Saqqawists (November 1928 – October 1929)
139-734: Supported by: [REDACTED] Basmachi (1929) [REDACTED] Kingdom of Afghanistan [REDACTED] Habibullāh Kalakāni [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Sayyid Husayn [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Ibrahim Bek [REDACTED] Fayz Allah [REDACTED] Amānullāh Khān (Until 14 January 1929; and from 22 March – 23 May 1929) [REDACTED] Inayatullah Khan (14–17 January 1929) [REDACTED] Ali Ahmad Khan [REDACTED] (17 January – 9 February 1929) [REDACTED] Malik Qays ( Defected ) [REDACTED] Mohammed Nādir Khān (March–October 1929) [REDACTED] Sardar Shah Wali Khan [REDACTED] 80 The Afghan Civil War
278-466: A national liberation movement that sought to end foreign rule over the Central Asian territories then known as Turkestan, and also the protectorates of Khiva and Bokhara. It is suggested that "basmacı" is a Turkic word which refers to a bandit or marauder, such as the bands of thieves that preyed on caravans in the region, derived from the word basmak - to raid, to press. The term Basmachi
417-593: A Safi Pushtun revolt in 1947" as an aside. Besides the British document, none of these sources mention an earlier revolt in 1945 or 1946. The Cambridge History also states that the Safi were defeated by Mohammed Daoud Khan , implying that Daoud reprised his role in quelling the Safi in a new conflict from 1947 to 1949. However, Conflict in Afghanistan: A Historical Encyclopedia 's biography of Daoud only mentions
556-674: A coalition, but it fell apart after the October Revolution, when the Jadids lent their support to the Bolsheviks who had seized power. The Tashkent Soviet of Soldiers' and Workers' Deputies , an organization dominated by Russian railway workers and colonial proletarians, rejected Muslim participation in government. Stung by this apparent reaffirmation of colonial rule, the Shura-i Islam reunited with Ulema Jemyeti to form
695-550: A decisive addition of strength through his recruitment of thousands of armed Wazīr and Masʿūd frontier tribesmen. Also helpful was their decision to lift a restriction order, imposing residence at a fixed address in India, on Fażl ʿOmar Mojaddedī, who was to play an apparently decisive role in persuading the Naqšbandī mollā s of Afghanistan to change sides and later was to become Nāder Shah's first minister of justice. In short, while all
834-463: A decree in Kabul which forbade citizens of Kabul from moving out of the city without permission, even into the government-controlled Bandar-i Arghandah, Charasya, Bini Hisar, Butkhak, Kutal-i Pay Manar, Kutal-i Khayr Khanah, Maydan, Jalriz, Logar, Khurd Kabul, Tangi Gharu or Dih Sabz. On 31 May, Kalakani paid a visit to the shrine at Mazar-i Khwajah Musafir, which lies near the village of Chihil Tan above
973-589: A double strategy to crush the rebellion: political reconciliation and cultural concessions along with overwhelming military power. Religious concessions reinstated Sharia law, while Koran schools and waqf lands were restored. Moscow sought to indigenize the fight with the creation of a volunteer militia composed of Muslim peasants, called the Red Sticks , and it is estimated that 15-25 percent of Soviet troops in this region were Muslim. The Soviets primarily relied on thousands of regular Red Army troops, veterans of
1112-463: A drastic turn on 25 December, when Kalakani was wounded in the shoulder from an aerial bomb, causing him to retreat 20 kilometers north, to Murad Beg Fort, in the Kuhdaman region. Kalakani's retreat gave Amanullah a chance to regroup. In late December, he began shelling Murad Beg Fort, and this shelling lasted until 13 January. However, the shelling failed to provide any results, and this disheartened
1251-429: A joint message to the field marshal that said: We, the peoples of the region of Wardak, consider ourselves subjects of Amir Habib Allah. However, since we have yet to send him our oaths of allegiance, we fear that if his army should come it might be to attack us and plunder our property. But if he shows forgiveness and agrees to these four conditions, we will not stand in the way of your victorious army. Our conditions are
1390-472: A large reward if they did so. The unraveling began when Shinwari Pashtun tribesmen revolted and besieged Jalalabad on 14 November 1928, cutting telegraph wires and cutting the road to the capital, after which they drew a manifesto of ten grievances, five of which related to what they saw as Amanullah's unsupportable meddling with the status of women. However, during the Shinwari rebellion two years later,
1529-579: A mass scale in Central Asia, and it set the stage for native resistance after the fall of Tsar Nicholas II in the following year. The suppression of the rebellion was a deliberate campaign of annihilation against the Kazakh and Kyrgyz tribes on the part of the Russian soldiers and settlers. Hundreds of thousands of Kazakh and Kyrgyz people were killed or expelled. The ethnic cleansing had its roots in
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#17327762700481668-410: A new conflict between the government and the Safi took place somewhere between 1947 and 1949. These include a mention of a "recrudescence in Safi discontent" in a British report dated 12 December 1947, which covered events from 1 May to 31 October 1947, although this report provides very little information in regards to the scope of the "recrudescence". The New Cambridge History of Islam also mentions
1807-560: A number of raids into the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic in 1929. Ibrahim Bek led a brief resurgence of the movement when collectivization fuelled resistance and succeeded in delaying the policy until 1931 in Turkmenistan, but he was soon caught and executed. The movement then largely died out. The last major Basmachi combat operation occurred In October 1933, when Junaid Khan 's forces were defeated in
1946-628: A revolt among the Safi lasting from 1947 to 1949. An article by Hafeez R. Khan from 1960, titled "Afghanistan and Pakistan", also briefly mentions a Safi revolt lasting from 1948 to 1949 in a timeline of Afghan history. The Sovietization of Afghanistan also mentions a Safi revolt in December 1947, while placing its defeat as late as 1954. Transition in Afghanistan: Hope, Despair and the Limits of Statebuilding mentions "the putting-down of
2085-721: A short siege. However, they were unable to defeat Nadir Khan in the Logar valley, who had entered the area together with Amanullah in March, although the latter left the country on 23 May. After a months-long stalemate, Nadir Khan eventually managed to force the Saqqawists to retreat into Kabul in October 1929, and subsequently into the Arg . The capture of the Arg on 13 October 1929 marked the end of
2224-548: A shortage of commodities. Further aerial operations against Mazrak, which included reconnaissance and bombing runs, took place in the Kunar valley from 24 June to 31 October 1945. Sultan Ahmad surrendered in November that same year, and was returned to Balochistan in custody. Despite Ahmad's surrender, Mazrak continued to fight. Ultimately, after 2 and a half years of resistance, Mazrak and his brother Sher Muhd Khan surrendered to
2363-507: A tribal leader from Waziristan (then part of British India ), also fought for the restoration of former king Amanullah Khan alongside other rebels. The Afghan government deployed Hawker Hind aircraft against the rebels, using aircraft to drop leaflets, gun down tribesmen and drop incendiary bombs. Mazrak invaded the British Raj in late 1944, though he was ultimately forced back into Afghanistan due to British aerial bombardment. Over
2502-503: Is dated '١٣٢٤' (AH1324 = AD1945). The tribal revolts of 1944–1947 influenced Afghanistan to take a pro-Pakistan stance during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948 . A pro-India stance in this case would necessitate stopping Pashtuns from joining Pakistan's war against India, which was expected to cause a resurgence in rebel activity when the government was hoping to focus on national reform. Some sources appear to state that
2641-701: The Armenian genocide , arrived in Bukhara to assist the Soviet war effort. Enver Pasha had been an advocate of a Turkish-Soviet alliance against the British, and gained the trust of the Soviet authorities. Soon, however, he defected and became the single most important Basmachi leader, centralizing and revitalizing the movement. Enver Pasha intended to create a pan-Turkic confederation encompassing all of Central Asia, as well as Anatolia and Chinese lands. His call for jihad attracted much support, and he managed to transform
2780-751: The British Empire shortly afterwards. Before the Treaty of Rawalpindi was concluded in 1921, Afghanistan had already begun to establish its own foreign policy, including diplomatic relations with the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic in 1919. During the 1920s, Afghanistan established diplomatic relations with most major countries. The second round of Anglo–Afghan negotiations for final peace were inconclusive. Both sides were prepared to agree on Afghan independence in foreign affairs, as provided for in
2919-475: The Central Asian revolt of 1916 , centered in modern-day Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan , which was put down by martial law. Tensions between Central Asians (especially Kazakhs) and Russian settlers led to large-scale massacres on both sides. Thousands died, and hundreds of thousands fled, most into the neighbouring Republic of China . The Central Asian revolt of 1916 was the first anti-Russian incident on
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#17327762700483058-654: The Russian Civil War began. Turkestani Muslim political movements attempted to form an autonomous government in the city of Kokand , in the Fergana Valley . The Bolsheviks launched an assault on Kokand in February 1918 and carried out a general massacre of up to 25,000 people. The massacre rallied support to the Basmachi who waged a guerrilla and conventional war that seized control of large parts of
3197-625: The Whites . Politically and militarily weak, the Muslim government began looking around for protection. To this end, a band of armed robbers led by Irgash Bey were amnestied and recruited to defend Kokand. This force, however, was unable to resist an attack on Kokand by the forces of the Tashkent Soviet. In February, 1918 the Red Army soldiers thoroughly pillaged Kokand, and carried out what
3336-618: The great powers in the region might have remained subdued had it not been for the dramatic change in government in Moscow brought about by the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. In their efforts to placate Muslims within their borders, the new Soviet leaders were eager to establish cordial relations with neighboring Muslim states. In the case of Afghanistan, the Soviets could achieve a dual purpose: by strengthening relations with
3475-463: The 17th of January, Inayatullah, unnerved by the lack of support from the Kabulis, surrendered to Kalakani and abdicated the throne. Kalakani allowed him to peacefully leave Kabul with his family and 3000 rupees. My brother, Habib Allah! It is known to all that i have no wish to be padishah . After the death of my father, I never harbored any desire for the throne. I was compelled to accept it only at
3614-556: The Afghan air force supplying the settlement with food and ammunition. Had the Safi been able to capture Kunar Khas, that may have resulted in the collapse of government control in the eastern province. By the end of October, most of the Safis, except for a few die-hards had come to terms with the Afghan government. This peace agreement included among other things the abandonment or postponement of Safi conscription. Aerial operations against
3753-523: The Afghan government used aircraft to drop leaflets, gun down tribesmen and drop incendiary bombs. It was rumoured that on one occasion, Afghan aircraft accidentally bombed and machine gunned government troops or allied tribal levies, causing 40 casualties. There were also a few minor accidents at the Jalalabad airfield, but the aircraft did not incur serious damage. Two aerial officers, Muhd Anwar Khan (pilot) and Abdul Vaqil Khan (observer) were killed in
3892-518: The Afghan government, on 11 January 1947. The Safi rose up in either 1944 or 1945. It started when an order to arrest the Safi leaders - Sultan Mohammad, Abdul Qadir, Mir Salam and Momoond Khan, came to the notice of Mir Salam who informed the other leaders and managed to incite a general uprising at Davagal and Badil among others. The conflict began when Safi rebels ambushed and captured government troops intended to gather conscripts. On 24 June 1945, 4 aircraft were dispatched to Jalalabad to deal with
4031-521: The Asmai Hill in the center of Kabul, and fired on the Emir's troops. Ghulam Ghaws, Whose father, Malik Jahandad Ahmadzai, had been executed following a rebellion, headed towards his hometown costs, carrying with him more than 300 rifles, armed the people there, and rose up against the government. Other tribes acted similarly because there was no control over the distribution of weapons. The battle took
4170-468: The Bagh-i Bala park. They also occupied Bagh-i Bala palace, formerly the summer residence of Abdur Rahman Khan , which had now been turned into a military hospital for the Emir's personal guard and the residence of a Turkish physician, Bahjet Beg . After disarming and dismissing the guards and the embassy, they stationed their own guards, reassuring the employees of the embassy that they were guests of
4309-503: The Basmachi as potential enemies due to the Pan-Turkist and Pan-Islamist ideologies that some of their leaders ascribed to. However, some Basmachi groups received support from British and Turkish intelligence services and in order to cut off this outside help, special military detachments of the Red Army masqueraded as Basmachi forces and successfully intercepted supplies. Although many fighters were motivated by calls for jihad ,
Afghan Civil War (1928–1929) - Misplaced Pages Continue
4448-403: The Basmachi declined. Resistance to Soviet leadership did flare up again, to a lesser extent, in response to collectivization campaigns in the pre- WWII era. The term "Basmachi" is of Uzbek origin and means "Bandit" or "Robber" which probably derived from "baskinji" meaning "Attacker". The Russians used the term for the Central Asian resistance fighters, and it was widely used throughout
4587-486: The Basmachi drew support from many ideological camps and major sectors of the population. At some point or another the Basmachi attracted the support of Jadid reformers, pan-Turkic ideologues and leftist Turkestani nationalists. Peasants and nomads, long opposed to Russian colonial rule, reacted with hostility to anti-Islamic policies and Soviet requisitioning of food and livestock. The fact that Bolshevism in Turkestan
4726-542: The Basmachi guerillas into an army of 16,000 men. By early 1922, a considerable part of the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic , including Samarkand and Dushanbe, was under Basmachi control. Meanwhile, Dungan Muslim Magaza Masanchi formed the Dungan Cavalry Regiment to fight for the Soviets against the Basmachi. Now fearing the total loss of Turkestan, the Soviet authorities once again adopted
4865-776: The Basmachi movement in the Khorezm Region was born. Before the end of the year, the Soviets deposed the Young Khivans government, and the Muslim nationalists fled to join Junaid, strengthening his forces considerably. In August of that year, the Emir of Bukhara was finally deposed when the Red Army conquered Bukhara . From exile in Afghanistan , the Emir directed the Bokhara Basmachi movement, supported by
5004-552: The Basmachi were relatively united at certain points, the movement suffered from atomization overall. Rivalry between various leaders and more serious ethnic disputes between Kyrgyz and Uzbeks or Turkmen posed major problems to the movement. The rebellion is featured in several " Osterns ", such as White Sun of the Desert , The Seventh Bullet , and The Bodyguard , and in the television series State Border . Afghan tribal revolts of 1944%E2%80%931947#Operations in
5143-458: The Basmachis and their accomplices. The yurts in the river valley including the villages of Aq Tepe and 'Aliabad where Basmachis were based, and the Basmachi's properties, were burned down, although the local Afghan population remained untouched. The Basmachis and accomplices lost 839 people, whereas the Soviet army had one loss (from drowning) and two injuries. After the Basmachi movement
5282-512: The Battle of Kafrun. The Red Army began to drive the rebels eastwards, retaking considerable territory. Enver himself was killed in a failed last-ditch cavalry charge on August 4, 1922, near Baldzhuan (in present-day Tajikistan ). His successor, Selim Pasha, continued the struggle but finally fled to Afghanistan in 1923. In July to August 1923, a large Soviet offensive succeeded at forcing the Basmachi out of Garm . A Basmachi presence remained in
5421-512: The Civil War, now bolstered by air support . The strategy of concessions with airstrikes was successful, and when in May 1922 Enver Pasha rejected a peace offer and issued an ultimatum demanding that all Red Army troops be withdrawn from Turkestan within fifteen days, Moscow was well prepared for a confrontation. In June 1922 Soviet units led by General Kakurin ( ru ) defeated the Basmachi forces in
5560-491: The Fergana Valley and much of Turkestan . The group's notable leaders were Enver Pasha and, later, Ibrahim Bek . The fortunes of the movement fluctuated throughout the early 1920s, but by 1923 the Red Army's extensive campaigns had dealt the Basmachis many defeats. After major Red Army campaigns and concessions regarding economic and Islamic practices in the mid-1920s, the military fortunes and popular support of
5699-581: The Ferghana Valley until 1924, and fighters there were led by Korşirmat (or Kurshirmat), who had renewed the revolt in 1920. British intelligence reported that Kurshirmat possessed forces of 5,000-6,000 men. After years of war, however, popular support for the Basmachi cause was drying up. Peasants wanted to return to work, especially now that Soviet policies had made Turkestan livable again. Kurshirmat's forces shrank to around 2,000, many resorting to banditry, and he soon fled to Afghanistan. Turkestan
Afghan Civil War (1928–1929) - Misplaced Pages Continue
5838-599: The Ferghana Valley. Cotton price-fixing during the First World War made matters worse, and a large, landless rural proletariat soon developed. Muslim clergy decried the gambling and alcoholism that became commonplace, and crime rose considerably. Major violence in Russian Turkestan broke out in 1916, when the Tsarist government ended its exemption of Muslims from military service. This caused
5977-618: The Hazarahjat, the Southern province, and elsewhere, and called on people to join him. Malik Qays of the Khugyani tribe, who had initially allied himself with Ali, defected to Kalakani, captured Ali and brought Ali to Kalakani in exchange for 17,000 rupees and the rank of lieutenant general, ending Ali's reign on 9 February. Sometime before 13 March, the Battle of Shaykhabad took place, 46 miles (74 km) from Kabul and halfway across
6116-494: The Islamic month of Sha'ban . Rejoiced, Kalakani and 28 armed men, accompanied by a group of unarmed Kuhdamanis passed through the village of Dih-i Afghanan and attacked the capital, shouting "ya chahar yar" slogans and firing guns at the air. On the very first day of his reign, Inayatullah was forced to barricade himself in the Arg with several of his ministers. On the 16th of January, while 80 Hazaras from Bihsud were defending
6255-654: The Kabul-Ghazni road. It was here where Karim Khan Wardak , who refused to pledge allegiance to Kalakani, had made defensive preparations. Around this time, Abd al-Wakil Khan , who had earlier been appointed field marshal by Kalakani, was dispatched to Ghazni and Qandahar with a force of 3,000 men. When Abd al-Wakil reached the village of Bini Badam and Qalah-i Durrani, 30 miles (48 kilometres) from Kabul, he halted there to deal with Karim Khan Wardak's forces, only then to proceed. But Karim Khan, along with Wazir and Hazara leaders who had gathered in support of Aman Allah, sent
6394-748: The Karakum desert. The Basmachi movement had ended by 1934. Indigenous leaders began to cooperate with Soviet authorities and large numbers of Central Asians joined the Soviet Communist Party under Lenin and Stalin 's indigenization policy. Many gained high positions in the governments of the Uzbek, Tajik, Kyrgyz, Kazakh and Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republics , formed out of the Turkestani Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in 1924. During
6533-592: The Kokand Autonomous Government. This was to be the nucleus of an autonomous state in Turkestan, governed by Sharia law. The Tashkent Soviet initially recognized the authority of Kokand , but restricted its jurisdiction to the Muslim old section of Tashkent, and demanded the final say in regional affairs. After violent riots in Tashkent, relations broke down, and despite the leftist leanings of many of its members, Kokand aligned itself with
6672-570: The Qalah-i Buland Fortress, as well as the arsenal at Kulula Pasha, some officials declared their allegiance to Kalakani. These included Shayr Ahmad, head of the national council, Fayz Muhammad Khan, former minister of trade, Abd al-Hadi Khan, the minister of finance, and the sons of Abdur Rahman Khan : Mir Hashim, Sardar Amin Allah Khan, Muhammad Umar Khan, as well as a number of deputy ministers and heads of state bureaus. On
6811-540: The Safi uprising to "extremely brutal taxation, oppression and poverty". The operations which would be officially dubbed the Operations in the Southern Province against Mazrak began in February 1944. There are multiple accounts as to how this conflict began. According to British records, it began shortly after the Afghan government moved troops into the southern province to reassert their authority in
6950-403: The Safi. Bombs and incendiaries caused extensive damage to Safi villages. One aircraft with 3 bombs, 1 vickers machine gun and 1 Lewis gun was lost during operations against the Safis. Among the villages bombed were the villages of Pacheyano Banda and Tanar. In one of the bombardments of the latter village, 11 members of a family were killed and the rest of the family members were unable to bury
7089-485: The Safis in the Kunar valley ended in early November. In either 1945 or 1946, the Safi leaders, Shahswar , Said Muhd, Salim Khan and Allahdadd Khan fled to Mohmand tribal territory in the British Raj. An oral account from 1983 described the revolt as follows: I think the Safi War [ safi jang ] was in 1945. It continued for a year and stopped in the winter of 1946. The government secretly planted some paid spies among
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#17327762700487228-509: The Safis. However, further evidence of this has not been found. The Afghan government armed Nuristani and Shinwari tribesmen to fight the Safi. At one point in the rebellion, Safi rebels looted the government treasury in Chagha Serai . Starting in late August 1945, 1,500-2,000 Safi rebels besieged a 400-men strong government garrison at Kunar Khas . This siege lasted 14 days, with the Safi being unable to capture Kunar Khas due to
7367-466: The Shinwari claimed that this revolt was "not so much anti-Amanullah as against the local tax-collectors at Jelalabad". The initial response of the government was to send a small contingent to relieve Jalalabad, which was halted at Nimla, 20 miles (32 km) west of Jalalabad, before that force found itself surrounded and destroyed shortly after. Thereafter, Amanullah sent two representatives to suppress
7506-461: The Shinwari uprising, and armed tribesmen from the east, south and west, which included Waziri, Wardak, Ghilzai and Tajik tribesmen, but also more recently the Mangal tribesmen (who recently were at war with Amanullah's government) trickled into the capital to help. These men had no particular loyalty to the government and saw the situation simply as an opportunity for enrichment. As it turned out, there
7645-507: The Southern Province against Mazrak Rebel tribes: The Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947 or the Khost disturbances were a series of tribal revolts in the Kingdom of Afghanistan by Zadran , Safi and Mangal tribesmen which lasted from February 1944 to January 1947. The causes of the revolts lay in the worsening conditions of farmers, changes in conscription laws, the elimination of
7784-617: The Soviet leadership at a given time; Afghanistan was either viewed as a tool for dealing with Soviet Muslim minorities or for threatening the British. Whereas the Soviets sought Amanullah's assistance in suppressing anti- Bolshevik elements in Central Asia in return for help against the British, the Afghans were more interested in regaining lands across the Amu Darya lost to Russia in the nineteenth century. Afghan attempts to regain
7923-465: The Sovietization of Central Asia, Islam became the focus of antireligious campaigns. The government closed most mosques, repressing Islamic clerics and targeting symbols of Islamic identity such as the veil. Uzbeks who remained practicing Muslims were deemed nationalist and often targeted for imprisonment or execution. Stalinist collectivization and industrialization proceeded as elsewhere in the Soviet Union. The Basmachi movement has been characterized as
8062-537: The Tsarist government policy of ethnic homogenization. In the aftermath of the February Revolution of 1917, Muslim political forces began to organize. Members of the All-Russian Muslim council formed the Shura -i Islam (Islamic Council), a Jadidist body that sought a federated, democratic state with autonomy for Muslims. More conservative religious scholars formed the Ulema Jemyeti (Board of Learned Men), more concerned with safeguarding Islamic institutions and Sharia law . Together, these Muslim nationalists formed
8201-471: The adoption of a military draft, which had earlier led to the unsuccessful Alizai rebellion and Khost rebellion . Kalakani denounced his opponents as kuffar , while his forces committed acts of rape and looting. After capturing Kabul, the Saqqawists defeated a rival government in Jalalabad led by Ali Ahmad Khan on 9 February. Despite a setback in the Battle of Shaykhabad in early March, the Saqqawists managed to extend their control to Kandahar in June after
8340-462: The aircraft. 2-3 villages were said to have been destroyed by incendiary bombs during this time. On request of the Afghan government, the British Raj took precautions to prevent Waziri tribesmen from aiding Mazrak. During the period of 1 August to 31 October 1944, no major Afghan aerial operations against Mazrak were undertaken, other than reconnaissance flights. Around this time, Mazrak was subject to heavy bombardment in British territory, where he
8479-413: The angry populace and clergy. Fighters operated on behalf of the Emir and were under the command of Ibrahim Bey, a tribal leader. Basmachi forces operated with success in both Khiva and Bokhara for an extended period. The insurgency also began spreading to Kazakhstan , as well as the Tajik and Turkmen lands. In November 1921, Enver Pasha , former Turkish war minister and one of the key architects of
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#17327762700488618-570: The area, which by then was a safe haven for smugglers. En route, the government force was attacked by a Zadian tribal leader named Mazrak . According to a later Pakistani inquiry, the conflict began after the Afghan government raided Mazrak's summer homes at the Taragharai hills and his winter home at Almara , since Mazrak was suspected of housing Amanullah loyalist elements. For the following 3 months, Mazrak would carry out small raids from his new headquarters in Surkot. Government troops attempted to take Mount Almar in March 1944, but failed. Mazrak
8757-633: The army; in 1924 Nadir Khan left the government to become ambassador to France. If fully enacted, Amānullāh's reforms would have totally transformed Afghanistan. Most of his proposals, however, died with his abdication. His transforming social and educational reforms included: adopting the solar calendar, requiring Western dress in parts of Kabul and elsewhere, discouraging the veiling and seclusion of women, abolishing slavery and forced labor, introducing secular education (for girls as well as boys); adult-education classes and educating nomads. His economic reforms included restructuring, reorganizing and rationalizing
8896-402: The border. The British responded by refusing to address Amanullah as "Your Majesty," and imposing restrictions on the transit of goods through India. Amānullāh's domestic reforms were no less dramatic than his foreign policy initiatives, but those reforms could not match his achievement of complete, lasting independence. Mahmud Tarzi , Amanullah's father-in-law and Foreign Minister , encouraged
9035-431: The capture of Kandahar on 3 June, the Saqqawists were eventually deposed by anti-Saqqawist forces led by Nadir on 13 October 1929, leading to Nadir's ascension as King of Afghanistan, who ruled until his assassination on 3 November 1933. The war began when the Shinwari tribe revolted in Jalalabad and drew a manifesto of 10 grievances, 5 of which related to Amanullah's meddling with the status of women. Although this revolt
9174-437: The causes behind the Safi revolt lay in the change in Safi conscription laws. For many years prior to the uprising, the accepted procedure for enlisting military recruits - known as the qaumi , or "tribal" method - had been for individual tribes to supply a certain number of men of their own choosing; these men would always serve together and generally in locations that were not far removed from their homes. Several years prior to
9313-431: The cavalry of the Emir's personal guard and a few other loyal soldiers actually put up a fight against Kalakani's forces. The rest of the army was in a mutinous mood, as their officers had been appropriating the soldier's rations. Holding their commanders rather than the rebels to blame for the trouble, when ordered to shoot, the soldiers simply fired their weapons in the air. Tumult and confusion were now widespread. The emir
9452-401: The city of Mazar-i-Sharif and Tashqurghan . During the Soviet operation the Basmachi continued raiding across the border, capturing Kalai-Liabob on 20 April, and on 21 April capturing Nimichi, 35 kilometres east of Garm, after an intense battle. Between 20 and 22 April, further Basmachi units crossed into the Soviet Union, one of which made it as far as Tavildara before being turned back by
9591-412: The civil war, Nadir did not cede control of the Afghan throne back to Amanullah, and this led to several rebellions, including the Shinwari rebellion , the Kuhistan rebellion , the Ghilzai rebellion , and Mazrak's revolt . During World War II , Amanullah would unsuccessfully try to regain the throne with Axis help. Amānullāh Khān reigned in Afghanistan from 1919, achieving full independence from
9730-404: The civil war, although Saqqawist activity continued until 1931, with the fall of their final holdout, Herat . The civil war was fought concurrently with a Soviet operation in northern Afghanistan to fight the Basmachi movement . Both sides suffered around 7500 combat deaths during the civil war. During the anti-Saqqawist capture of Kabul, Nadir's forces sacked the city against his orders. After
9869-562: The countryside surrounding Tashkent. Irgash Bey faced rival commanders such as Madamin Bey , who was supported by more moderate Muslim factions, but he secured formal, nominal leadership of the movement at a council in March 1919. With the Tashkent Soviet in a vulnerable military position, the Bolsheviks left Russian settlers to organize their own defense by creating the Peasant Army of Fergana . This often involved brutal reprisals for Basmachi attacks by Soviet forces and Russian farmers both. The harsh policies of War Communism , however, caused
10008-590: The course of his uprising, Mazrak was joined by other rebel leaders, such as Sultan Ahmad and Abdurrahman (nicknamed "Pak"). Concurrently, Mohammed Daoud Khan fought against the Safi in the Eastern Province . The Mangal tribe rose up in June 1945. A 14-day long Safi siege of Kunar Khas was unsuccessful due to the Afghan air force supplying the settlement with food and ammunition. The Safi were defeated in late 1946, and Mazrak surrendered on 11 January 1947, ending
10147-410: The dead in the village graveyard due to the threat of further bombardment. Instead they buried the dead in front of the family home, where they remained as of 2011. During this rebellion, it was rumoured among the Safi that the government intended to ship women off to Kabul to become prostitutes. Among the more enthusiastic rebel fighters were younger men with more to gain and less to lose from fighting
10286-604: The end of March 1929. In mid-March 1929, two raids were undertaken by the Afghan Basmachi into the Soviet Union, the first into Amu Darya, south-west of Kulyab , and the second was undertaken by Kurbashi Kerim Berdoi with 100 Basmachi troops. Both incursions were defeated. Further incursions were repelled on 17 March and 7 April. On 12 April, Basmachi insurgents successfully crossed the Panj River and captured
10425-515: The entire tax structure, anti-smuggling and anti-corruption campaigns, a livestock census for taxation purposes, the first budget (in 1922), implementing the metric system (which did not take hold), establishing the Bank-i-Melli (National Bank) in 1928, and introducing the Afghani as the new unit of currency in 1923. The political and judicial reforms Amānullāh proposed were equally radical for
10564-607: The evidence indicates that Bačča-ye Saqqā [Kalakani]'s rise was due solely to the internal disintegration of King Amān-Allāh's régime, there can be no doubt that British policy, tacit rather than explicit, helped to bring about Bačča-ye Saqqā's fall". After coming to power in Afghanistan, the Saqqawists allowed Basmachi insurgents to operate in northern Afghanistan, who then had established themselves in parts of Kunduz, Takhar and Badakshshan provinces by March 1929. Repeated Basmachi incursions into Soviet territory eventually prompted
10703-452: The face of Amanullah Khan's reforms in regard to women. Amānullāh's reforms touched on many areas of Afghan life. In 1921 he established an air force, albeit with only a few Soviet planes and pilots; Afghan personnel later received training in France , Italy and Turkey. Although he came to power with army support, Amanullah alienated many army personnel by reducing both their pay and size of
10842-559: The faithful won recognition by the clergy of the Ferghana Valley , and he soon controlled a sizable fighting force. Widespread nationalization campaigns carried out from Tashkent had caused economic collapse, and the Ferghana Valley faced famine in absence of grain imports. All these factors drove people to join the Basmachi. The Tashkent Soviet was unable to contain the insurgency, and the end of 1918 decentralized bands of fighters, totaling roughly 20,000, controlled Ferghana and
10981-495: The few texts that do discuss the revolt, there is disagreement about when it started and ended. The following table summarizes different information provided by various texts. (Duration: 1 year) The Mangal tribe rose up in Gardez in June 1945. Afghanistan had obtained Hawker Hind aircraft from Britain, purchasing 8 aircraft in 1937 and an additional 20 in 1939. During the tribal revolts of 1944–1947, these would come in use as
11120-609: The following: Once your army has passed through, we promise to go to Kabul and offer our oath of allegiance to the Amir with sincere hearts. Basmachi Tens of thousands of civilians killed. Several hundred thousand Kazakh and Kyrgyz people killed or evicted with an unknown amount dying to famine according to Sokol. Alternative estimate: The Basmachi movement ( Russian : Басмачество , romanized : Basmachestvo , derived from Uzbek : Босмачи , romanized: Bosmachi , lit. 'bandits')
11259-607: The forces and by altering recruiting patterns to prevent tribal leaders from controlling who joined the service. Amanullah's Turkish advisers suggested the king retire the older officers, men who were set in their ways and might resist the formation of a more professional army. Amanullah's minister of war, General Muhammad Nadir Khan , a member of the Musahiban branch of the royal family, opposed these changes, preferring instead to recognize tribal sensitivities. The king rejected Nadir Khan's advice and an anti-Turkish faction took root in
11398-460: The game." Numerous commentators, in Afghanistan and elsewhere, claimed that British intelligence played a part in the fall of Amanullah; a theory which was prominent amongst Soviet historiography. According to Encyclopædia Iranica , While it can not be dismissed out of hand, the fact remains that no evidence to support it can be found in the copious British Indian archives pertaining to this period. There can be no doubt, however, that behind
11537-585: The government. The Safi elected a monarch of their own, named Salemai , as well as a Prime Minister ( Amanat Lewana ) and a Minister of Defence ( Amanul Mulk ). Some contemporary British records reported that the three Bādshāh Guls (i.e. grandsons of the Akhund of Swat) were active in support of the Kabul government while the Gul Şāḥib of Babra was secretly urging his followers in Chaharmung and Bajaur to support
11676-414: The ground. On 3 December 1928, Amanullah then decided to send his brother-in-law, Ali Ahmad Khan Luynab, to deal with the problem, and sent him off with regular troops, militia levies, and a sizable treasury with which to conciliate the tribal leaders. Ghulam Siddiq and Shayr Ahmad were ordered back to Kabul. In the meantime, calls had gone out for tribal levies to assist the regular army in dealing with
11815-470: The guards there on 30 April. On 22 April, the Basmachi captured Garm, which the Soviets recaptured either the same day or the next day. On 24 April, the Soviets began a large counteroffensive, and recaptured Kalai-Liabob that same day. On 3 May, the last Basmachi units retreated into Afghanistan. The Red Army had planned to head for Kabul to take it back from the Saqqawists to Amanullah Khan. However
11954-504: The insistence of the leaders who linked my accession to the throne with the prosperity of the people and the strengthening of Islam. But now, as I see the blood of Muslims being shed, I have decided to relinquish my claim to the Afghan Emirate and give you my oath of allegiance like other true-believing Muslims. Having become King of Afghanistan, Kalakani appointed a number of people into office, including: On 9 May, Kalakani passed
12093-670: The king. In the early morning of 14 January, Amanullah abdicated the throne to his oldest brother, Inayatullah Khan , who ruled for only three days before escaping into exile in British-India. Amanullah's efforts to recover power by leading a small, ill-equipped force toward Kabul failed. The deposed king crossed the border into British-India and went into exile in Italy and remained in Europe until his 1960 death in Zürich , Switzerland . At
12232-608: The leadership in Kabul , they could also threaten Britain, which was one of the Western states supporting counter-revolution in the Soviet Union. In his attempts to end British control of Afghan foreign policy, Amanullah sent an emissary to Moscow in 1919; Vladimir Lenin received the envoy warmly and responded by sending a Soviet representative to Kabul to offer aid to Amānullāh's government. Throughout Amānullāh's reign, Soviet-Afghan relations fluctuated according to Afghanistan's value to
12371-520: The leftist Young Bukharans faction led by Fayzulla Xoʻjayev . Russian troops were repulsed by the Bukharan populace after a period of looting, and the Emir retained his throne for the time-being. In the Khanate of Khiva , Basmachi leader Junaid Khan overthrew the Russian puppet and suppressed the modernizing movement of the leftist Young Khivans . Irgash Bey 's claims to leadership of an army of
12510-458: The locals proclaimed Ali as the new Emir upon receiving the news of Kalakani's accession. Ali then marched his troops on Samucha-i Mulla Omar, Tangi Khurd Kabul, and Chanri, and took up positions there. At the head of a 2,000 men strong army and a tribal militia, he marched to Jagdalak, where he waited for a force of Mohmands who had promised to join him. Over the course of 23 to 29 January, Ali sent out proclamations of his new emirate to Kabul, Logar,
12649-620: The monarch's interest in social and political reform but urged that it be gradually built upon the basis of a strong central government, as had occurred in Turkey under Kemal Atatürk . Socially, Amanullah enjoyed many of Mahmud Tarzi 's thoughts at the time, such as giving women more rights and allowing freedom of press through publishing. Tarzi, being heavily influenced by the West, brought this influence to Afghanistan – Amanullah enjoyed Western dress and etiquette. His wife, Queen Soraya Tarzi , became
12788-493: The nation and as such no harm would come to them. The rebels also managed to enter the house and fortress tower of Shahr Ara, which was defended by Shawkat Beg, a Turkish officer who was the son of Muhammad Akbar Khan. His small force, as well as a group of cavalry officers, managed to prevent the Rebels from entering the old city. As the battle continued, the whole city was filled the sounds of artillery and gunfire. However, only
12927-495: The north. Kalakani was a native of Kalakan , a village thirty kilometers north of Kabul. In late November, they besieged Jabal al-Siraj , north of Kabul, and on either 11 or 12 December, after 18 days of siege, Ahmad Ali Lodi peacefully surrendered the citadel, handing over all government funds as well as 18 machine guns, and an unspecified number of heavy weapons and rifles. Emboldened by the victory, Kalakani attacked Kabul with 2000 men (only 200 of which were armed with rifles, and
13066-499: The oases of Merv and Panjdeh were easily subdued by the Soviet Red Army . In May 1921, the Afghans and the Soviets signed a Treaty of Friendship, Afghanistan's first international agreement since gaining full independence in 1919. The Soviets provided Amanullah with aid in the form of cash, technology and military equipment. Despite this, Amanullah grew increasingly disillusioned with the Soviets, especially as he witnessed
13205-464: The operation was halted after Moscow heard that Amanullah Khan had fled to the British Raj in exile on 23 May. In addition, international resentment (at a time the Soviet Union attempted to gain international recognition) was also cited as a reason for canceling the operation. The last Soviet unit crossed back from Afghanistan in June 1929. After the Saqqawists lost the civil war and Kalakani
13344-518: The operations, while another aerial officer, a pilot, fell into the hands of the rebels in the Mazar or Pech Daras, where he was knifed in the back and had his throat cut, but survived after local villagers found him laying unconscious near his aircraft and tended to his wounds. An incomplete list of aerial reconnaissance operations of note is listed below. With the defeat of the Safi and the surrender of Mazrak in late 1946 and January 1947 respectively,
13483-481: The peasants' army to sour on the Tashkent Soviet. In May 1919, Madamin Bey formed an alliance with the settlers, entailing a non-aggression pact and a coalition army. The new allies made plans for establishing a joint Russian-Muslim state, with power sharing arrangements and cultural rights for both groups. Disputes over the Islamic orientation of the Basmachi led to the break-up of the alliance, however, and both Madamin and
13622-421: The people. Approximately five hundred families were exiled after the war. I remember. They brought lorries. I was still small, and I was very happy that I would see a new world. The adult men and some of the women were crying. This exile suddenly came upon our family. I was just small, and I heard that my father had come. He had been in prison along with my uncle. Just one of my uncles was at home. One of my brothers
13761-465: The power of Safi tribal leaders, Amanullah loyalism , trading monopolies, government surveillance, taxation, and poverty. The conflict began when government forces clashed with the forces of a tribal leader named Mazrak , who led the Zadran tribe in revolt. The Zadran uprising was followed by additional uprisings by the Safi and Mangal, the former of which elected their own king, Salemai . Faqir of Ipi ,
13900-514: The previous agreement. The two nations disagreed, however, on the issue that had plagued Anglo-Afghan relations for decades and would continue to cause friction for many more — authority over Pashtun tribes on both sides of the Durand Line . The British refused to concede Afghan control over the tribes on the British side of the line while the Afghans insisted on it. The Afghans regarded the 1921 agreement as only an informal one. The rivalry of
14039-437: The region to denote them, in an attempt to persuade the public that the fighters were no more than criminals. Prior to World War I , Russian Turkestan was ruled from Tashkent as a Krai or Governor-Generalship. To the east of Tashkent, the Ferghana Valley was an ethnically diverse, densely populated region that was divided between settled farmers (often called Sarts ) and nomads (mostly Kyrgyz). Under Russian rule, it
14178-524: The rest armed with sticks and axes) on 14 December 1928. He and his forces entered the Murad Beg Fort on the northern slopes of the Kuh-i Kutal, nearby the village of Khayr Khanah. The rebels, feeling that deposing an emir would be against the shariah, performed a ritual and declared Kalakani the new emir, and then passed through the village of Dih-i Kupak at 3:00 PM. Around 3:15 PM, they reached
14317-683: The revolts had come to a close. Hundreds of Safi were killed in the revolts, and following their defeat, the Kunar valley was ethnically cleansed of Safi Pashtuns. Other Safis, around 500 families, were exiled to Herat, Kabul or to Sholgara District . Veterans of the Afghan army who fought against the Safi were awarded the Royal Medal for the Suppression of the Rebellion in Kunar Province. The silver medal bears an inscription and
14456-504: The revolts. According to Alexander Davydov, causes of the revolts lay in the worsening conditions of farmers. Farmers and landlords were required to forfeit one-third of their harvest to the government, a practice referred to as sekoti . They would then have to transport the harvests to government warehouses in Bar Kunar (Asmar) and Kuz Kanar (Khewa) districts. At the time, this could only be achieved with animal-powered transport . It
14595-526: The royal family. Although sharia (Islamic law) was to be the residual source of law, it regained prominence after the Khost rebellion of 1924–25. Religious leaders, who had gained influence under Habibullah Khan , were unhappy with Amānullāh's extensive religious reforms. Conventional wisdom holds that the tribal revolt that overthrew Amanullah grew out of opposition to his reform program, although those people most affected by his reforms were urban dwellers not universally opposed to his policies, rather than
14734-617: The settlers suffered defeats at the hands of the Muslim Volga Tatar Red Brigade. The inhabitants of the Ferghana Valley were exhausted after the punishing winter of 1919-20, and Madamin Bey defected to the Soviet side in March. Meanwhile, famine relief reached the region under the more moderate New Economic Policy , while land reform and amnesty placated Ferghana residents. As a result, the Basmachi movement lost control of most populated areas and shrank overall. The pacification of Ferghana did not last long. During
14873-491: The stance of official neutrality which the British maintained throughout the crisis of 1929 lay an unwillingness to help Amān-Allāh to reconquer his throne and a benevolence toward the moves of Nāder Khan. While the Soviet authorities favored Amān-Allāh (though reluctantly) and aided a foray on his behalf by Ḡolām Nabī Čarḵī in the Balḵ region, the British authorities allowed Nāder Khan to reenter Afghanistan through India and to obtain
15012-584: The start of a Soviet operation in Afghanistan . The Iranian military attache, Colonel Ali Khan, was under instruction by Reza Shah to protect the Shiite community of Afghanistan to the greatest possible extent that would not invite a Saqqawist attack on Iran. While Germany itself was uninvolved in the war, the Afghan-German Trading Company was requested by Kalakani to assassinate Amanullah Khan on 15 April 1929, and were promised
15151-433: The summer of 1920 the Soviets felt secure enough to requisition food and mobilize Muslim conscripts. The result was a renewed uprising and new Basmachi groups proliferated, fueled by religious slogans. Renewed conflict would see the Basmachi movement spread across Turkestan. In January 1920, the Red Army captured Khiva and set up a Young Khivan provisional government. Junaid Khan fled into the desert with his followers, and
15290-534: The surrender of Shahswar, Said Muhd, Salim Khan and Allahdadd Khan, the sale of grain to the government at reasonable rates, and the despatch of Safi youths to Kabul for education. It is unclear if the Safi accepted these terms, but all sources agree that the Safi uprising had subsided by the end of 1946. The events of this uprising are known as the Year of the Safi ( Safi kal ). The Safi uprising has received very little attention from scholars and researchers. Among
15429-427: The time and included the creation of Afghanistan's first constitution (in 1923), the guarantee of civil rights (first by decree and later constitutionally), national registration and identity cards for the citizenry, the establishment of a legislative assembly, a court system to enforce new secular penal, civil and commercial codes, prohibition of blood money, and abolition of subsidies and privileges for tribal chiefs and
15568-518: The time of his abdication, Amanullah's troops were fighting in the Khayr Khanah (Khirskhanah) pass, seven miles (11 km) north of Kabul. After ascending to the Afghan throne, Inayatullah Khan sent a peace envoy to Kalakani. The envoy informed Kalakani that Inayatullah's accession had been illegal in accordance to the shariah , since Kalakani had ascended the throne in the Islamic month of Rajab , and Inayatullah's accession had taken place in
15707-511: The town of Togmai. Soon after, this force then reached Dzafr and Kevron. On 13 April, the Basmachi captured Qal'ai Khumb . and a few days later, occupied Gashion, and on the 15th, they captured Vanch, which the Soviets recaptured the next day. Because of the Basmachi attacks, the Soviet Union dispatched a small force into Afghanistan from Termez on April 15, commanded by Vitaly Primakov , to support ousted Afghan King Amanullah Khan . This Red Army force of 700 to 1,000 eventually took control of
15846-469: The tribes caused the failure of the movement, and Malang had disappeared into obscurity by March 1945. By this time, the situation of the Afghan government was the most critical since the Ghilzai rebellion of 1938 - their aerial capacity was limited by a shortage in bombs, their resources were stretched between the southern and eastern provinces, and the general population was discontented by high prices and
15985-478: The tribes. Nevertheless, the king had managed to alienate religious leaders and army members. According to a later British ambassador in Afghanistan, William Kerr Fraser-Tytler , the British Empire, though officially neutral, was very concerned about the situation in Afghanistan and they "made up a set of rules to govern the situation. It was unneutral to refuse an Afghan entry into Afghanistan, but once he
16124-500: The uprising – his foreign minister, Ghulam Siddiq Khan , and the head of the National Council, Shayr Ahmad Khan . However, In late November, they had a falling out, and according to Fayz Muhammad , were negotiating separately with the tribes. Ghulam Siddiq is said to have incited some of the Shinwari to attack Shayr Ahmad Khan, the main consequence of which was that the Shinwari burned the Emir's winter palace in Jalalabad to
16263-403: The uprising, however, the government had insisted on employing a system referred to as nufus , or "population", in which the army conscripted its recruits directly from the population without consultation with any tribal body. The previous system was beneficial to the tribe, especially the tribal elders, who decided who would serve. The new procedure eliminated the power of Safi tribal leaders, and
16402-532: The village of Shaykh Muhammad Riza-yi Khurasani which lies in the Paghman District , 6 miles (9.7 km) west of Kabul Following his takeover, Kalakani, fearful of a counterattack by the Amanullah loyalists, swiftly moved the treasury to Kudhaman. The first concerted opposition to Kalakani came from Ali Ahmad Khan , who was still stationed in Jalalabad after suppressing the Shinwari revolt. There,
16541-467: The widening oppression of his fellow Muslims across the border. Anglo-Afghan relations soured over British fear of an Afghan-Soviet friendship, especially with the introduction of a few Soviet planes into Afghanistan. British unease increased when Amanullah maintained contacts with Indian nationalists and gave them asylum in Kabul, and also when he sought to stir up unrest among the Pashtun tribes across
16680-650: Was an uprising against Imperial Russian and Soviet rule in Central Asia by rebel groups inspired by Islamic beliefs . The movement's roots lay in the anti-conscription violence of 1916 which erupted when the Russian Empire began to draft Muslims for army service in World War I . In the months following the October 1917 Revolution , the Bolsheviks seized power in many parts of the Russian Empire and
16819-463: Was at the military high school. People arrived - all of a sudden. We heard. One or two people said, "Look!" They were all wearing normal country clothes - not uniforms. I thought that people were coming, and it was announced that my father had been released from prison. My father would be back home with us the next day. I was happy. [It was as though] the Jeshen (Independence Day) celebrations had begun. I
16958-633: Was at this point exhausted by war. 200,000 people had fled Tajik lands, leaving two-thirds of arable land abandoned. Lesser devastation could be observed in Ferghana. In January 1929, after coming to power in Afghanistan during the Afghan Civil War (1928–1929) , Habibullāh Kalakāni allowed Basmachi insurgents to operate in northern Afghanistan, who then had established themselves in Imanseiide, Khan Abad , Rostaq , Taloqan , Fayzabad by
17097-436: Was carefully controlled as to not "touch" the farms and property of locals as to not affect their nationalistic or religious feelings. This was relatively successful, as the Afghan locals were friendly and guided them. Ibrahim Bek initially wanted to fight but after hearing of the cavalry's strength and lack of local Afghan sympathy, he halted plans. As a result the Soviets did not face organized resistance and managed to eliminate
17236-424: Was converted into a major cotton -growing region. The resulting economic development brought some small-scale industry to the region, but several scholars suggest that native shop workers were worse off than their Russian counterparts, and the new wealth from cotton was spread unevenly; many farmers became indebted. Many criminals organized into bands, forming the basis for the early Basmachi movement when it began in
17375-523: Was described as a " pogrom ," in which as many as 25,000 people died. This massacre, along with the execution of many Ferghana peasants who were suspected of hoarding cotton and food, incensed the Muslim population. Irgash Bey took up arms against the Soviets, declaring himself "Supreme Leader of the Islamic Army", and the Basmachi rebellion started in earnest. Meanwhile, Soviet troops temporarily deposed Emir Sayeed Alim Khan of Bukhara in favor of
17514-498: Was destroyed as a political and military force, the fighters who remained hidden in mountainous areas conducted a guerrilla war. The Basmachi uprising had died out in most parts of Central Asia by 1926. However, skirmishes and occasional fighting along the border with Afghanistan continued until the early 1930s. Junaid Khan threatened Khiva in 1926, but was finally exiled in 1928. Two prominent commanders, Faizal Maksum and Ibrahim Bey, continued to operate out of Afghanistan and conducted
17653-403: Was dominated by Russian colonists in Tashkent made Tsarist and Soviet rule appear identical. The ranks of the Basmachi were filled with those left jobless by poor economic conditions, and those who felt that they were opposing an attack on their way of life. The first Basmachi fighters were bandits, as their name suggests, and they reverted to brigandage as the movement fizzled later on. Although
17792-415: Was executed, the Afghan prime minister Mohammad Hashim Khan on behalf of the new king, Mohammed Nader Shah , demanded Ibrahim Bek to lay down arms against the Soviet Union, but he refused. Afghanistan and Soviet Union agreed for another intervention, launched by the Red Army in June 1930 and commanded by Colonel Yakov Melkumov . The cavalry brigade advanced 50–70 km inland in northern Afghanistan and
17931-498: Was forced to retreat into the hills following an attack by the Afghan government on 22 April 1944. On 25 April, the Afghan government dispatched 6 Hawker Hind aircraft to Gardez to deal with the uprising, which returned on 21 June. During that operation, the Hind aircraft were focused on dropping leaflets and incendiary bombs. No large explosives were dropped, but there were several instances of hostile tribesmen being gunned down by
18070-422: Was fought from 14 November 1928 to 13 October 1929. Rebelling, and subsequently governing Saqqawist ( Saqāwīhā ) forces under Habibullāh Kalakāni fought against various opposing tribes and rival monarchs in the Kingdom of Afghanistan , among whom Mohammed Nādir Khān eventually achieved a preponderant role. Despite early successes, such as the capture of Kabul and defeat of Amanullah Khan on 17 January 1929 or
18209-478: Was furious when he heard of the mutiny, and ordered all the weapons to be distributed to the residents of Kabul and to the tribesmen who had come into the city but had not yet left for Jalalabad to fight the Shinwari. However, the near-universal loathing of the Afghans for Amanullah led to the majority of them refusing to take up arms against Kalakani. To make matters worse for Amanullah, Some Waziri, Mangal and Ahmadzai tribesmen defected to Kalakani, took up positions on
18348-433: Was in he became a contestant, and it would be unneutral to allow him to recross the border, seeking a brief asylum before plunging again into the fray. And so in a mixture of the rules of cricket and football it was ordained that a player might go on the field once, and play for the crown. But if he was forced into touch, and recrossed the line, whether voluntarily or not, he was 'out' and the referee would not let him back into
18487-463: Was no need to send them to Jalalabad, Ali Ahmad managed to conciliate the Shinwari leaders and put an end to the uprising, but as it took a while for this news to spread through the countryside, the levy tribesmen continued to arrive in the capital. Amanullah presumably welcomed the news of the reconciliation. However, any feeling of relief would have been very temporary – forces led by a Tajik leader, Habibullah Kalakani , were moving toward Kabul from
18626-418: Was often used in Soviet sources because of its pejorative meaning. The Soviets portrayed the movement as being composed of brigands motivated by Islamic fundamentalism , waging a counterrevolutionary war with the support of British agents. In reality, the Basmachi were a diverse and multi-faceted group that received negligible foreign aid. The Basmachi were not viewed favorably by Western Powers , who saw
18765-433: Was quelled by a force led by Ali Ahmad Khan , a concurrent Saqqawist uprising in the north managed to capture the besieged city of Jabal al-Siraj, before attacking Kabul on 14 December 1928. Although the first Saqqawist assault on Kabul was repulsed, the second Saqqawist assault succeeded at capturing Kabul on 17 January 1929. The government at that time was focused on social reforms, such as the expansion of women's rights and
18904-443: Was sheltered by local tribesmen, after which he retreated back to Afghan territory. During his brief stay in the British Raj, Mazrak was joined by Sultan Ahmed, a rebel chieftain from Balochistan. They were later joined by another rebel leader nicknamed Pak. In November 1944, the appearance of a mysterious Malang who posed as the brother of Amanullah temporarily helped boost Mazrak's fortunes, but lack of money with which to bribe
19043-442: Was thus fiercely resisted. One of the rebel leaders, Mazrak , supported the restoration of Amanullah Khan , a king of Afghanistan who was deposed in the Afghan Civil War (1928–1929) . According to British records, the Safi uprising was caused by the Afghan government's attempts to institute conscription among the Safi, trading monopolies granted to Afghan merchant companies, and government surveillance. Whit Mason attributes
19182-535: Was very commonplace for officials to delay acceptance of the deposit and question the quality of their produce. In order to be relieved from dues, farmers and landlords would often have to pay bribes. Despite this, the government of the Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978) would, decades after the revolts, claim that the peasantry supported the Afghan government and that Safi tribes looted the peasant's homes and businesses in retaliation. According to David B. Edwards,
19321-433: Was very happy. They were all armed, and as soon as they had come, they suddenly captured my family. Two or three hundred people, all dressed in civilian clothes, all are with the government, they captured us and said, "In the morning, you will be leaving." On 23 November 1946, Mohammed Dauod Khan gave the remaining Safi peace terms, which included the return of rifles and small arms ammunition captured from government troops,
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