Japanese propaganda in the period just before and during World War II , was designed to assist the regime in governing during that time. Many of its elements were continuous with pre-war themes of Shōwa statism , including the principles of kokutai , hakkō ichiu , and bushido . New forms of propaganda were developed to persuade occupied countries of the benefits of the Greater Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere , to undermine American troops' morale, to counteract claims of Japanese atrocities , and to present the war to the Japanese people as victorious. It started with the Second Sino-Japanese War , which merged into World War II. It used a large variety of media to send its messages.
65-464: The Film Law of 1939 decreed a "healthy development of the industry" which abolished sexually frivolous films and social issues. Instead, films were to elevate national consciousness, present the national and international situation appropriately, and otherwise aid the "public welfare." The use of propaganda in World War II was extensive and far reaching but possibly the most effective form used by
130-461: A classless society under a benevolent emperor, but the restoration had plunged the nation into Western materialism (an argument that ignored commercialism and ribald culture in the Tokugawa era ), which had caused people to forget their nature, which the war would enable them to reclaim. Baseball, jazz, and other Western profligate ways were singled out in government propaganda to be abandoned for
195-466: A large amount of bottles lying around, some are too drunk to move or think properly. The main soldier shown is stupid, overweight, and cowardly. As the attack continues, some monkeys go on land to destroy American planes. The main American soldier literally shakes the red and blue off the American flag to wave it as a white flag of surrender. Pearl Harbor is left in smoking ruins as the animals return to
260-613: A large audience in a short amount of time. They are also able to come in a variety of film types such as documentary , non-fiction, and newsreel , making it even easier to provide subjective content that may be deliberately misleading. Propaganda is the ability "to produce and spread fertile messages that, once sown, will germinate in large human cultures". However, in the 20th century, a "new" propaganda emerged, which revolved around political organizations and their need to communicate messages that would "sway relevant groups of people in order to accommodate their agendas". First developed by
325-637: A nostalgic account of pre-war family life, the editors of Chūōkōron were warned it did not contribute to the needed war spirit. Despite Tanizaki's history of treating Westernization and modernization as corrupting, a "sentimental" tale of "bouregeoise family life" was not acceptable. Fearful of losing supplies of paper, it cut off the serialization. A year later Chūōkōron and Kaizō were forced to "voluntarily" dissolve after police beat confessions out of "Communist" staffers. Newspapers added columnists to whip up martial fervor. Magazines were ordered to print militaristic slogans. An article "Americanism as
390-725: A number of Axis co-productions that followed the conclusion of the Tripartite Pact. As Westerners increasingly fought in the Pacific Theater , the Japanese directed their prejudices towards them too. In Fire on That Flag! (1944, あの旗を撃て！) the cowardice of the fleeing American military is juxtaposed with the moral supremacy of the imperial Japanese army during the occupation of the Philippines. Japan's first full-length animated feature film Momotarō: Divine Soldiers of
455-401: A pure spirit of sacrifice. This Yamato spirit would allow them to overcome the vast disproportion in fighting material. This belief was so well indoctrinated that even as Allied victories overwhelmed the ability of the Japanese government to cover them up with lies, many Japanese refused to believe that "God's country" could be defeated. The military government likewise fought on hopes that
520-425: A rare practice even among the most savage specimens of the human race." In an effort to gain more listeners, POWs would be allowed to address family members back home. The Japanese believed propaganda would be the most effective if they used African American POWs to communicate to African Americans back home. Using programs titled "Conversations about Real Black POW Experiences" and "Humanity Calls", POWs would speak on
585-733: A running time of 37 minutes, it was close to being a feature-length film. A DVD version without English subtitles was released in Japan by the bookstore chain Kinokuniya Shoten in 2004; a version with English subtitles was released in the United States by Zakka Films in 2009. Although recorded as being produced with the cooperation of the Japanese Naval Ministry , there was in fact no such cooperation (due to concerns about official military secrets). However,
650-484: A silly way, giving them a very human feel. At the center stands the stoic and heroic Momotaro, giving orders to the animals, who board their planes and take off. The flight to Hawaii passes without incident, apart from a monkey helping a lost baby bird find its parent. The animals arrive and the attack begins. The soldiers aboard the ships docked in Pearl Harbor panic and scramble, trying to flee; as evidenced by
715-535: A street performer uses Emakimono "picture scrolls" to convey the story of the play. Audiences typically included children who would buy candy from the street performer providing his source of income. Unlike American propaganda that often focused on the enemy, Japanese wartime "National Policy" Kamishibai usually focused on themes of self-sacrifice for the nation, the heroism of martyrs, or instructional messages such as how to respond to an air-raid warning. The Shinmin no Michi or Path of Subjects described what
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#1732776125570780-482: A war movie without hesitation". In addition, the original story features Momotaro and his companions travelling to a demon-inhabited island, which this film replaced with the American-infested Hawaii, creating a direct link between foreigners and evil creatures. From 1942 to 1945, "national policy films" (AKA propaganda films) made up a large percentage of Japanese cinema. Momotaro's Sea Eagles
845-433: Is a film that involves some form of propaganda . Propaganda films spread and promote certain ideas that are usually religious, political, or cultural in nature. A propaganda film is made with the intent that the viewer will adopt the position promoted by the propagator and eventually take action towards making those ideas widely accepted. Propaganda films are popular mediums of propaganda due to their ability to easily reach
910-596: Is a unique medium that reproduces images, movement, and sound in a lifelike manner as it fuses meaning with evolvement as time passes in the story depicted. Unlike many other art forms, film produces a sense of immediacy. Film's ability to create the illusion of life and reality, allows for it be used as a medium to present alternative ideas or realities making it easy for the viewer to perceive this as an accurate depiction of life. Some film academics have noted film's great illusory abilities. Dziga Vertov claimed in his 1924 manifesto, "The Birth of Kino-Eye" that "the cinema-eye
975-455: Is cinema-truth". To paraphrase Hilmar Hoffmann , this means that in film, only what the camera 'sees' exists, and the viewer, lacking alternative perspectives, conventionally takes the image for reality. Making the viewer sympathize with the characters that align with the agenda or message the filmmaker portray is a common rhetorical tool used in propaganda film. Propaganda films exhibit this by having reoccurring themes good vs. evil. The viewer
1040-475: Is meant to feel sympathy towards the "good side" while loathing in the "evil side". Prominent Nazi film maker Joseph Goebbels used this tactic to invoke deep emotions into the audience. Goebbels stressed that while making films full of nationalistic symbols can energize a population, nothing will work better to mobilize a population towards the Nazi cause like "intensifying life". After the 1917 October Revolution
1105-536: The Japanese Imperial Navy did endorse the film . Featuring the " Peach Boy " character of Japanese folklore, the film was aimed at children, and tells the story of a naval unit consisting of the young boy Momotarō and several animal species representing the Far Eastern races fighting together for a common goal. In a dramatization of the attack on Pearl Harbor , the force attacks the demons at
1170-589: The Lumiere brothers in 1896, film provided a unique means of accessing large audiences at once. Film was the first universal mass medium in that it could simultaneously influence viewers as individuals and members of a crowd, which led to it quickly becoming a tool for governments and non-state organizations to project a desired ideological message. As Nancy Snow stated in her book, Information War: American Propaganda, Free Speech and Opinion Control Since 9-11 , propaganda "begins where critical thinking ends." Film
1235-513: The Popeye cartoons , makes an appearance in this film as a stereotypical drunk . This is one of a number of examples of Axis nations using American cartoon characters to portray the United States in animated films, just as the Allied forces used Hitler , Mussolini , and Emperor Hirohito , as well as Nazis and Japanese soldiers in their propaganda films. The film is predated by two years, by
1300-623: The Americans could not stage air-raids from Saipan, although since they could from China, they clearly could from Saipan; the purpose was to subtly warn of the dangers to come. The actual bombing raids brought new meaning to the slogan "We are all equal." Early songs proclaiming that the cities had iron defenses and it was an honor to defend the homeland quickly lost their luster. Still, continued calls to sacrifice were honored; neighborhood association helped, as no one wanted to be seen quitting first. Propaganda film A propaganda film
1365-939: The Chinese continent and starring Hasegawa Kazuo as the Japanese male romantic lead with Ri Kōran ( Yoshiko Yamaguchi ) as his Chinese love interest. Among these films, Song of the White Orchid (1939, 白蘭の歌), China Nights (1940, 支那の夜), and Vow in the Desert (1940, 熱砂の誓い) mixed romantic melodrama with propaganda in order to represent a figurative and literal blending of the two cultures onscreen. ‘National policy films’ or propaganda pictures used in World War II included combat films such as Mud and Soldiers (1939, 土と兵隊) and Five Scouts (1938, 五人の斥候兵), spy films such as The Spy isn't Dead (1942, 間諜未だ死せず) and They're After You (1942, あなたは狙われている) and lavish period pictures such as The Monkey King (1940, 孫悟空) and Genghis Khan (1943, 成吉斯汗). In
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#17327761255701430-594: The Enemy" said that the Japanese should study American dynamism, stemming from its social structure, which was taken as praise despite the editor's having added "as the Enemy" to the title, and resulted in the withdrawal of the issue. Cartoonists formed a patriotic association to promote fighting spirit, stir up hatred of the enemy, and encourage people to economize. A notable example was the Norakuro manga, which began pre-war as humorous episodes of anthropomorphic dogs in
1495-482: The Japanese government was film. Japanese films were produced for a far wider range of audiences than American films of the same period. From the 1920s onward, Japanese film studios produced films legitimizing the colonial project that were set in its colonies of Taiwan, Korea, and on the Chinese mainland. By 1945 propaganda film production under the Japanese had expanded throughout the majority of their empire including Manchuria, Shanghai, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia,
1560-747: The Japanese ostensibly were "liberating" from the yoke of Western colonial oppression was a powerful deterrent in addition to government pressure. Even so, as the war in China worsened for Japan, action films such as The Tiger of Malay (1943, マライの虎) and espionage dramas like The Man From Chungking (1943, 重慶から来た男) more overtly criminalized Chinese as enemies of the Empire. In contrast to its representations of China as antiquated and inflexible, Western nations were often portrayed as overindulgent and decadent. Such negative stereotypes had to be adjusted when Japanese film makers were asked to collaborate with Nazi film crews on
1625-490: The Japanese should aspire to be, and depicted Western culture as corrupt. The booklet Read This and the War is Won , printed for distribution to the army, not only discussed tropical fighting conditions but also why the army fought. Colonialism was presented as a tiny group of colonists living in luxury by placing burdens on Asians; because ties of blood connected them to the Japanese, and Asians had been weakened by colonialism, it
1690-403: The Philippines, and Indonesia. In China, Japan's use of propaganda films was extensive. After Japan's invasion of China, movie houses were among the first establishments to be reopened. Most of the materials being shown were war news reels , Japanese motion pictures, or propaganda shorts paired with traditional Chinese films. Movies were also used in other conquered Asian countries usually with
1755-543: The Sea (1945, 桃太郎海の神兵) similarly portrays the Americans and British in Singapore as morally decadent and physically weak "devils". A sub-category of the costume picture is the samurai movie. Themes used within these films include self-sacrifice and honor to the emperor. Japanese films often did not shy away from the use of suffering, often portraying its troops as the underdog. This had the effect of making Japan look as though it
1820-546: The Second Sino-Japanese War with stories of heroism, tales of war widows, and advice on making do. After the attack on Pearl Harbor , control tightened, aided by the patriotism of many reporters. Magazines were told that the cause of the war was the enemy's egoistic desire to rule the world, and ordered, under the guise of requests, to promote anti-American and anti-British sentiment. When Jun'ichirō Tanizaki began to serialize his novel Sasameyuki ,
1885-501: The Student Corps to act as nurses. News reports were required to be official state announcements, read exactly, and as the war in China went on, even entertainment programs addressed wartime conditions. The announcement of the war was made by radio, soon followed by an address from Tojo, who informed the people that in order to annihilate the enemy and ensure a stable Asia, a long war had to be anticipated. To take advantage of
1950-637: The aircraft carrier to celebrate. The Japanese government used the character of Momotaro as the hero because the story (dating back to the Edo period ) was extremely well known in Japan - comparable to the Three Little Pigs in Western countries. In the film, Momotaro and the animal characters were not only lovable but were already known for their heroic personality traits. The "pretty characters and comical battle scenes enabled Japanese citizens to watch
2015-622: The appropriately named island of Onigashima ('Demon Island', which represents the British and American military). The film also utilizes actual footage of the Pearl Harbor attack. A sequel, Momotaro: Sacred Sailors , was released in 1945, which was the first full-length Japanese animated film. The film opens on board an aircraft carrier on rough waters, with squadrons of monkeys, pheasants , and dogs preparing their planes for war. These animals are not perfect soldiers however; they act in
Propaganda in Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II - Misplaced Pages Continue
2080-460: The armed forces dangerously ill-supplied after the heavy attrition. Morning assemblies at factories had officers address the workers and enjoin them to meet their quotas. The production levels were kept up, albeit at the price of extraordinary sacrifice. The government urged Japanese people to do without basic necessities ( privation ). For example, magazines gave advice on economizing on food and clothing as soon as war broke out with China. After
2145-488: The army, but eventually developed into propaganda tales of military exploits against the "pigs army" on the "continent" - a thinly-veiled reference to the Second Sino-Japanese War . Cartoons were also used to create informational papers, to instruct occupied populations, and also soldiers about the countries they occupied. A form of propaganda unique to Japan was war themed Kamishibai "paper plays":
2210-524: The broadcasts. Broadcasts to India urged revolt. Tokyo Rose 's broadcasts were aimed at American troops. In an effort to exacerbate racial tensions in the United States, the Japanese enacted what was titled, "Negro Propaganda Operations." This plan, created by Yasuichi Hikida, the director of Japanese propaganda for Black Americans, consisted of three areas. First was gathering information pertaining to Black Americans and their struggles in America, second
2275-523: The casualty lists would undermine the Allied will to fight. General Ushijami, addressing his troops in Okinawa, told them their greatest strength lay in moral superiority. Even as American forces proceeded from victory to victory, Japanese propaganda claimed military superiority. The attack on Iwo Jima was announced by the "Home and Empire" broadcast with uncommon praise of the American commanders but also
2340-532: The conditions of war, and their treatment in the military. POWs with artistic strengths were used in plays and or songs that were broadcast back home. The success of this propaganda is much debated, as only a small minority of people in America had shortwave radios. Even so, some scholars believe that the Negro Propaganda Operations, "evoked a variety of responses within the Black community and
2405-409: The confident declaration that they must not leave the island alive. The dying words of President Roosevelt were altered to "I have made a terrible mistake" and some editorials proclaimed it a punishment of Heaven. American interrogators of prisoners found that they were unshakable in their conviction of Japan's sacred mission. After the war, one Japanese doctor explained to American interrogators that
2470-504: The crowd were filmed outdoors while the images showing the skeletal remains were captured indoors). This is what blurs the line of truth making the Kuleshov Effect an effective tool of propaganda. Momotar%C5%8D no Umiwashi Momotarō no Umiwashi ( 桃太郎の海鷲 , English translation: Momotarō's Sea Eagles ) is an animated Japanese propaganda film produced in 1942 by Geijutsu Eigasha and released on March 25, 1943. With
2535-473: The early stages of the war with China, so-called "Humanistic war films" such as The Five Scouts attempted to depict the war without nationalism. But with Pearl Harbor , the Home Ministry demanded more patriotism and "national polity themes" – or war themes. Japanese directors of war films set in China had to refrain from explicit anti-Chinese rhetoric. The risk of alienating the same cultures that
2600-465: The early victories was one that secured an oil field, giving Japan its own source for the first time; propaganda exulted that Japan was no longer a "have-not" nation. In 1943, as the American industrial juggernaut produced material superiority for the American forces, calls were made for a more war-like footing on part of the population, in particular in calls for increases in war materials. The emphasis on training soldiers rather than arming them had left
2665-551: The embodiment of kokutai . One letter, after praising Japanese history and the way of life their ancestors had passed down to them, and the Imperial family as the crystallization of Japan's splendour, concluded, "It is an honor to be able to give my life in defense of these beautiful and lofty things." Intellectuals at an "overcoming modernity" conference proclaimed that prior to the Meiji Restoration , Japan had been
Propaganda in Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II - Misplaced Pages Continue
2730-665: The money they had spent. Leaflets were dropped by airplane on the Philippines, Malaya, and Indonesia, urging them to surrender as the Japanese would be better than the Europeans. They were also dropped in India to encourage a revolt against British rule now that Great Britain was distracted. Slogans were used throughout Japan for propaganda purpose. They were used as patriotic exortion – "National Unity", "One Hundred Million With One Spirit" – and to urge frugality – "Away with frivolous entertainment!". Kokutai , meaning
2795-540: The nation and promote unity. In 1941, Shinmin no Michi was written to instruct the Japanese what to aspire to. Ancient texts set forth the central precepts of loyalty and filial piety, which would throw aside selfishness and allow them to complete their "holy task." It called for them to become "one hundred million hearts beating as one" – a call that would reappear in American anti-Japanese propaganda, though Shinmin no Michi explicitly said that many Japanese "failed" to act in this manner. The obedience called for
2860-678: The nation. Children were marched to school where half their time was spent on indoctrination on loyalty to the emperor, and frugality, obedience, honesty, and diligence. Teachers were instructed to teach "Japanese science" based on the "Imperial Way", which precluded evolution in view of their claims to divine descent . Students were given more physical education and required to perform community service. Compositions, drawings, calligraphy, and pageants were based on military themes. Those who left school after completing six years were required to attend night school for Japanese history and ethics, military training for boys, and home economics for girls. As
2925-400: The newly formed Bolshevik government and its leader Vladimir Lenin placed an emphasis on the need for film as a propaganda tool. Lenin viewed propaganda merely as a way to educate the masses as opposed to a way to evoke emotion and rally the masses towards a political cause. Film became the preferred medium of propaganda in the newly formed Russian Soviet Republic due to a large portion of
2990-469: The outbreak of war with the United States, early suggestions that the people enjoyed the victories too much and were not prepared for the long war ahead were not taken, and so early propaganda did not contain warnings. In 1944, propaganda endeavoured to warn the Japanese people of disasters to come, and install in them a spirit as in Saipan, to accept more privation for the war. Articles were written claiming
3055-505: The peasant population being illiterate. The Kuleshov Effect was first used in 1919 in the film The Exposure of the Relics of Sergius of Radonezh by juxtaposing images of the exhumed coffin and body of Sergius of Radonezh, a prominent Russian saint, and the reaction from the watching audience. The images of the crowd are made up of mostly female faces, whose expressions can be interpreted ambiguously. The idea behind juxtaposing these images
3120-604: The people of Japan had foolishly believed that the gods would indeed help them out of their predicament. This also gave them a sense of racial superiority to the Asian peoples they claimed to liberate, which did much to undermine Japanese propaganda for racial unity. Their "bright and strong" souls made them the superior race, and therefore their proper place was in the leadership of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere . Anyone not Japanese
3185-465: The radio's adaptability to events, "Morning Addresses" were made twice a month for schools. Short wave radios were used to broadcast anti-European propaganda to Southeast Asia even before the war. Japan, fearful of foreign propaganda, had banned such receivers for Japanese, but built broadcasters for all the occupied countries to extol the benefits of Japanese rule and attack Europeans. "Singing towers" or "singing trees" had loudspeakers on them to spread
3250-454: The state and not separate from it. The Ministry of Education promulgated it throughout the school system. In 1939, Taisei Yokusankai (Imperial Rule Assistance Association) was founded by the prime minister to "restore the spirit and virtues of old Japan". When the number of patriotic associations during the war worried the government, they were folded into the IRAA, which used them to mobilize
3315-595: The sum total of these reactions forced America’s government to improve conditions for Blacks in the military and society." Even the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) saw the propaganda as, "...a media tool in the struggle against racial discrimination". Despite these debates both sides agree that these programs were particularly dangerous because of their foundation in truth. Leaflets in China asked why they were not better defended after all
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#17327761255703380-450: The theme of Japan as Asia's savior against the Western tyrants or spoke of the history of friendly relations between the countries with films such as, The Japan You Don't Know . China's rich history and exotic locations made it a favorite topic of Japanese film makers for over a decade before the outbreak of the second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). Of particular note were a popular trio of "continental goodwill films" (大陸親善映画) set throughout
3445-476: The uniqueness of the Japanese people in having a leader with spiritual origins, was officially promulgated by the government, including a text book sent about by the Ministry of Education. The purpose of this instruction was to ensure that every child regarded himself first of all as a Japanese and was grateful for the "family polity " structure of government, with its apex in the emperor. Indeed, little effort
3510-425: The war went on, teachers lay more emphasis on the children's destiny as warriors; when one child grew airsick on a swing, a teacher told him he would not be a good fighter pilot. Pupils were shown caricatures of Americans and British to instruct them about their enemy. Girls graduating on Okinawa heard a speech by their principal on how they must work hard to avoid shaming the school before they were inducted into
3575-454: The war, military education treated science as a way to teach that the Japanese were a morally superior race, and history as teaching pride in Japan, with Japan not being only the most splendid nation, but the only splendid one. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, elementary schools were renamed "National Schools" and charged to produce "children of the Emperor" who would sacrifice themselves for
3640-409: Was Japan's place to "make men of them again." The Ministry of Education, led by a general, sent out propagandistic textbooks. Military oversight of education was intense, with officers arriving at any time to inspect classes and sometimes rebuke the instructor before the class. Similarly, textbooks were revised in occupied China to instruct Chinese children in heroic Japanese figures. Even prior to
3705-600: Was an enemy – devilish, animalistic – including other Asian peoples such as the Chinese. Strict racial segregation was maintained in conquered regions, and they were encouraged to think of themselves as "the world's foremost people." This race was, indeed, to be further improved with physical fitness and social-welfare programs, and population policies to increase their number. A campaign to promote fertility, in order to produce future citizens, continued through 1942, and no efforts were made to recruit women to war work for this reason. The slogan "Be fruitful and multiply"
3770-401: Was an extremely successful example of this, and was especially popular among young children. The 37-minute film was so well received that a 74-minute sequel, Momotaro's Divine Sea Warriors , was released in 1945. The cute and entertaining sequel - in which no fatalaties are shown - was intended to give the war a soft, righteous feel. The fictional character Bluto , the main antagonist of
3835-485: Was formed from 74 organizations to rally the nation for a total war effort. It carried out such tasks as instructing schoolchildren on the "Holy war in China", and having women roll bandages for the war effort. Even prior to the war, the organization Sanpo existed to explain the need to meet production quotas, even if sacrifices were needed; it did so with rallies, lectures, and panel discussion, and also set up programs to assist workers' lives to attract membership. Among
3900-432: Was made during the course of the war to explain to the Japanese people what it was fought for; instead, it was presented as a chance to rally about the emperor. In 1937, the pamphlet Kokutai no Hongi was written to explain the principle. It clearly stated its purpose: to overcome social unrest and to develop a new Japan. From this pamphlet, pupils were taught to put the nation before the self, and that they were part of
3965-493: Was the use of Black prisoners of war in the propaganda, and third was the use of short-wave radio broadcasts. Through shortwave radio broadcasts, Japanese used their own radio announcers and African American POWs to spread propaganda to the United States. Broadcasts focused on U.S. news stories involving racial tension, such as the Detroit Race riots and lynchings. For example, one broadcast commented, "notorious lynchings are
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#17327761255704030-427: Was the victim inciting greater sympathy from its audience. The propaganda pieces also often illustrated the Japanese people as pure and virtuous depicting them as superior both racially and morally. The war is portrayed as continuous and is usually not adequately explained. Some other examples of propaganda films include Momotarō no Umiwashi and The Most Beautiful . Magazines supported the war from its beginnings as
4095-552: Was to be blind and absolute. The war would be a purifying experience to draw them back to the "pure and cloudless heart" of their inherent character that they had strayed from. Their natural racial purity should be reflected in their unity. Patriotic war songs seldom mentioned the enemy, and then only generically; the tone was elegiac, and the topic was purity and transcendence, often compared to cherry blossom. The final letters of kamikaze pilots expressed, above all, that their motivations were gratitude to Japan and to its Emperor as
4160-400: Was to subvert the audience's assumption that the crowd would show emotions of being sad or upset. Instead the crowd could be interpreted to be expressing emotions of boredom, fear, dismay, and a myriad amount of other emotions. There is nothing to prove to the audience that the images of the audience and the exhumed body were captured in the same moment or place (it is now believed the images of
4225-523: Was used in campaigns. Despite its military strength being dependent on industrialization, the regime glorified rural life. The traditional rural and agricultural life was opposed to the modern city; proposals were made to fight the atomizing effects of cities by locating schools and factories in the countryside, to maintain the rural population. Agrarianist rhetoric exulted village harmony, even while tenants and landlords were pitted against each other by war needs. The National Spiritual Mobilization Movement
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