where, along with bombers from bases in Saipan and Tinian, they could still bomb
8321-514: The Japanese defensive perimeter. Japan decided to attack in Burma and China to improve its position; these became Operation U-Go and Ichi-Go respectively. Ichi-Go corresponded with a Imperial General Staff contingency plan to the loss of the Western Pacific; the plan was for securing an overland rail route through French Indochina and China for raw materials from south-east Asia, which would be used to develop offensives in 1946. The objective for Ichi-Go approved by Emperor Hirohito on 24 January 1944
8478-412: The Japanese flanks. Chiang assigned General Fang Xianjue, whom he trusted, to command the city, A relief force from Guangdong was organized. On 25 June, the Japanese captured a major nearby US air base. Afterwards, the Japanese 68th and 116th Division attacked Hengyang from the west and south. The flooded paddy fields and canals to the west made the use of tanks difficult. To the south were hills. The attack
8635-469: The Japanese home islands. The Japanese also failed to destroy the British and Australian Commando operation, ' Mission 204 ' which had been working with the Chinese. Before the US bases were overrun, the mission had left China and returned to Burma Toward the end of Ichi-Go, ROC 8th War Zone in Guizhou − with five armies and used to contain the Chinese Communists − was redeployed to fight the Japanese. Overextended supply lines and mounting casualties caused
8792-404: The Japanese homeland and shipping. In Japanese the operation was also called Tairiku Datsū Sakusen ( 大陸打通作戦 ), or "Continent Cross-Through Operation", while the Chinese refer to it as the Battle of Henan-Hunan-Guangxi ( simplified Chinese : 豫湘桂会战 ; traditional Chinese : 豫湘桂會戰 ; pinyin : Yù Xīang Guì Huìzhàn ). By early 1944, Allied victories in the Pacific were eroding
8949-427: The Japanese in Burma. As such, no real alliance was formed between the three. In Asia, the primary task of the Allies was to unite the Asian countries and to open up the China Burma India theatre of war. However, there was a disagreement between China and Britain about the restoration of Burma. Burma was strategically important to China, and with the fall of Burma in April 1942, China's last international supply route
9106-413: The Japanese in North China—actually they are covertly or even overtly building themselves up to fight Generalissimo's government forces... The Generalissimo [Chiang Kai-shek] naturally regards these armies as the chief threat to the country and his supremacy... has seen no need to make sincere attempt to arrange at least a truce with them for the duration of the war... No diplomatic genius could have overcome
9263-436: The Japanese to end Ichi-Go. According to Cox, China suffered 750,000 casualties, including soldiers who simply "melted away" and those rendered combat ineffective besides being killed or captured. The poor performance of Chiang Kai-shek 's forces in opposing the Japanese advance became widely viewed as demonstrating Chiang's incompetence. The campaign further weakened the Nationalist economy and government revenues. Throughout
9420-416: The Meiji period also continued. Notable artists, such as Kobayashi Kiyochika , adopted Western painting styles while continuing to work in ukiyo-e ; others, such as Okakura Kakuzō , kept an interest in traditional Japanese painting . Authors such as Mori Ōgai studied in the West, bringing back with them to Japan different insights on human life influenced by developments in the West. The events following
9577-423: The Ryukyu Islands could be left to Japan after the war if they were completely demilitarised. It was agreed between China and the United States that Lushun would be used as a public military port for China and the United States after the war, and that Dalian would become a free port. Within the resolution, there was no mention of interference in the Japanese state of governance. Roosevelt also consulted Chiang on
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#17327759264199734-417: The Soviet Union had signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact with Japan and so found it difficult to do so. The Soviet Union and the United Kingdom hence did not recognise China as a power, but both of them eventually accepted the American proposal to include the Republic of China as a signatory of the Moscow Declaration of 1 November 1943. The declaration by the four powers stated their intentions to fight to
9891-403: The Soviet Union, and the British Navy in the Indian Ocean could be used elsewhere. The United States, however, resolutely opposed action in the eastern Mediterranean. The idea of the Cairo Conference originated from the Moscow Conference, in October 1943, of the foreign ministers of the United Kingdom, the United States, the Republic of China, and the Soviet Union. The United States believed that
10048-528: The Taiwan Strait and the South China Sea; and recover Canton and Hong Kong. He suggested increasing the strength of three Army divisions, moving US troops in India to China after the occupation of northern Burma, and attacking Shanghai and Taiwan if necessary. At the conference, Commander-in-Chief of the Southeast Asia Command Lord Louis Mountbatten presented an outline of a land campaign for Burma by proposing three plans of action: Operation Tarzan, an attack on Burma by British and Chinese forces; Operation Musket,
10205-446: The United Kingdom and the United States, but Roosevelt envisioned a new world in which the European colonialists would grant independence to their colonies and shape Woodrow Wilson 's vision of self-determination for all countries alike. Furthermore, Roosevelt wanted the Four Policemen (the United States, the British Empire, the Soviet Union, and the Republic of China) to guide and guard the post-war world from potential conflicts. That
10362-444: The United States did not want to postpone the counterattack because of Stalin's insistence for the Anglo-Americans to open a second front to relieve the pressure faced by Soviet troops against Germany. Churchill strongly advocated action in the eastern Mediterranean to hold the Germans back so that they could not be drawn into France since if the Allies controlled the eastern Mediterranean, they would not have to go through Iran to support
10519-426: The United States, and left Cairo predicting that "Britain would never sacrifice the slightest interest to help others, … although Roosevelt promised that the navy would act in concert with our army when it disembarked in Burma I know it is impossible, but I trust it... However, regarding the timing of the counter-offensive in Burma, I can conclude that there is no hope of implementation until autumn next year (1944)." He
10676-421: The Western powers' rejection of its bid for a racial equality clause in the peace treaty, Japan emerged as a major actor in international politics at the close of the war. The two-party political system that had been developing in Japan since the turn of the century came of age after World War I, gave rise to the nickname for the period, " Taishō Democracy ". In 1918, Hara Takashi , a protégé of Saionji and
10833-505: The Yangtze bridge would not be usable until May, and that Japanese troop movements in the north were a feint. On 27 April, after the start of Ichi-Go, China received French intelligence from Indochina of the Japanese goal of securing the rail corridor. The intelligence was disregarded as Japanese misinformation to draw forces away from Burma. The Chinese could not independently verify significant Japanese movements in central and southern China. Only 30,000 Japanese troops were detected operating in
10990-402: The Yunnan-Burma highway was China. As such, Britain, which was less than enthusiastic about the Chinese war effort, was not willing to fight for the opening of the Yunnan-Burma highway. After the defeat of Rangoon , Britain lost its enthusiasm for Burma. The British military felt that its navy was needed to recover Burma, but the British Navy was engaged in the Atlantic , the Mediterranean , and
11147-579: The attack on 3 August, broke through the northern wall 7 August, and captured the city by the morning of 8 August. Japanese forced entered Guangxi in early September 1944 and quickly captured United States air bases at Guilin , Liuzhou , and Nanning . The 170,000 Nationalist troops defending northern Guangxi were largely unwilling to fight and units disintegrated. Leaders of the Guangxi Clique like General Bai Chongxi deciding that that neither Guilin nor Liuzhou could be successfully defended and Chinese forces abandoned those cities. In late November 1944,
11304-536: The battle to recover Burma with British and Indian divisions. However, Britain repeatedly tried to overturn the decision afterwards. In August 1943, Churchill and Roosevelt decided at the Quebec Conference , codenamed Quadrant, to establish a new joint " South East Asia Command " with British Field Marshal Lord Mountbatten as Supreme Commander of the Allied forces in the region. He would be directly under
11461-512: The capture of Cape Sumatra; and Operation Buccaneer, an amphibious operation to seize the Andaman Islands located 300 miles south of Rangoon in the Bay of Bengal since the Andaman Islands would threaten Japanese Burma, Thailand, and Malaya and cut off the Japanese supply lines. Of the three options, Churchill was particularly fond of Operation Musket since he hoped to send troops to Achab Island and seize Sumatra in an attempt to recapture Singapore. Operation Tarzan called for four Indian divisions of
11618-526: The city on 25 May. The Japanese pursued Tang's westward retreat as far as the Tong Pass . Combined with an advence north from Wuhan , the Japanese captured the railway. Contemporary Chinese analysis identified additional factors for the collapse of the First War Zone, some of which were related to the general degeneration of the Chinese military. According to one critic, Tang's command and control
11775-534: The coming years, authorities tried to suppress the party, especially after the Toranomon Incident when a radical student under the influence of Japanese Marxist thinkers tried to assassinate Prince Regent Hirohito . The 1925 Peace Preservation Law was a direct response to the perceived "dangerous thoughts" perpetrated by communist and socialist elements in Japan. The liberalization of election laws with
11932-545: The command of the British-American Combined Chiefs of Staff, with the main task of establishing an airlift route through China as soon as possible and sending troops to seize Myanmar and link up with Chinese troops invading from Yunnan. Churchill, however, wanted Britain to defeat Japan by force and to restore Britain's position in her Asian colonies even though he and the British military had no real intention of retaking Rangoon and fighting all
12089-449: The communists' Mao Zedong. Chiang also wanted Stalin to respect Chinese sovereignty in the north-eastern China. On November 26, Soong Mei-ling met Roosevelt to discuss a $ US1 billion loan plan, and Roosevelt immediately agreed. Chiang then met with Admiral Ernest King to finalise plans for a joint counterattack on Burma the following March. In the afternoon, Roosevelt invited the leaders of China and Britain to his residence for tea, where
12246-523: The conference officially began. Chiang, together with Soong and the other Chinese generals, paid an early morning visit to Roosevelt. He then met with the president's representative Patrick Hurley to discuss the Tehran Conference and other issues. At 11:00 a.m., the preliminary session was held with Chiang, Roosevelt, Churchill, and the three men's aides. It was here that Chiang insisted on "strong and powerful naval operations" and that "Burma
12403-564: The conservative forces formed a party of their own in 1913, the Rikken Dōshikai , a party that won a majority in the House over the Seiyūkai in late 1914. On February 12, 1913, Yamamoto Gonnohyōe succeeded Katsura as prime minister . In April 1914, Ōkuma Shigenobu replaced Yamamoto. Crown Prince Yoshihito married Sadako Kujō on 10 May 1900. Their coronation took place on November 11, 1915. World War I permitted Japan, which fought on
12560-494: The context of an overall plan to defeat Japan, but that the overall plan had not been negotiated at all. King stated that to defeat Japan, the main theatre of operations should be in the Pacific, and land operations on the continental Asia were not strictly necessary. Churchill explained that Britain could dispatch large fleets, but no date was set for an amphibious pincer attack. As the US representatives pressured him over amphibious operations, Churchill eventually agreed to land on
12717-540: The earlier politics of compromise. When Saionji Kinmochi tried to cut the military budget, the army minister resigned, bringing down the Rikken Seiyūkai cabinet. Both Yamagata Aritomo and Saionji refused to resume office, and the genrō were unable to find a solution. Public outrage over the military manipulation of the cabinet and the recall of Katsura Tarō for a third term led to still more demands for an end to genrō politics. Despite old guard opposition,
12874-557: The early leftist movement. Government suppression of leftist activities, however, led to more radical leftist action and even more suppression, resulting in the dissolution of the Japan Socialist Party ( 日本社会党 , Nihon Shakaitō ) only a year after its founding and general failure of the socialist movement in 1906. The beginning of the Taishō period was marked by the Taishō political crisis in 1912–13 that interrupted
13031-666: The effectiveness of the Chinese military had "plummeted". Allied strategy affected Chinese preparations. At the Cairo Conference in November 1943, China agreed to major combined operations in Burma on the condition that the Western Allies committed significant resources. No such commitment occurred. A few days later at the Tehran Conference , the Western Allies and the Soviet Union agreed to prioritize
13188-454: The emperor and the state—were attempted as solutions. While the impact of the American panic of October 1929 was still reverberating throughout the world, the Japanese government lifted the gold embargo at the old parity in January 1930. These two blows struck the Japanese economy simultaneously, and the country was plunged into a severe depression. There was a sense of rising discontent that
13345-544: The end of July, there was a food shortage in Hengyang. Chiang did not resupply the city. Stilwell - who controlled Lend-Lease in the Chinese theater - refused Chennault's request to divert 1,000 tons of supplies to Hengyang; according to the United States Army 's official history, Stilwell believed that Chinese politics would prevent the supplies from being used against the Japanese. Five Japanese divisions resumed
13502-526: The end of Terauchi Masatake government. The postwar era brought Japan unprecedented prosperity. Japan went to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference as one of the great military and industrial powers of the world and received official recognition as one of the "Big Five" nations of the new international order. Tokyo was granted a permanent seat on the Council of the League of Nations and the peace treaty confirmed
13659-399: The end until victory and in particular citing their intentions not to sign a separate peace treaty with the enemy, and demanding that all countries fight for the unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany, the tripartite occupation of post-war Germany, and allied cooperation for international peace and security after the war. The United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union agreed to
13816-800: The enemy's air power. British Chief of the Imperial General Staff Alan Brooke, on the other hand, pointed out that if amphibious landings were to be pursued, the landing of the Maharajah in France would have to be postponed. Admiral Ernest King of the US Navy was less enthusiastic about a counteroffensive on Burma and was reluctant to push hard for large-scale operations in the Southeast Asia Command. He pointed out that those operations had to be considered in
13973-537: The establishment of a coalition government in China as well as issues such as British interests in Shanghai and Canton, the use of American warships rather than British warships in subsequent military operations, and the future status of Malaya, Burma, and India. On November 24, Churchill, Mountbatten and Chiang met. Chiang demanded for land operations in northern Burma and amphibious operations to be conducted simultaneously. He expressed support for Operation Tarzan and
14130-433: The flanks once the Japanese became overextended; this tactic had been used successfully before to defend Changsha . According to Jiang, he requested permission to attack as early as 23 and 24 April, but did not receive Chiang's permission until 1 May; by that time the Japanese had advanced too far. Poor communications also hampered the direction of reinforcements to Luoyang. The Japanese encircled Luoyang on 14 May and captured
14287-629: The government of the Republic of China". The Declaration stated that "in due course Korea shall become free and independent", supporting Korean independence after the war. The Cairo Declaration demanded for the first time that Japan must "surrender unconditionally" and return to the Japanese home islands. In the Roosevelt draft, in the sentence "Plan of attack on Japan", it mentions the "attack from China and Southeast Asia" route. Churchill's revised draft deleted this figure. Churchill explained that
14444-575: The growing national debt and the new election laws, which retained the old minimum tax qualifications for voters. Calls were raised for universal suffrage and the dismantling of the old political party network. Students, university professors, and journalists, bolstered by labor unions and inspired by a variety of democratic, socialist, communist, anarchist, and other Western schools of thought, mounted large but orderly public demonstrations in favor of universal male suffrage in 1919 and 1920. New elections brought still another Seiyūkai majority, but barely so. In
14601-507: The growth of the zaibatsu , could Japan hope to become dominant in Asia. The United States, long a source of many imported goods and loans needed for development, was seen as becoming a major impediment to this goal because of its policies of containing Japanese imperialism. An international turning point in military diplomacy was the Washington Conference of 1921–22 , which produced a series of agreements that effected
14758-483: The independence of Korea and wanted to assist in the independence of Vietnam. Roosevelt firmly supported Chiang's efforts to end imperialism in East Asia. On the subject of Europe, Churchill was unable to reach an agreement with Roosevelt, since Chiang and Churchill arrived in Cairo almost at the same time. On December 1, the United States, Britain, and the Republic of China issued the Cairo Declaration. It
14915-590: The influx of Western popular culture together led to the passage of the Peace Preservation Law in 1925, which forbade any change in the political structure or the abolition of private property. In 1921, during the Interwar period , Japan developed and launched the Hōshō , which was the first purpose-designed aircraft carrier in the world. Japan subsequently developed a fleet of aircraft carriers that
15072-512: The interpreter. Soong's chic costumes became one of the focal points of the press. During the meeting, Churchill was said to have visited the Sphinx and the Pyramids with his daughter Sarah Churchill and with Roosevelt. On November 28, Churchill and Roosevelt arrived in Tehran for the Tehran Conference. Militarily, the United States, Great Britain, and the Republic of China resolved to launch
15229-488: The landings in the Bay of Bengal would require the mobilisation of landing ships and would hinder the Normandy landings. Chiang was generally satisfied with the Cairo meeting and the results were "as expected, which is certainly an important achievement in the revolutionary cause." He found Roosevelt's demeanour superb and had the feeling of having met him at first sight. However, he had no high hopes for either Britain or
15386-528: The meeting confirmed the importance of joint action by the four powers, and at the meeting the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the ROC signed a declaration of continued cooperation and issued a declaration on the joint establishment of international institutions after the war. US Secretary of State Cordell Hull lobbied the Soviet Union to include China in the Quadruple Powers, but
15543-571: The meeting. On Saturday, November 20, 1943, Stilwell first arrived in Cairo, and on Sunday, November 21, Chiang arrived with his wife, the First Lady Soong Mei Ling, and with Churchill. Churchill arrived in Alexandria Harbour aboard HMS Wilhelm and then flew to Cairo. Churchill invited Chiang and his wife to dinner and then brought Chiang to the map room to brief him on the status and planning of British forces in
15700-418: The message and work on a deal that would achieve Stilwell's aim in a manner more acceptable to Chiang. Seeing this act as a move toward the complete subjugation of China, a defiant Chiang gave a formal reply in which he said that Stilwell must be replaced immediately and he would welcome any other qualified U.S. general to fill Stilwell's position. In Chiang's view, Stillwell had moved too many Chinese forces into
15857-471: The need to adjust the Japanese economy to postwar circumstances, the influx of foreign ideas, and an emerging labor movement. Prewar solutions were applied by the cabinet to these postwar problems, and little was done to reform the government. Hara worked to ensure a Seiyūkai majority through time-tested methods, such as new election laws and electoral redistricting, and embarked on major government-funded public works programs. The public grew disillusioned with
16014-477: The new infrastructure and supply lines that they had been building. The British, however, believed that land and naval operations could run separately from each other, citing the long distances separating inland Burma from its seas and the time it would take for the British Navy to prepare due to its existing engagements in the Atlantic. That evening, Roosevelt held a banquet for Chiang and Soong. The two spoke of
16171-465: The north would be a waste of manpower. That made China was reluctant to field troops. Meanwhile, the US military had established an island-hopping strategy in the Pacific, the efficacy of which had not yet been tested, but the Allies already had already developed the tendency of ignoring the Chinese Theatre. In October 1943, the British and American Joint Chiefs of Staff began to formulate
16328-643: The north, which suggested a localized effort. The Chinese expected a larger attack in southern China, a belief that persisted into May. The first phase of Ichi-Go, codenamed Kogo, was for capturing the Beijing–Hankou railway in Henan and destroying the ROC's First War Zone. Kogo involved 60,000–70,000 Japanese troops. The First War Zone was commanded by General Jiang Dingwen with General Tang Enbo as deputy. It had only 6000-7000 troops, or 60% to 70% of its authorized strength. USAF General Claire Chennault described
16485-797: The number of transport flights over the Hump Route in the Himalayas to supply China and to execute distant bombardments of Japan, hoping that through incentives, China would strengthen its fight against the enemy. Roosevelt also verbally promised to increase the airlift supply to China to 12,000 tons, and promised that the USAF B-29 Superfortress bombers would bomb Japan from Chinese bases. Roosevelt further verbally pledged to equip and train 90 army divisions for China, equipping 30 Chinese divisions immediately and another 60 divisions later. Politically, Roosevelt and Churchill supported
16642-409: The offensive that were charged with blowing up anything left behind in the retreat that might be of use to Japan. His group ultimately destroyed over 150 bridges and 50,000 tons of munitions, helping slow the Japanese advance. In 1960, it was adapted into a film by the same name starring James Stewart and Lisa Lu , noteworthy for being one of Stewart's few war films and the only one in which he plays
16799-553: The plan of action was finalised for the following March. Chiang met Mountbatten and thanked Roosevelt in person for his promise to lend China money. On November 27, Chiang met with Dwight Eisenhower, the commander-in-chief of the Allied Forces in North Africa, and then left Cairo [10]:3128. Soong wrote to Roosevelt to express Chiang's great gratitude. Roosevelt and Chiang had long and cordial talks, with Soong acting as
16956-512: The planned operations. The US delegation also told Chiang that for the following six months, only 8,900 tonnes of supplies could be flown to China via the Hump route each month. Chiang demanded that the US raise that number to 10,000 tonnes. The US delegation made it clear to Chiang he had to choose between opening the Yunnan-Burma highway and having 10,000 tons of military aid flown in. Chiang
17113-401: The political milieu of the day, there was a proliferation of new parties, including socialist and communist parties. In the midst of this political ferment, Hara was assassinated by a disenchanted railroad worker in 1921. Hara was followed by a succession of nonparty prime ministers and coalition cabinets. Fear of a broader electorate, left-wing power, and the growing social change engendered by
17270-439: The possibility of the abolition of the Japanese imperial system along with the emperor, Hirohito, but Chiang mentioned that the cause of the war was the Japanese warlords, and that the issue could be left to the Japanese people decide for themselves after the war. The Americans, not wanting the French to return to Indochina , had offered Chiang entire control of French Indochina , but he publicly declined. Chiang strongly advocated
17427-601: The previous day to the British-American Joint Chiefs of Staff, who asked that Mountbatten draft a paper to Chiang, asking him to agree in writing to the plan on the counteroffensive of Burma, which were still under discussion. Roosevelt met with Marshall and Stilwell, who indicated that Chiang had agreed to the Burma plan and requested the use American heavy bombers in the Andaman Islands. However, Stilwell pointed out that Chiang had backtracked on his request and Roosevelt promised to pressure Chiang. At
17584-542: The same day leaving two companies in the city. Xue retreated south to Hengyang . The city was defended by 18,000 troops. USAF Fourteenth Air Force , commanded by Chennault, provided limited support; it was also tasked with protecting USAF XX Bomber Command 's bases and supporting the Allied Burma offensive. The defenses included concrete fortifications, and was well provisioned with artillery, anti-tank guns, and supplies. Two large reserve groups were placed to threaten
17741-539: The same time. As security in Cairo was poor, and the meeting place was known to the Axis powers, Roosevelt's advisors had suggested meeting instead in Khartoum or Malta , but neither place could provide suitable accommodation. Churchill insisted on going to Cairo, insisting that local protection by British troops could guarantee their security [11]:216 and sent a brigade of British troops to install anti-aircraft guns and
17898-486: The side of the victorious Allied Powers , to expand its influence in Asia and its territorial holdings in the north equatorial Pacific. Japan declared war on Germany on August 23, 1914, and quickly occupied German-leased territories in China's Shandong and the Mariana , Caroline , and Marshall islands in the north Pacific Ocean. On November 7, Jiaozhou surrendered to Japan. With its Western allies heavily involved in
18055-616: The size and armaments of capital ships already built or under construction. In a move that gave the Japanese Imperial Navy greater freedom in the Pacific Ocean, Washington and London agreed not to build any new military bases between Singapore and Hawaii. The goal of the Nine-Power Treaty also signed on February 6, 1922, by Belgium, China, the Netherlands, and Portugal, along with the original five powers,
18212-496: The summer of 1929 the party leadership had been virtually destroyed, and by 1933 the party had largely disintegrated. Pan-Asianism was characteristic of right-wing politics and conservative militarism since the inception of the Meiji Restoration, contributing greatly to the pro-war politics of the 1870s. Disenchanted former samurai had established patriotic societies and intelligence-gathering organizations, such as
18369-495: The territorial claims of the Republic of China, returning Taiwan and Manchuria to the Republic of China, and deciding to allow Korea to become independent "in due course". The Cairo Declaration, however, made no specific mention of the future of the Ryukyu Islands. China believed that the Ryukyu Islands should be returned to China entirely, but the United Kingdom and the United States disagreed. The United States believed that
18526-449: The territories seized, Japanese forces controlled only the cities, not their surrounding countryside. The increased size of the occupied territory also thinned out the Japanese lines. A great majority of the Chinese forces were able to retreat out of the area, and later come back to attack Japanese positions. As a result, future Japanese attempts to fight into Sichuan , such as in the Battle of West Hunan , ended in failure. All in all, Japan
18683-469: The throne as Emperor of Japan . In his coronation address, the newly enthroned Emperor announced his reign's nengō (era name) Taishō , meaning "great righteousness". The end of the Meiji period was marked by huge government, domestic, and overseas investments and defense programs, nearly exhausted credit, and a lack of foreign reserves to pay debts. The influence of Western culture experienced in
18840-574: The transfer to Japan of Germany's rights in Shandong , a provision that led to anti-Japanese riots and a mass political movement throughout China. Similarly, Germany's former north Pacific islands were put under a Japanese mandate . Japan was also involved in the post-war Allied intervention in Russia and was the last Allied power to withdraw (doing so in 1925). Despite its small role in World War I and
18997-438: The troops as a "poorly disciplined mob". Overall, there were 400,000 Chinese troops in northern China. Kogo opened on 17 April, broke through the defenses by the end of the 18 April, and took Xuchang a week later. Chinese communications was poor and the defense of Luoyang was uncoordinated. Chiang intended to allow the Japanese to close around Luoyang - the city was fortified and contained provisions for weeks - and then attack
19154-593: The two attacking Japanese division had urban warfare training. Japanese bombers attacked the artillery on Yuelu while infantry moved around the city to attack from the south. Zhang's redeployment of troops from the city to reinforce Yuelu disorganized the defense; Chinese staff officers were unable to organize movement over the Xiang, leaving many units "stranded", and unclear orders made many troops believe that they were to retreat. The Japanese took Changsha on 18 June after three days of fighting. The Chinese withdrew from Yuelu
19311-599: The ultra-nationalists concentrated on domestic issues and perceived domestic threats such as socialism and communism. Emerging Chinese nationalism, the victory of the communists in Russia, and the growing presence of the United States in East Asia all worked against Japan's postwar foreign policy interests. The four-year Siberian expedition and activities in China, combined with big domestic spending programs, had depleted Japan's wartime earnings. Only through more competitive business practices, supported by further economic development and industrial modernization, all accommodated by
19468-575: The various theatres of war. Roosevelt crossed the Atlantic on the battleship USS Iowa and arrived in Tunis that day on the Air Force One from Oran (modern-day Algeria) to meet General Eisenhower. That day, Stilwell met with Chiang, Marshall, Hurley, and General Blaine Somerville. Roosevelt arrived on Monday, November 22, and that afternoon, Chiang paid a visit to Roosevelt with Soong and Churchill. That evening, Churchill, Roosevelt, and their aides held
19625-568: The war in Europe, Japan sought further to consolidate its position in China by presenting the Twenty-One Demands (Japanese: 対華二十一ヶ条要求 ; Chinese: 二十一条 ) to the Government in January 1915. Besides expanding its control over German holdings, Manchuria and Inner Mongolia , Japan also sought joint ownership of a major mining and metallurgical complex in central China, prohibitions on China's ceding or leasing any coastal areas to
19782-534: The war, but especially after the Ichigo campaign, the Nationalist government could not pay its bills. Because of the Nationalists' increasing inability to fund the military, Nationalist authorities overlooked military corruption and smuggling. The Nationalist army increasingly turned to raiding villages to press-gang peasants into service and force marching them to assigned units. With the rapid deterioration of
19939-545: The way to China. Eventually, he agreed reluctantly when he was prompted by the Americans to mobilise the British Navy to move east from Europe in preparation for a counterattack on Burma. On October 2, Mountbatten went to Chongqing with the Quebec Resolution to present it to Chiang Kai-shek with a secret letter from Churchill that specifically mentioned that military action in southern Burma would depend on Chinese military action in northern Burma. Mountbatten wanted
20096-452: Was "the largest military operation carried out in the history of the Japanese army." The Chinese economy started collapsing in 1941. China entered the war in 1937 with a primarily agrarian economy and quickly lost much of its industrial capacity to the Japanese. Maintaining the forces needed to stay in the war imposed an unsustainable burden on an economy further weakened by blockade, shortages of staple goods, poor weather, and inflation; there
20253-511: Was Togo 1 with the objective of securing the Guangzhou–Hankou railway from Wuhan to Hengyang . Togo 1 started on 27 May and involved 200,000 Japanese troops advancing south from Wuhan to Changsha. Central China was defended by another 400,000 troops. The ROC's Ninth War Zone, commanded by General Xue Yue , defended Changsha; it had held the city against three Japanese campaigns from 1939 to 1942; as in those engagements, Ninth War Zone strategy
20410-583: Was a fighting withdrawal to the city combined with scorched earth . Togo 1 was much larger than the previous campaigns, advancing in three - rather than one - columns over a 150 kilometer-wide front; it was also adequately supplied. On 29 May, the ROC Military Affairs Commission ordered Changsha to be held to defend USAF air bases and maintain American confidence; the option of abandoning railway and retreating south-east to Guilin
20567-469: Was a sickly man, which prompted the shift in political power from the old oligarchic group of elder statesmen (or genrō ) to the Imperial Diet of Japan and the democratic parties . Thus, the era is considered the time of the liberal movement known as Taishō Democracy ; it is usually distinguished from the preceding chaotic Meiji era and the following militaristic -driven first part of
20724-543: Was also prejudiced against China and did not want it to become a world power. Politically, the United Kingdom was both suspicious and contemptuous of China to the point of hoping to isolate it. The British feared that China's strong independence from Western powers could influence independence movements in its Asian colonies , such as India , where discontent was already brewing. They were therefore reluctant to spend material or troops to assist China. Even if both
20881-430: Was also told that the US military could not provide any more transport or aircraft. However, Chiang continued to demand for the US to provide more transport planes and to commence large-scale operations to supply China. On that same day, British Foreign Minister Anthony Eden met with former Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Tsung-Hui. On the afternoon of November 25, Mountbatten reported the results of his talks with Chiang
21038-598: Was also wary of the American decision of wanting the Soviet Union to get involved in the war against Japan. To show his appreciation to his wife the first lady, Soong Mei-ling, who assisted him so much in the conference, Chiang awarded her the Order of the Blue Sky and White Sun upon his return to China. Roosevelt, partly influenced by Stilwell, felt that the Chinese Nationalist army was only intent on spying on
21195-576: Was blocked, the only available supply route now being the 500-mile airlift, Hump route, over the Himalayas . The British wanted to concentrate all their forces in Europe and attached far less importance to the Far East than to the European theatre of war. The recovery of Burma was only a political affair for Britain, not a matter of immediate interest, and the only real beneficiary from the opening of
21352-418: Was crumbling. In 1942, the Chinese government was both surprised and angry when the British did not agree to the Chinese National Army's military interference in Burma (now Myanmar). China wanted to end imperialism, but British imperialism had a long history. Churchill also held on to the conservative British colonialist mindset and refused to believe that Asians could unite and fight for an Allied victory He
21509-434: Was earmarked for Burma; Y Force was an American trained and equipped National Revolutionary Army (NRA) unit and some of the best troops available to China. In early April, the US threatened to halt Lend-Lease to China if Y Force was withheld from Stilwell in Burma. Ultimately, Y Force joined the Allied campaign in Burma in mid-May as Ichi-Go was underway. Chinese intelligence also misassessed indicators. It estimated that
21666-519: Was facilitated through other international agreements. One with Russia in 1916 helped further secure Japan's influence in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia, and agreements with France, Britain, and the United States in 1917 recognized Japan's territorial gains in China and the north Pacific. The Nishihara Loans (named after Nishihara Kamezo, Tokyo's representative in Beijing) of 1917 and 1918, while aiding
21823-431: Was friendlier than Chiang expected, and Chiang proclaimed that he (Churchill) was "far-sighted and sophisticated, which is rare among modern statesmen". Churchill, on the other hand, felt that Chiang was "calm, poised and agile, … at the height of his fame and power." The British Chief of Staff, Alan Brooke, felt that Chiang was shrewd and cunning, and was determined to take advantage of the bargain despite failing to grasp
21980-411: Was halted with heavy casualties on both sides. The Japanese paused to reinforce their air forces and resupply. On 11 July, after five days of heavy fighting, the Chinese fell back to another line. The Japanese paused again to bring up reinforcements of one division and several brigades. The Japanese sought to destroy Chinese reserves to reduce the defender's morale. Air attack destroyed much of the city. By
22137-458: Was heightened with the assault upon Rikken Minseitō prime minister Osachi Hamaguchi in 1930. Though Hamaguchi survived the attack and tried to continue in office despite the severity of his wounds, he was forced to resign the following year and died not long afterwards. The victory of the Bolsheviks in Russia in 1922 and their hopes for a world revolution led to the establishment of
22294-532: Was irreparable. Right before Stilwell's departure, New York Times war correspondent Brooks Atkinson interviewed him in Chongqing and wrote: The decision to relieve General Stilwell represents the political triumph of a moribund, anti-democratic regime that is more concerned with maintaining its political supremacy than in driving the Japanese out of China. The Chinese Communists... have good armies that they are claiming to be fighting guerrilla warfare against
22451-528: Was necessary for victory. After the attack on Pearl Harbor , the Japanese Empire took control of Southeast Asia , and Burma became the only area in which the Chinese, British, and American military forces could jointly fight the Japanese. Each of their forces were then under their own command and rarely conducted joint military operations. Furthermore, the British commander in India and Chiang Kai-shek had conflicting views on how to counterattack
22608-437: Was not any closer in defeating China after this operation, and the constant defeats the Japanese suffered in the Pacific and Burma meant that Japan never got the time and resources needed to achieve final victory over China. The Japanese suffered 11,742 KIAs by mid-November, and the number of soldiers that died of illness was more than twice this. The total death toll was about 100,000 by the end of 1944. Operation Ichi-Go created
22765-586: Was of great political and strategic significance to China. Although many of the resolutions and promises made at the conference were not implemented, and the plan of action was repeatedly postponed and changed, the aim of a joint Chinese, British, and American counter-attack on Burma was eventually achieved. After the outbreak of the Pacific War , the British Empire , the United States , and
22922-474: Was partly due to the rise of the Soviet Union , as US military experts became increasingly worried of the Soviet Union losing or making peace with Nazi Germany , since that meant Britain would be defeated as well. The US was not confident of winning the war even if it had mobilised all its forces into the European battlefield. Hence, the US military believed that consolidating relations with the Soviet Union
23079-630: Was poor and he abandoned his army; Tang was generally seen to have been in effective control of the First War Zone. The local population - alienated by wartime deprivation, state corruption, and the First War Zone's aggressive requisitions - also withheld support. Incidents included civilians attacking Chinese troops, stealing abandoned weapons, and refusing to obey orders to destroy highways. According to American reports, Kogo met only "token resistance". Theodore H. White observed Chinese officers neglecting their duties and that within three weeks "a Chinese army of 300,000 men had ceased to exist." The next phase
23236-529: Was rejected. Chiang refused to send supplies to Changsha because he believed Xue was disloyal. The Japanese reached Changsha in early June. The city was defended by three understrength Chinese divisions commanded by General Zhang Deneng; two of the divisions and the artillery were on Yuelu Mountain south of the city across the Xiang River . Unlike the previous campaigns, it was the Chinese who were outnumbered with 10,000 troops against 30,000 Japanese. One of
23393-424: Was released in a Cairo Communiqué through radio on 1 December 1943. The declaration was drafted by Harry Hopkins, Roosevelt's special secretary, amended by Roosevelt and revised by Churchill before being decided upon. The Cairo Declaration stated that the purpose of the war was to stop and punish Japanese aggression and reaffirm China's status as one of the four powers, stating that "the territories occupied by
23550-646: Was second to none. Unstable coalitions and divisiveness in the Diet led the Kenseikai ( 憲政会 , Constitutional Government Association) and the Seiyū Hontō ( 政友本党 , True Seiyūkai ) to merge as the Rikken Minseitō ( 立憲民政党 , Constitutional Democratic Party) in 1927. The Rikken Minseitō platform was committed to the parliamentary system, democratic politics, and world peace. Thereafter, until 1932,
23707-401: Was shared by many U.S. journalists in China at the time, but due to pro-Chiang Allied press censorship, it was not as well known to their readers until Stilwell's recall and the ensuing anti-Chiang coverage forced it into the open. The Japanese successes in Operation Ichi-Go had a limited effect on the war. The U.S. could still bomb the Japanese homeland from Saipan and other Pacific bases. In
23864-428: Was the neutralization of USAF bases in China, particularly the XX Bomber Command bases near Chengdu , Sichuan . China Expeditionary Army (CEA), commanded by General Shunroku Hata , expanded the objectives in its operational planning to include securing overland routes and neutralizing China by destroying Chinese forces. Ichi-Go may also have been intended to force the Allies to open peace negotiations, and give Japan
24021-470: Was to formulate a strategy to counterattack the Empire of Japan , make arrangements for the post-war international situation and coordinate the counter-attack on Burma and the aid to China . The Cairo Declaration , issued after the conference, demanded Japan's unconditional surrender , the return to China of all occupied lands, and the shaping of a new post-war East Asia . The Cairo Conference established China 's status as one of four world powers, which
24178-601: Was to prevent a war in the Pacific. The signatories agreed to respect China's independence and integrity, not to interfere in Chinese attempts to establish a stable government, to refrain from seeking special privileges in China or threatening the positions of other nations there, to support a policy of equal opportunity for commerce and industry of all nations in China, and to reexamine extraterritoriality and tariff autonomy. Japan also agreed to withdraw its troops from Shandong , relinquishing all but purely economic rights there, and to evacuate its troops from Siberia. Overall, during
24335-477: Was unhappy with the fact that Roosevelt took so long to confer with Chiang, saying that "the talks between British and American personnel were disturbed and distressingly confused by Chinese matters. … Chinese affairs, which had been of the least importance in Cairo, have taken precedence." The discussions between the British and American advisors were interrupted by Chinese matters, which were long and complicated and not important at all. However, Churchill's attitude
24492-407: Was widespread famine from 1942. The government responded to the economic pressure, reduced Japanese activity after December 1941, and the lack of offensive capability by encouraging the military to produce its own food. Some troops went further by entering industry and smuggling. The self-sufficiency drive and the lack of military action reduced military prepardness and increased corruption. By Ichi-Go,
24649-418: Was willing to include troops from Langga and Yunnan, but he insisted for it to be coupled with a massive naval operation in the Bay of Bengal to establish air and sea superiority for the operation to succeed. The problem with the operation was that the troops lacked the tools for amphibious landing operations. Although the British supported Operation Tarzan, they were not keen on a large-scale naval offensive in
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