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88-633: On 30 March 1962, the Soviet Union and China signed a technology transference arrangement pertaining to the MiG-21. Allegedly, while various kits, components, completed aircraft and associated documents were delivered to the Shenyang Aircraft Factory , the design documentation was incomplete, and Chinese designers made efforts to reverse engineer the aircraft. While the two aircraft are greatly similar, areas of difference include

176-496: A waterwheel to power the bellows of a blast furnace producing cast iron . Zhang Heng was the first to employ hydraulics to provide motive power in rotating an armillary sphere for astronomical observation . In ancient Sri Lanka, hydraulics were widely used in the ancient kingdoms of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa . The discovery of the principle of the valve tower, or valve pit, (Bisokotuwa in Sinhalese) for regulating

264-454: A Soviet military academy graduate, was dispatched to Moscow immediately; the Chinese delegation was given three days to visit the MiG-21's production facility, which was previously off-limits to foreigners. The visit's authorization was personally given by Nikita Khrushchev, and on 30 March 1962, the technology transfer deal was signed. However, given the state of political relations between

352-619: A consequence, full-scale production of the J-7 was only truly achieved during the 1980s, by which time the original aircraft design was showing its age. By the 1980s, quantity production of the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon fighter was well underway in the United States ; this relatively-affordable single-engined western fighter was considerably more agile than the J-7, even with the former carrying

440-548: A continuous pipeline of new inventions and technologies from within government laboratories. Through legislation including the Bayh–Dole Act , Congress encourages the private sector to use those technologies with commercial potential through technology transfer mechanisms such as Cooperative Research and Development Agreements, Patent License Agreements, Educational Partnership Agreements, and state/local government partnerships. The term "partnership intermediary" means an agency of

528-495: A federal laboratory, including state programs receiving funds under cooperative agreements entered into under section 5121 of the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988 (15 USC § 2781). Technology transfer had a direct impact on contributing to global public health issues, by enabling global access to COVID-19 vaccines . During 2021, vaccine developers concluded over 200 technology transfer agreements. One example

616-478: A greater payload. In 1987, the J-7E was introduced, having a greatly improved wing, among other improvements. It was roughly 45% more maneuverable, and its takeoff and landing performance was greatly increased. It was also equipped with a helmet mounted sight, as well as being the first MiG-21 variant to be equipped with HOTAS and a multipurpose display. Many of the electronic components were British in origin, such as

704-768: A ground radar. Two F-7s were sent to bomb two rebel airstrips in the Mullaitivu and Kilinochchi areas, while the third reportedly intercepted one Zlín-143. According to the Sri Lankan government, the rebel-flown aircraft was shot down by the chasing F-7G using an air-to-air missile, as it was returning to Mullaitivu after a bombing run against Vavuniya Airport . Data from Jane's All The World's Aircraft 2003–2004 General characteristics Performance Armament Avionics Related development Technology transfer Technology transfer ( TT ), also called transfer of technology ( TOT ),

792-402: A large scale to prospect for and then extract metal ores . They used lead widely in plumbing systems for domestic and public supply, such as feeding thermae . Hydraulic mining was used in the gold-fields of northern Spain, which was conquered by Augustus in 25 BC. The alluvial gold-mine of Las Medulas was one of the largest of their mines. At least seven long aqueducts worked it, and

880-423: A marked increase in technology transfer intermediaries specialized in their field since 1980, stimulated in large part by the Bayh–Dole Act and equivalent legislation in other countries, which provided additional incentives for research exploitation. Due to the increasing focus on technology transfer there are several forms of intermediary institutions at work in this sector, from TTOs to IP 'trolls' that act outside

968-515: A mid-air collision during a rehearsal of an aerial display for the 58th anniversary of Nigeria's independence. During the lengthy Second Sudanese Civil War , Sudan procured a number of F-7s. In November 1993, it was reported that Iran had allegedly financed Sudan's purchase of around 20 Chinese ground-attack aircraft, having pledged $ 17 million in financial aid to the Sudanese government and arranged for $ 300 million in Chinese arms to be delivered to

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1056-531: A n environment, in which commercialization partners (industrial sponsors, consultants, non-profit organizations, SMEs, governments) and research stakeholders (researchers, technicians, students, visiting researchers, etc.) can access and share knowledge, technology and IP. National IP strategies are measures taken by a government to realize its IP policy objectives. A research result may be of scientific and commercial interest, but patents are normally only issued for practical processes, and so someone—not necessarily

1144-816: A popular vehicle of commercialization in [[Canada, where the rate of licensing of Canadian university research remains far below that of the US. Scholars Jeffrey Stoff and Alex Joske have argued that the Chinese Communist Party 's united front "influence apparatus intersects with or directly supports its global technology transfer apparatus." Many universities and research institutions, and governmental organizations now have an Office of Technology Transfer (TTO, also known as "Tech Transfer" or "TechXfer") dedicated to identifying research that has potential commercial interest and strategies for how to exploit it. Technology Transfer Offices are usually created within

1232-405: A range of services, including training, brokering and financing. Intellectual Property marketplaces are Internet-based platforms that allow innovators to connect with potential partners and/or clients. For example, online platform WIPO GREEN enable collaborations in specific areas of knowledge transfer and facilitate matchmaking between technology providers and technology seekers. There has been

1320-517: A reciprocating device with hinged valves. The earliest programmable machines were water-powered devices developed in the Muslim world. A music sequencer , a programmable musical instrument , was the earliest type of programmable machine. The first music sequencer was an automated water-powered flute player invented by the Banu Musa brothers, described in their Book of Ingenious Devices , in

1408-602: A state or local government—or a nonprofit entity owned, chartered, funded, or operated by or on behalf of a state or local government—that assists, counsels, advises, evaluates, or otherwise cooperates with small business firms; institutions of higher education defined in section 201(a) of the Higher Education Act of 1965 (20 USC § 1141 [a]); or educational institutions within the meaning of section 2194 of Title 10, United States Code, that need or can make demonstrably productive use of technology-related assistance from

1496-750: A university in order to manage IP assets of the university, and the transfer of knowledge and technology to industry. Sometimes, their mandate includes any interaction or contractual relation with the private sector, or other responsibilities, depending on the mission of the institutions. Common names for such offices differ. Some examples include Technology Licensing Office (TLO), Technology Management Office, Research Contracts and IP Services Office, Technology Transfer Interface, Industry Liaisons Office, IP and Technology Management Office, and Nucleus of Technological Innovation. Technology transfer offices may work on behalf of research institutions, governments, and even large multinationals. Where start-ups and spin-outs are

1584-592: A watering channel for Samos , the Tunnel of Eupalinos . An early example of the usage of hydraulic wheel, probably the earliest in Europe, is the Perachora wheel (3rd century BC). In Greco-Roman Egypt , the construction of the first hydraulic machine automata by Ctesibius (flourished c. 270 BC) and Hero of Alexandria (c. 10 – 80 AD) is notable. Hero describes several working machines using hydraulic power, such as

1672-636: Is "technology valorisation ". While conceptually the practice has been utilized for many years (in ancient times, Archimedes was notable for applying science to practical problems), the present-day volume of research, combined with high-profile failures at Xerox PARC and elsewhere , has led to a focus on the process itself. Whereas technology transfer can involve the dissemination of highly complex technology from capital-intensive origins to low-capital recipients (and can involve aspects of dependency and fragility of systems), it also can involve appropriate technology , not necessarily high-tech or expensive, that

1760-434: Is a technology and applied science using engineering , chemistry , and other sciences involving the mechanical properties and use of liquids . At a very basic level, hydraulics is the liquid counterpart of pneumatics , which concerns gases . Fluid mechanics provides the theoretical foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on applied engineering using the properties of fluids. In its fluid power applications, hydraulics

1848-1298: Is better disseminated, yielding robustness and independence of systems. Technology transfer is also promoted through informal means, such as at conferences organized by various groups, including the Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation and the Association of University Technology Managers (AUTM) , and at "challenge" competitions by organizations such as the Center for Advancing Innovation in Maryland. AUTM represents over 3,100 technology transfer professionals, and more than 800 universities, research centers, hospitals, businesses and government organizations. The most frequently used informal means of technology transfer are through education, studies, professional exchange of opinions, movement of people, seminars, workshops. . There are numerous professional associations and TTO Networks enhancing different forms of collaboration among technology managers in order to facilitate this "informal" transfer of best practices and experiences. In addition to AUTM, other regional and international associations include

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1936-616: Is principally operated by the People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF), but numerous international operators have bought their own J-7s. Outside of China, the largest operator of the J-7 is the Pakistan Air Force . Later generation Chinese aircraft, such as the Shenyang J-8 interceptor, were developed with the lessons learned from the J-7 programme. Several nations, including Zimbabwe , Tanzania , and Sri Lanka , deployed

2024-458: Is the branch of hydraulics dealing with free surface flow, such as occurring in rivers , canals , lakes , estuaries , and seas . Its sub-field open-channel flow studies the flow in open channels . Early uses of water power date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt , where irrigation has been used since the 6th millennium BC and water clocks had been used since the early 2nd millennium BC. Other early examples of water power include

2112-441: Is the process of transferring (disseminating) technology from the person or organization that owns or holds it to another person or organization, in an attempt to transform inventions and scientific outcomes into new products and services that benefit society. Technology transfer is closely related to (and may arguably be considered a subset of) knowledge transfer . A comprehensive definition of technology transfer today includes

2200-422: Is thought to be disruptive for the scientific purposes. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-4.0. Text taken from Intellectual Property and Technology Transfer​ , WIPO. Hydraulic Hydraulics (from Ancient Greek ὕδωρ ( húdōr )  ' water ' and αὐλός ( aulós )  ' pipe ')

2288-399: Is transmitted undiminished throughout the fluids. A French physician, Poiseuille (1797–1869) researched the flow of blood through the body and discovered an important law governing the rate of flow with the diameter of the tube in which flow occurred. Several cities developed citywide hydraulic power networks in the 19th century, to operate machinery such as lifts, cranes, capstans and

2376-436: Is used for the generation, control, and transmission of power by the use of pressurized liquids. Hydraulic topics range through some parts of science and most of engineering modules, and they cover concepts such as pipe flow , dam design, fluidics , and fluid control circuitry. The principles of hydraulics are in use naturally in the human body within the vascular system and erectile tissue . Free surface hydraulics

2464-566: The Bangladesh Air Force entered service in 2013. The F-7BGI is one of the most advanced variants, and the last production model of the F-7/J-7 family. During the 1980s, Pakistan launched Project Sabre II in an effort to increase the effectiveness of its F-7 fleet by redesigning and upgrading the airframe. The program produced to a design study which was drawn up by engineers from Northrop Grumman, China and Pakistan, but by 1989,

2552-933: The Qanat system in ancient Persia and the Turpan water system in ancient Central Asia. In the Persian Empire or previous entities in Persia, the Persians constructed an intricate system of water mills, canals and dams known as the Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System . The project, commenced by Achaemenid king Darius the Great and finished by a group of Roman engineers captured by Sassanian king Shapur I , has been referred to by UNESCO as "a masterpiece of creative genius". They were also

2640-638: The Second Congo War . Their only deployment in the DR Congo took place in January 2001, when four aircraft were to participate in the burial ceremony for the assassinated president, Laurent-Désiré Kabila . During the journey from Zimbabwe to Kinshasa , one of them crashed, with its pilot ejecting safely. Moreover, on the return trip, two aircraft were damaged on landing, although both were repaired and returned to service. The deployment of F-7As near

2728-557: The Shenyang J-8 based both on the expertise gained by the program, and by utilizing the incomplete technical information acquired from the Soviet Ye-152 developmental jet. During May 2013, production of the J-7 was permanently terminated, bringing to a close a period of manufacturing stretching almost 50 years. At the China International Aviation & Aerospace Exhibition in 2018, a display showing

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2816-664: The Soviet Union shared a large proportion of its conventional weapons technology with its neighbor, China . One such example is the MiG-19 , which was locally produced by China as the Shenyang J-6 from as early as 1958. During the same decade, the even more capable MiG-21 had been developed by the Soviets; this fighter, being inexpensive but fast, suited the strategy of forming large groups of 'people's fighters' to overcome

2904-484: The ancient Near East in the 4th century BC, specifically in the Persian Empire before 350 BCE, in the regions of Iraq , Iran , and Egypt . In ancient China there was Sunshu Ao (6th century BC), Ximen Bao (5th century BC), Du Shi (circa 31 AD), Zhang Heng (78 – 139 AD), and Ma Jun (200 – 265 AD), while medieval China had Su Song (1020 – 1101 AD) and Shen Kuo (1031–1095). Du Shi employed

2992-460: The force pump , which is known from many Roman sites as having been used for raising water and in fire engines. In the Roman Empire , different hydraulic applications were developed, including public water supplies, innumerable aqueducts , power using watermills and hydraulic mining . They were among the first to make use of the siphon to carry water across valleys, and used hushing on

3080-496: The hydraulic systems and internal fuel arrangements. During March 1964, domestic production of the J-7 reportedly commenced at the Shenyang Aircraft Factory , but due to various factors including the Cultural Revolution , mass production was only truly achieved during the 1980s. Numerous models of the J-7 were developed, featuring improvements in areas such as the armament, avionics , and wing design. The aircraft

3168-418: The 1980s, Iran procured a number of F-7s, despite Chinese officials issuing denials of directly supplying military equipment to the country at that time. Despite its use as a frontline fighter, the type has not been involved in any known combat actions. By the 21st century, it was largely relegated to use as a trainer aircraft. The F-7 has also been used as a flying test bed for various indigenous technologies. In

3256-401: The 9th century. In 1206, Al-Jazari invented water-powered programmable automata/ robots . He described four automaton musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable drum machine , where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns. In 1619 Benedetto Castelli , a student of Galileo Galilei , published the book Della Misura dell'Acque Correnti or "On

3344-962: The Alliance of TechTransfer Professionals of the Philippines (AToP), the South African Research and Innovation Management Association (SARIMA), and other associations. They promote cooperation in technology transfer and the exchange of best practices and experiences among professionals, as today international technology transfer is considered one of the most effective ways to bring people together to find solutions to global problems such as COVID-19, climate change or cyber-attacks. Universities and research institutions seeking to partner with industry or other organizations can adopt an institutional intellectual property policy for effective intellectual property management and technology transfer. Such policies provide structure, predictability, and

3432-693: The Association of European Science and Technology Transfer Professionals (ASTP), the Alliance of Technology Transfer Professionals (ATTP), Licensing Executives Society (LES), Praxis Auril] and others. There are also national Technology transfer associations and networks, such as the National Association of Technology Transfer Offices in Mexico (Red OTT Mexico), the Brazilian Forum of Innovation and Technology Transfer Managers (FORTEC),

3520-681: The Bayh–Dole Act provisions. Due to the risk of exploitation, intellectual property policy, training and systems support for technology transfer by government, research institutes and universities, have been international and regionally-focused organisation, such as the World Intellectual Property Organisation and the European Union . The U.S. government's annual budget funds over $ 100 billion in research and development activity, which leads to

3608-552: The Chinese intercepted several Soviet MiG-21s en route to North Vietnam (during the Vietnam War ), but these aircraft did not perform in a manner consistent with their original specifications, suggesting that the Chinese actually intercepted down-rated aircraft that were intended for export, rather than fully capable production aircraft. For this reason, the Chinese had to re-engineer the intercepted MiG-21 airframes in order to achieve their original capabilities. China later developed

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3696-743: The Fighter China project, it led to the creation of the JF-17 Thunder multirole fighter. The aircraft satisfied a requirement issued by the Pakistani Air Force for an affordable and modern combat aircraft, and the country is in the process of replacing its entire F-7 fleet with JF-17s. In 1991, the Sri Lanka Air Force (SLAF) was looking for a jet attack aircraft to provide fast close air support to its army. With western countries refusing to sell attack aircraft,

3784-536: The Government of Sri Lanka approached China for the purchase of several Nanchang Q-5s , which had the range and payload capacity needed by the SLAF, and was already used by Pakistan and Bangladesh. Due to pressure from the west, China agreed to sell a small number of F-7BS fighters which allowed the SLAF to restore its capabilities that were lost a decade back. Due to the type's comparative lack of endurance and payload,

3872-591: The Islamic world, including fulling mills, gristmills , paper mills , hullers , sawmills , ship mills , stamp mills , steel mills , sugar mills , and tide mills . By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from Al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia . Muslim engineers also used water turbines , employed gears in watermills and water-raising machines, and pioneered

3960-617: The J-7 as an unmanned platform was shown. During August 2005, Namibia ordered 12 F-7NMs for its air force; Chinese sources reported the delivery in November 2006. The model procured is believed to be a variation of the F-7PG acquired by Pakistan with Grifo MG radar. In early 2008, Nigeria procured 12 F-7NI fighters and three FT-7NI trainers to replace its existing inventory of MiG-21 fighters. On September 20, 2018, two Nigerian F-7Ni aircraft crashed into Katamkpehir, Abuja, killing one pilot after

4048-523: The J-7 reportedly commenced at the Shenyang Aircraft Factory. However, mass production efforts were severely hindered by an unexpected social and economic problem— the Cultural Revolution —that resulted in poor initial quality and slow progress. Achieving full domestic production had involved not only the local assembly of the aircraft itself, but the production of its various components and systems, including its turbojet powerplant. As

4136-505: The J-7, the J-7G, entered service with the PLAAF in 2003. The principal role of the J-7 in Chinese service is to provide local air defense and tactical air superiority. Large numbers are to be employed to deter enemy air operations. In June 2021, four J-7s participated in a combat drill conducted near Taiwan's air defense identification zone. The decommissioning of the J-7 began in 2018, with

4224-677: The Measurement of Running Waters," one of the foundations of modern hydrodynamics. He served as a chief consultant to the Pope on hydraulic projects, i.e., management of rivers in the Papal States, beginning in 1626. The science and engineering of water in Italy from 1500-1800 in books and manuscripts is presented in an illustrated catalog published in 2022. Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) studied fluid hydrodynamics and hydrostatics, centered on

4312-671: The SLAF has periodically used its F-7s for pilot training purposes. Early in 2008, the air force received six more advanced F-7Gs, to use primarily as interceptors. All of the F-7Gs, F-7BS' and FT-7s are flown by the No 5 Jet Squadron . The SLAF has repeatedly deployed its F-7BS to conduct ground-attack missions against the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). Sri Lankan officials reported that on 9 September 2008, three F-7s were scrambled after two rebel-flown Zlín-143s were detected by

4400-605: The Sudanese Army. The Tanzanian Air Force deployed its F-7As during the Uganda–Tanzania War against Uganda and Libya , fought between 1978 and 1979. Forming a major component of Tanzania's combat aircraft, the type facilitated the defeat of the nominally stronger Uganda Army Air Force during the air campaign. Due to their very limited operational capabilities in the absence of ground support from radars, Zimbabwean F-7s were never used in combat operations during

4488-513: The US. Local venture capital organizations such as the Mid-Atlantic Venture Association (MAVA) also sponsor conferences at which investors assess the potential for commercialization of technology. Technology brokers are people who discovered how to bridge the emergent worlds and apply scientific concepts or processes to new situations or circumstances. A related term, used almost synonymously, especially in Europe,

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4576-416: The basic principles of hydraulics, some teachers use a hydraulic analogy to help students learn other things. For example: The conservation of mass requirement combined with fluid compressibility yields a fundamental relationship between pressure, fluid flow, and volumetric expansion, as shown below: Assuming an incompressible fluid or a "very large" ratio of compressibility to contained fluid volume,

4664-954: The clients, commercial fees are sometimes waived in lieu of an equity stake in the business. As a result of the potential complexity of the technology transfer process, technology transfer organizations are often multidisciplinary, including economists, engineers, lawyers, marketers and scientists. The dynamics of the technology transfer process have attracted attention in their own right, and there are several dedicated societies and journals. Technology and Innovation Support Centers (TISCs) help innovators access patent information, scientific and technical literature and search tools and databases and make more effective use of these resources to promote innovation, technology transfer, commercialization and utilization of technologies. The WIPO TISCs program currently supports over 80 countries. WIPO supports its member states in establishing and developing TISCs in universities and other institutions in numerous countries around

4752-423: The context, or environment, and motives of each organization involved will influence the method of technology transfer employed. The motives behind the technology transfer were not necessarily homogenous across organization levels, especially when commercial and government interests are combined. The protection of IP rights enables all parties, including universities and research institutions to ensure ownership of

4840-443: The country's northern border successfully checked Yugoslav incursions into Albanian airspace. Throughout the mid-1990s, the PLAAF began to replace its J-7B inventory with the substantially redesigned and improved J-7E variant. The wings of the J-7E have a new "double delta" design offering improved aerodynamics and increased fuel capacity, and the J-7E also features a more powerful engine and improved avionics. The newest version of

4928-524: The deal was signed, it was discovered that some technical documents provided by the Soviets were incomplete and that several parts could not be used. China set about to engineer the aircraft for local production; in doing so, they successfully solved 249 major issues and reproduced eight major technical documents that were not provided by the Soviet Union. One of the major flaws was with the hydraulic systems, which grounded up to 70% of some squadron's aircraft until upgrades were made. Another major modification

5016-406: The difference in pressure is proportional to the difference in height, and this difference remains the same whether or not the overall pressure of the fluid is changed by applying an external force. This implies that by increasing the pressure at any point in a confined fluid, there is an equal increase at every other end in the container, i.e., any change in pressure applied at any point of the liquid

5104-483: The escape of water is credited to ingenuity more than 2,000 years ago. By the first century AD, several large-scale irrigation works had been completed. Macro- and micro-hydraulics to provide for domestic horticultural and agricultural needs, surface drainage and erosion control, ornamental and recreational water courses and retaining structures and also cooling systems were in place in Sigiriya , Sri Lanka. The coral on

5192-478: The fleet early on, and their ground-attack performance was not deemed sufficient. Since then, Myanmar has improved the F-7 fleet's capabilities via a modernisation programme. A series of upgrades were allegedly performed by a combination of Chinese and Israeli enterprises; although confirmed details on the arrangements have remained sparse, changes reportedly include the adoption of various Israeli-built missiles. During

5280-541: The gun sight and the multi purpose display. The aircraft is capable of using PL-8/Python 3 missiles with both the helmet mounted sight or the radar fire control, but the two are not connected. The pilot may use only one system at a time. In the mid 1980s, Pakistan requested an aircraft with greater radar capabilities. Both the standard radar and the British Marconi radar were plagued by ground clutter, but China did not have any experience with air to ground radar at

5368-520: The host organization does not have the necessary will, resources, or skills to develop new technology. Often these approaches are associated with raising of venture capital (VC) as a means of funding the development process, a practice common in the United States and the European Union . Research spin-off companies are a popular vehicle of commercialization in Canada , where the rate of licensing of Canadian university research remains far below that of

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5456-605: The inventors of the Qanat , an underground aqueduct, around the 9th century BC. Several of Iran's large, ancient gardens were irrigated thanks to Qanats. The Qanat spread to neighboring areas, including the Armenian highlands . There, starting in the early 8th century BC, the Kingdom of Urartu undertook significant hydraulic works, such as the Menua canal . The earliest evidence of water wheels and watermills date back to

5544-635: The like. Joseph Bramah (1748–1814) was an early innovator and William Armstrong (1810–1900) perfected the apparatus for power delivery on an industrial scale. In London, the London Hydraulic Power Company was a major supplier its pipes serving large parts of the West End of London , City and the Docks , but there were schemes restricted to single enterprises such as docks and railway goods yards . After students understand

5632-456: The massive rock at the site includes cisterns for collecting water. Large ancient reservoirs of Sri Lanka are Kalawewa (King Dhatusena), Parakrama Samudra (King Parakrama Bahu), Tisa Wewa (King Dutugamunu), Minneriya (King Mahasen) In Ancient Greece , the Greeks constructed sophisticated water and hydraulic power systems. An example is a construction by Eupalinos , under a public contract, of

5720-456: The maximum angle for target detection. The J-7 only reached its Soviet-designed capabilities in the mid 1980s. Being relatively affordable, it was widely exported as the F-7, often with Western systems incorporated, such as to Pakistan. There are over 20 different export variants of the J-7, some of which are equipped to use European weaponry, such as French R.550 Magic missiles. The Discovery Channel's Wings Over The Red Star series claims that

5808-506: The notion of collaborative process as it became clear that global challenges could be resolved only through the development of global solutions. Knowledge and technology transfer plays a crucial role in connecting innovation stakeholders and moving inventions from creators to public and private users. Intellectual property (IP) is an important instrument of technology transfer, as it establishes an environment conducive to sharing research results and technologies. Analysis in 2003 showed that

5896-483: The participants. While the Technology Transfer process involves many activities, which can be represented in many ways, in reality, technology transfer is a fluid and dynamic process that rarely follows a linear course. Typical steps include: Technology transfer aims to ensure that scientific and technological developments are accessible to a wider range of users who can then further develop and exploit

5984-417: The principles of hydraulic fluids. His discovery on the theory behind hydraulics led to his invention of the hydraulic press , which multiplied a smaller force acting on a smaller area into the application of a larger force totaled over a larger area, transmitted through the same pressure (or exact change of pressure) at both locations. Pascal's law or principle states that for an incompressible fluid at rest,

6072-419: The project was abandoned largely as a consequence of economic sanctions that the U.S. imposed on Pakistan. That same year, Grumman and China initiated a new design study in another attempt to redesign the F-7 but that effort was also abandoned when the U.S. placed sanctions on China in response to the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests . In 1991, a third initiative involving the F-7 was launched; originally known as

6160-471: The recent years, maintaining the fleet's operational status has reportedly become difficult. This is caused by the limited availability of spare parts, despite efforts by domestic industries to fill in, but also by the age of the airframes, which have accumulated excessive numbers of flight hours. Iranian F-7s have featured in several movies, often portraying Iraqi MiG-21s during the Iran–Iraq War . One tells

6248-429: The researchers—must come up with a specific practical process. Another consideration is commercial value; for example, while there are many ways to accomplish nuclear fusion , the ones of commercial value are those that generate more energy than they require to operate. The process to commercially exploit research varies widely. It can involve licensing agreements or setting up joint ventures and partnerships to share both

6336-426: The risks and rewards of bringing new technologies to market. Other corporate vehicles, e.g. spin-outs, are used where the host organization does not have the necessary will, resources, or skills to develop new technology. Often these approaches are associated with raising of venture capital (VC) as a means of funding the development process, a practice more common in the date=May 2022}} Research spin-off companies are

6424-758: The scientific outcomes of their intellectual activity, and to control the use of IP in accordance with their mission and core values. IP protection gives academic institutions capacity to market their inventions, attract funding, seek industrial partners and assure dissemination of new technologies through means such as licensing or creation of start-ups for the benefit of society. Technology transfers may occur between universities , businesses (of any size, ranging from small , medium , to large ), governments , across geopolitical borders , both formally and informally, and both openly and secretly. Often it occurs by concerted effort to share skills , knowledge , technologies, manufacturing methods, samples, and facilities among

6512-599: The story of an Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force strike on the Iraqi nuclear reactor at Osirak on 30 September 1980. Another one, "Attack on H3", tells the story of the 810 km-deep raid against Iraqi Air Force airfields on 4 April 1981, and other movies depicting the air combat in 1981 that resulted in the downing of around 70 Iraqi aircraft. Iraqi F-7Bs were never used in combat, but only as advanced trainers. The Bangladeshi Air Force currently operates FT-7MB Airguards, and F-7BG and F-7BGI interceptors. The 16 F-7BGIs of

6600-512: The technological advantages of Western aircraft. However, the Sino-Soviet split abruptly ended initial cooperation efforts; between 28 July and 1 September 1960, the Soviet Union withdrew its advisers from China, resulting in the J-7 project coming to a halt in China. During February 1962, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev unexpectedly wrote to Mao Zedong to inform him that the Soviet Union

6688-454: The technology into new products, processes, applications, materials, or services. It is closely related to (and may arguably be considered a subset of) knowledge transfer . Horizontal transfer is the movement of technologies from one area to another. Transfer of technology is primarily horizontal. Vertical transfer occurs when technologies are moved from applied research centers to research and development departments. Spin-outs are used where

6776-522: The time. In 1984, Pakistan provided assistance by having their American-trained F-16 pilots provide training on proper ground attack radar operation, which enabled the Chinese to develop the J-7M. In the late 1980s, the J-7MP and J-7PG introduced significant upgrades to the radar system by converting to an Italian FIAR Grifo-7 radar, more than tripled the effective range of the radar, as well as greatly increased

6864-457: The two countries, the Chinese were not optimistic about gaining the technology, and allegedly made preparations to reverse engineer the aircraft. Russian sources state that several complete MiG-21s were sent to China, flown by Soviet pilots, while MiG-21Fs in kit form was also sent along with parts and technical documents. As the Chinese had expected, following the delivery of kits, parts and documents to Shenyang Aircraft Factory five months after

6952-402: The type in offensive roles. In 2013, production of the J-7 was terminated after the delivery of 16 F-7BGI to the Bangladesh Air Force . Newer fighter aircraft, such as the JF-17 Thunder multirole fighter, have succeeded it in the export market. To date, large numbers of J-7s remain in service with multiple export customers, with PLAAF retiring the fleet in 2023. In the 1950s and early 1960s,

7040-435: The use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines. Al-Jazari (1136–1206) described designs for 50 devices, many of them water-powered, in his book, The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices , including water clocks, a device to serve wine, and five devices to lift water from rivers or pools. These include an endless belt with jugs attached and

7128-528: The water streams were used to erode the soft deposits, and then wash the tailings for the valuable gold content. In the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age and Arab Agricultural Revolution (8th–13th centuries), engineers made wide use of hydropower as well as early uses of tidal power , and large hydraulic factory complexes. A variety of water-powered industrial mills were used in

7216-637: The whole fleet set to retire in 2023. According to the US Air Force China Aerospace Studies Institute , the retirement of J-7 marked the PLAAF's transition to a fleet composed of only fourth-generation and fifth-generation aircraft. According to the Chinese media, PLAAF also considered turning J-7 into drones for training tools and aerial decoys. During the 1990s, Myanmar reportedly established four squadrons of F-7s, which have been primarily used for air defense duties. Technical difficulties have reportedly plagued

7304-439: The world. Services offered by TISCs may include: Science and technology parks (STP) are territories usually affiliated with a university or a research institution, which accommodate and foster the growth of companies based therein through technology transfer and open innovation. Technology business incubators (TBIs) are organizations that help startup companies and individual entrepreneurs develop their businesses by providing

7392-556: Was AstraZeneca concluding the licensing and technology transfer agreements on AstraZeneca with the Serum Institute of India and with Daiichi Sankyo of Japan to supply vaccines for COVID-19 , which were developed in collaboration with the University of Oxford . In this process Intellectual Property was part of the solution and an important tool for facilitation of affordable global access to COVID 19 treatments – as it

7480-526: Was also revised to replace the Soviet ejection seat, which was deemed to be unacceptable. The forward opening canopy was replaced by a standard rear-hinged canopy, which was jettisoned prior to ejection. The re-engineering effort was largely successful, as the Chinese-built J-7 showed only minor differences in design and performance from the original MiG-21. During March 1964, domestic production of

7568-897: Was the case in two licensing agreements between Medicines Patent Pool (MPP) and pharmaceutical companies Merck and Pfizer . Despite incentives to move research into production, the practical aspects are sometimes difficult to perform in practice. Using DoD technology readiness levels as a criterion (for example), research tends to focus on TRL (technology readiness level) 1–3 while readiness for production tends to focus on TRL 6–7 or higher. Bridging TRL-3 to TRL-6 has proven to be difficult in some organizations. Attempting to rush research (prototypes) into production (fully tested under diverse conditions, reliable, maintainable, etc.) tends to be more costly and time-consuming than expected. Power political and realpolitik incentives in technology transfer are cognized to be negative factors in destructive applications. Technology transfer to dictatorial regimes

7656-410: Was to the fuel storage, increasing the aircraft's stability. The MiG-21 carries most of its fuel in the forward fuselage, causing the center of gravity to shift and become unstable after about 45 minutes of operation. The J-7 has redesigned fuel tanks and significantly larger drop tanks in order to maintain a more stable center of gravity, and therefore better Longitudinal static stability . The cockpit

7744-451: Was willing to transfer MiG-21 technology to China, and he asked the Chinese to promptly send their representatives to the Soviet Union to discuss arrangements. The Chinese viewed this offer as a Soviet gesture to make peace, while suspicious, they were nonetheless eager to take up the Soviet offer of an aircraft deal. A delegation headed by General Liu Yalou , the commander-in-chief of the People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) and himself

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