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42-667: He enlisted in the Cuban Constitutional Army in 1949 after graduation from high school, when financial problems forced him to give up studying architecture at the University of Havana . In 1950, he was accepted as a cadet at the Military Academy, and, three years later, graduated with honors and was promoted to second lieutenant in the infantry. Soon afterwards, he left for the United States, in

84-577: A guaranteed 22 percent share of the US sugar market that later was amended to a 49 percent share in 1949. The country continued to use the 1940 Constitution until the new constitution was promulgated in 1976 . After the Spanish–American War , Spain and the United States signed the 1898 Treaty of Paris , by which Spain ceded Puerto Rico , the Philippines , and Guam to the United States for

126-598: A joint U.S.-Latin American assault on Francoist Spain to overthrow its authoritarian regime. Batista adhered to the 1940 constitution's structures preventing his re-election. Ramón Grau San Martin was the winner of the next election, in 1944 . Grau further corroded the base of the already teetering legitimacy of the Cuban political system, in particular by undermining the deeply flawed, though not entirely ineffectual, Congress and Supreme Court . Carlos Prío Socarrás ,

168-601: A program of US assistance to the Cuban Armed Forces. In the United States, he took a combat engineering course for field officers. He spent some time at Fort Belvoir, Virginia . During the next four years, from 1954 to 1958, San Román was an instructor in the combat engineering corps. In 1956, he was promoted to first lieutenant, second in command of a company. He went to the US Army Infantry Center at Fort Benning, Georgia , where he graduated from

210-472: A protégé of Grau, became president in 1948 . Before presidential election in 1952, Batista staged a coup . Back in power and receiving financial, military and logistical support from the United States government, Batista suspended the 1940 Constitution and revoked most political liberties, including the right to strike. He outlawed the Cuban Communist Party in 1952. He then aligned with

252-598: The Cuban Constitutional Army (Spanish: Ejército Constitucional de Cuba ), was the army of the Republic of Cuba from 1902 to 1959. The Cuban National Army was the army of the Republic of Cuba until 1959. It was dissolved in 1959 following the victory of the Rebel Army, the armed forces of the 26th of July Movement led by Fidel Castro . Following the victory of the Cuban Revolution in 1959, this army

294-598: The Guantánamo Bay naval base from Cuba. Following political purging and a corrupt and rigged election in 1906, the first president, Tomás Estrada Palma , faced an armed revolt by veterans of the war. As in the independence war, Afro-Cubans were overrepresented in the insurgent army of 1906. For them, the August Revolution revived hopes for a 'rightful share' in Cuba's government. On 16 August 1906, fearing

336-588: The Spanish Empire . This era included various changing governments and US military occupations, and ended with the outbreak of the Cuban Revolution in 1959. During this period, the United States exerted great influence on Cuban politics, notably through the Platt Amendment . The governments of Cuba between independence from Spain and the Revolution have been regarded as client state of

378-494: The Student Directory , which appointed Ramon Grau San Martin as provisional president and passed various reforms during the ensuing One Hundred Days Government . Grau resigned in 1934, after which Batista dominated Cuban politics for the next 25 years, at first through a series of puppet-presidents. The period from 1933 to 1937 was a time of "virtually unremitting social and political warfare". A new constitution

420-522: The United States . From 1902 to 1934 Cuban and United States law included the Platt Amendment , which guaranteed the US right to intervene in Cuba and placed restrictions on Cuban foreign relations. In 1934, Cuba and the United States signed the Treaty of Relations in which Cuba was obligated to give preferential treatment of its economy to the United States, in exchange the United States gave Cuba

462-713: The War of 1912 , the Partido Independiente de Color attempted to establish a separate black republic in Oriente Province , but was suppressed by the Cuban National Army under General Monteagudo , with considerable bloodshed. Sugar production played an important role in Cuban politics and economics. In the 1910s, during and after World War I , a shortage in the world sugar supply fueled an economic boom in Cuba, marked by prosperity and

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504-573: The 4th highest number of TV channels out of any country. Cuba had close relations with the United States during this period. Cuba was involved in World War 1 committing 10,000 soldiers to be used in Europe along with declaring war being on the side of the Allied Powers . The most meaningful impact on Cuba that World War 1 had was on its sugar trade as much of the world's European supply

546-639: The ABC. This campaign significantly weakened Machado's government and, backed with the threat of military intervention, set the stage for a regime change. A general strike (in which the Popular Socialist Party sided with Machado), uprisings among sugar workers, and an army revolt forced Machado into exile in August 1933. He was replaced by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada , son of Cuban patriot Carlos Manuel de Céspedes and former ambassador to

588-519: The American Mafia, who controlled the drug, gambling, and prostitution businesses in Havana, and with large U.S.-based multinational companies who were awarded lucrative contracts. To quell the growing discontent amongst the populace—which was subsequently displayed through frequent student riots and demonstrations—Batista established tighter censorship of the media, while also using his Bureau for

630-591: The Brigade also on stage at the occasion were José Miró Cardona and Manuel Artime . Pepe Perez San Román committed suicide by taking an overdose in Miami, Florida, on 10 September 1989. He was survived by two sons, Alfredo and Robert; two daughters, Marisela and Sandra; a brother, Roberto Pérez San Roman, a sister, Laly de la Cruz, and five grandchildren. Cuban National Army The Cuban National Army ( Spanish : Ejército Nacional de Cuba ), from 1935 known as

672-520: The CIA-run infantry training base known as 'Trax Base' in the mountains near Retalhuleu, Pepe San Román was in charge of weapons and demolition training. Around November 1960, he was appointed Brigade 2506 commander with about 430 recruits in training. After the brigade had ceased fighting on 19 April 1961, the third day of the Bay of Pigs Invasion, San Román and his men scattered into the woods and swamps. He

714-547: The Repression of Communist Activities secret police to carry out wide-scale violence, torture and public executions. These murders mounted in 1957, as socialism became more influential. Many people were killed, with estimates ranging from hundreds to about 20,000 people killed. Cuba had Latin America's highest per capita consumption rates of meat, vegetables, cereals, automobiles, telephones and radios, though about one third of

756-550: The Republic without a government and forcing the United States to take control of the island. Roosevelt immediately proclaimed that the USA had been compelled to intervene in Cuba and that their only purpose was to create the necessary conditions for a peaceful election. In 1909, home-rule government was restored when José Miguel Gómez was inaugurated as Cuba's second president, while the U.S. continued intervening in Cuban affairs. In

798-538: The US . In September 1933, the Sergeants' Revolt , led by Sergeant Fulgencio Batista , overthrew Céspedes. General Alberto Herrera served briefly as president ( 12–13 August) followed by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada from 13 August until 5 September 1933. A five-member executive committee (the Pentarchy of 1933 ) was chosen to head a provisional government. They were ousted by a student-led organization,

840-463: The cattle ranches, 90% of mines and 80% of the utilities were owned by American firms. In 1958, Cuba was a relatively well-advanced country by Latin American standards, and in some cases by world standards. On the other hand, Cuba was affected by perhaps the largest labor union privileges in Latin America, including bans on dismissals and mechanization. They were obtained in large measure "at

882-652: The commission that was created to cleanse the Armed Forces, but was arrested and accused in Case 39/59 in April 1959. San Román had helped former Commander Ricardo Montero Duque to leave the country. Montero Duque was wanted by the revolutionary courts, accused of having committed abuses against the civilian population during his service in Oriente. In November 1959, Pérez San Román left for the United States. In May 1960 he

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924-559: The conversion of more and more farmland to sugar cultivation. Prices peaked and then crashed in 1920, ruining the country financially and allowing foreign investors to gain more power than they already had. This economic turbulence was called "the Dance of the Millions". In 1924, Gerardo Machado was elected president. During his administration, tourism increased markedly, and American-owned hotels and restaurants were built to accommodate

966-445: The cost of the unemployed and the peasants", leading to disparities. Between 1933 and 1958, Cuba extended economic regulations enormously, causing economic problems. Unemployment became a problem as graduates entering the workforce could not find jobs. The middle class, which was comparable to that of the United States, became increasingly dissatisfied with unemployment and political persecution. The labor unions supported Batista until

1008-411: The country and had been for centuries. Cuba in 1950 was the first country in Latin America to broadcast television. Eight years later the first color television broadcasting was done and it was one of the first countries in the world to do color broadcasts. Television in Cuba grew dramatically in the 1950s and by the late 1950s it had the 9th highest number of TV sets out of any country in the world and

1050-471: The government ready to smash the plot, former Liberation Army general Pino Guerra raised the banner of revolt. Immediately, Palma arrested every Liberal politician within reach; the remainder went underground. In an effort to avert intervention, Roosevelt sent two emissaries to Havana to seek a compromise between government and opposition. Regarding such neutrality as a censure of his government, Estrada Palma resigned and made his entire cabinet resign too, leaving

1092-475: The historical period in Cuban history between 1902 and 1959, was an island country comprised the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud (since 1925) and several minor archipelagos. It was located where the northern Caribbean Sea , Gulf of Mexico , and Atlantic Ocean meet. The period began in 1902 following the end of its first U.S. military occupation years after Cuba declared independence in 1898 from

1134-409: The infantry course for field officers. In 1957, in Cuba, an incipient guerrilla army was challenging the regular troops. For several months, San Román commanded a company in the zone of operations. There, he felt an aversion toward those military officers who carried out abuses and excesses against the civilian population. In 1958, he was appointed a professor at the Military Academy. That same year, he

1176-400: The influx of tourists. The tourist boom led to increases in gambling and prostitution in Cuba . Machado initially enjoyed support from much of the public and from all the country's major political parties. However, his popularity declined steadily. In 1928 he held an election which was to give him another term, this one of six years, despite his promise to serve only for one term; Machado was

1218-479: The leisure and tourist industries, a modus operandi outlined at the infamous Havana Conference of 1946. By the mid-1950s Havana became one of the main markets and the favourite route for the narcotics trade to the United States. Despite this, tourist numbers grew steadily at a rate of 8% a year and Havana became known as "the Latin Las Vegas ". The sugar industry was one of the largest industries in

1260-628: The only candidate. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 led to precipitous drops in the price of sugar, political unrest, and repression. Protesting students, known as the Generation of 1930 , and a clandestine terrorist organization known as the ABC , turned to violence in opposition to the increasingly unpopular Machado. US ambassador Sumner Welles arrived in May 1933 and began a diplomatic campaign which involved "mediation" with opposition groups in including

1302-522: The population was considered poor and enjoyed relatively little of this consumption. While Cuba had the highest ratio of hospital beds to population in Latin America, around 80% of these beds were located in the city of Havana , there was only one rural hospital and it was equipped with only 10 beds. In 1951 the World Bank reported that between 80 and 90% of children in rural areas suffered from some form of intestinal parasites , in 1956 about 13% of

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1344-509: The rural population had a history of typhoid and 14% at one point had tuberculosis . A study conducted in 1959 by public health authorities found that throughout the country around 72% of the population was afflicted with parasitism and in the rural areas this percentage was as high as 86.54%. Only 11% of farm worker families drank milk, and rural infant mortality stood at 100 per 1000 live births. Only 1 in 4 peasants were able to afford regularly eating meat, eggs and fish and chronic unemployment

1386-407: The sum of $ 20   million (equivalent to $ 730   million in 2023). With the end of United States Military Government (USMG) jurisdiction, Cuba gained formal independence on 20 May 1902, as the Republic of Cuba. Under Cuba's new constitution, the U.S. retained the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and to supervise its finances and foreign relations. Under the Platt Amendment , the U.S. leased

1428-552: The two dominant industries of sugar and tobacco. Cuban drinks such as the daiquiri and mojito became common in the United States during this time, after Prohibition was repealed. A combination of the Great Depression of the 1930s, the end of prohibition, and World War II severely dampened Cuba's tourist industry, and it wasn't until the 1950s that numbers began to return to the island in any significant force. During this period, American organized crime came to dominate

1470-637: The very end. Batista stayed in power until he was forced into exile in December 1958 during the Cuban Revolution . Between 1915 and 1930, Havana hosted more tourists than any other location in the Caribbean. The influx was due in large part to Cuba's proximity to the United States , where restrictive prohibition on alcohol and other pastimes stood in stark contrast to the island's traditionally relaxed attitude to leisure pursuits. Such tourism became Cuba's third largest source of foreign currency, behind

1512-465: The wealthiest landowners who owned the largest sugar plantations, and presided over a stagnating economy that widened the gap between rich and poor Cubans. Eventually it reached the point where most of the sugar industry was in U.S. hands, and foreigners owned 70% of the arable land. As such, Batista's repressive government then began to systematically profit from the exploitation of Cuba's commercial interests, by negotiating lucrative relationships with both

1554-601: Was adopted in 1940, which engineered radical progressive ideas, including the right to labor and health care. Batista was elected president in the same year, holding the post until 1944. He is so far the only non-white Cuban to win the nation's highest political office. His government carried out major social reforms. Several members of the Cuban Communist Party held office under his administration. Cuban armed forces were not greatly involved in combat during World War II, although president Batista suggested

1596-459: Was at 25%. Cuba was a very unequal society with a mere 8% of landowners owning approximately 75% of the land, and while one-fifth of the population took in 58% of the national income, the bottom fifth got 2% of it, the lowest rates for the bottom 20% in the world then and even now. Cuba was also under a lot of influence from the United States to the point where the US controlled 80% of Cuba's trade. In 1959 around 40% of Cuban sugar land, almost all

1638-505: Was captured by Cuban militia on 25 April 1961. Román was sentenced to 30 years in prison in a mass trial for treason, along with everyone else who was captured. He was released from prison and flown to Miami on 24 December 1962. On 29 December 1962, Pepe San Román was on stage next to the 35th US president, John F. Kennedy , at the Orange Bowl in Miami during the homecoming ceremony for captured Brigade 2506 veterans. The other leaders of

1680-818: Was one of a group of ten former Cuban officers in Miami , Florida , who were planning a campaign against the Castro regime. They were graduates of Cuba's military academy, the Cadet School. On 2 June 1960, San Román and nine fellow 'recruits', including his brother Roberto San Román, were transported by CIA agents to Useppa island off Fort Myers, Florida, for physical and psychological assessments. On 22 June 1960 San Román and 27 others were taken by land and air to Fort Gulick in Panama for paramilitary training. On 22 August 1960 he flew via CIA C-54 aircraft to San José, Guatemala. At

1722-484: Was promoted to captain and named G-3 of the Infantry Division, a post equivalent to lieutenant colonel. He was arrested in December 1958, accused of conspiring against the powers of the state. He had been involved in an assassination attempt against Fulgencio Batista . Because of that and his clean service record, San Román was later released and regained his rank after the Cuban Revolution . He formed part of

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1764-633: Was superseded by the current Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces . The National Army represented the main means of repression during the military dictatorship of General Fulgencio Batista who ruled Cuba from 1952 to 1959 until his regime was overthrown by Castro's revolutionary forces. As of 1958, the Cuban Army was composed of 40,849 officers and soldiers and the Navy was made up of 6,963 members. Republic of Cuba (1902%E2%80%931959) The Republic of Cuba , covering

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