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76-723: [REDACTED] Look up cnf in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. CNF may refer to: Carbon-neutral fuel Cloud-Native Network Function , emerging technology in cloud computing Belo Horizonte International Airport , Brazil, IATA code CNF Chomsky normal form , in formal language theory, first described by Noam Chomsky Configuration file , in computing, typically with file extension .cnf , .conf, .cfg, .cf, or .ini Conjunctive normal form , also known as clausal normal form, in Boolean logic Constant weight without fins ,

152-821: A British-based company set up by former F1 engineer Paddy Lowe , has developed a process it terms 'petrosynthesis' to develop synthetic fuels from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water using renewable energy. In 2022 it began work on a demonstration production plant at Bicester Heritage near Oxford. Commercial developments are taking place in Columbia, South Carolina , Camarillo, California , and Darlington, England . A demonstration project in Berkeley, California , proposes synthesizing both fuels and food oils from recovered flue gases. Carbon-neutral fuels can lead to greenhouse gas remediation because carbon dioxide gas would be reused to produce fuel instead of being released into

228-568: A blend with conventional jet fuel. As of the end of 2017, four other pathways to SPK are certified, with their designations and maximum blend percentage in brackets: Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA SPK, 50%); synthesized iso-paraffins from hydroprocessed fermented sugars (SIP, 10%); synthesized paraffinic kerosene plus aromatics (SPK/A, 50%); alcohol-to-jet SPK (ATJ-SPK, 30%). Both FT and HEFA based SPKs blended with JP-8 are specified in MIL-DTL-83133H. Some synthetic jet fuels show

304-597: A byproduct. The most economical source of carbon for recycling into fuel is flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion where it can be obtained for about US$ 7.50 per ton. However, this is not carbon-neutral, since the carbon is of fossil origin, therefore moving carbon from the geosphere to the atmosphere. Since carbonic acid in seawater is in chemical equilibrium with atmospheric carbon dioxide, extraction of carbon from seawater has been studied. Researchers have estimated that carbon extraction from seawater would cost about $ 50 per ton. Carbon capture from ambient air

380-553: A central reservoir which circulated the microalgae broth. PBRs is an easier system to be controlled compare to the raceway pond system, yet it costs a larger overall production expenses. The carbon emissions from microalgae biomass produced in raceway ponds could be compared to the emissions from conventional biodiesel by having inputs of energy and nutrients as carbon-intensive . The corresponding emissions from microalgae biomass produced in PBRs could also be compared and might even exceed

456-408: A chemical reaction of a carbon-dioxide molecule with three hydrogen molecules to produce methanol and water. The stored energy can be recovered by burning the methanol in a combustion engine, releasing carbon dioxide, water, and heat. Methane can be produced in a similar reaction. Special precautions against methane leaks are important since methane is nearly 100 times as potent as CO 2 , regarding

532-439: A closed loop oval channel that has a paddle wheel to circulate water and prevent sedimentation. The channel is open to the air and its depth is in the range of 0.25–0.4 m (0.82–1.31 ft). The pond needs to be kept shallow since self-shading and optical absorption can cause the limitation of light penetration through the solution of algae broth. PBRs's culture medium is constructed by closed transparent array of tubes. It has

608-490: A freediving discipline in which usage of fins or change of ballast is prohibited Organizations [ edit ] Caucasus Nature Fund , a German non-profit supporting protected areas in Transcaucasia Club Nacional de Football , Uruguayan football team Comité National Français , a provisional government of Free France led by Charles de Gaulle Commonwealth Naval Forces, former name of

684-635: A high- octane gasoline known as avgas ) has a high volatility to improve its carburetion characteristics and high autoignition temperature to prevent preignition in high compression aircraft engines. Turbine engines (as with diesel engines ) can operate with a wide range of fuels because fuel is injected into the hot combustion chamber. Jet and gas turbine ( turboprop , helicopter ) aircraft engines typically use lower cost fuels with higher flash points , which are less flammable and therefore safer to transport and handle. The first axial compressor jet engine in widespread production and combat service,

760-399: A more attractive energy balance than PBR systems. Production cost of microalgae-biofuel through implementation of raceway pond systems is dominated by the operational cost which includes labour, raw materials, and utilities. In raceway pond system, during the cultivation process, electricity takes up the largest energy fraction of total operational energy requirements. It is used to circulate

836-404: A more efficient use of biomass than conventional biofuel because it uses most of the carbon and chemical energy from the biomass instead of releasing as much energy and carbon. Its main disadvantage is, as with conventional ethanol production, it competes with food production. Nighttime wind power is considered the most economical form of electrical power with which to synthesize fuel, because

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912-509: A number Cyanogen fluoride , a cyanide compound with the chemical formula CNF Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title CNF . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CNF&oldid=1180704526 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

988-506: A process to make jet fuel from seawater. The technology requires an input of electrical energy to separate Oxygen (O 2 ) and Hydrogen (H 2 ) gas from seawater using an iron-based catalyst, followed by an oligomerization step wherein carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen are recombined into long-chain hydrocarbons, using zeolite as the catalyst. The technology is expected to be deployed in the 2020s by U.S. Navy warships, especially nuclear-powered aircraft carriers. On February 8, 2021,

1064-465: A reduction in pollutants such as SOx, NOx, particulate matter, and sometimes carbon emissions. It is envisaged that usage of synthetic jet fuels will increase air quality around airports which will be particularly advantageous at inner city airports. Qatar Airways became the first airline to operate a commercial flight on a 50:50 blend of synthetic Gas to Liquid (GTL) jet fuel and conventional jet fuel. The natural gas derived synthetic kerosene for

1140-669: A result, a few aircraft engine manufacturers, most notably Thielert and Austro Engine , have begun offering aircraft diesel engines which run on jet fuel which may simplify airport logistics by reducing the number of fuel types required. Jet fuel is available in most places in the world, whereas avgas is only widely available in a few countries which have a large number of general aviation aircraft. A diesel engine may be more fuel-efficient than an avgas engine. However, very few diesel aircraft engines have been certified by aviation authorities. Diesel aircraft engines are uncommon today, even though opposed-piston aviation diesel powerplants such as

1216-413: A standardized international specification. The only other jet fuel commonly used in civilian turbine-engine powered aviation is Jet B, which is used for its enhanced cold-weather performance. Jet fuel is a mixture of a variety of hydrocarbons . Because the exact composition of jet fuel varies widely based on petroleum source, it is impossible to define jet fuel as a ratio of specific hydrocarbons. Jet fuel

1292-499: A synthetic natural gas ), transported by pipeline, truck, or tanker ship, or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer–Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating. There are a few more fuels that can be created using hydrogen. Formic acid for example can be made by reacting the hydrogen with CO 2 . Formic acid combined with CO 2 can form isobutanol . Methanol can be made from

1368-723: A whole, consumed as much carbon dioxide as is emitted during combustion. The advantages of microalgae are their higher CO 2 -fixation efficiency compared to most plants and their ability to thrive in a wide variety of aquatic habitats. Their main disadvantage is their high cost. It has been argued that their unique and highly variable chemical compositions may make it attractive for specific applications. Microalgae also can be used as livestock feed due to their proteins. Even more, some species of microalgae produce valuable compounds such as pigments and pharmaceuticals. Two main ways of cultivating microalgae are raceway pond systems and photo-bioreactors. Raceway pond systems are constructed by

1444-422: Is a liquid at normal temperatures and can be toxic if ingested. Methanol has a higher octane rating than gasoline but a lower energy density , and can be mixed with other fuels or used on its own. It may also be used in the production of more complex hydrocarbons and polymers. Direct methanol fuel cells have been developed by Caltech's Jet Propulsion Laboratory to convert methanol and oxygen into electricity. It

1520-406: Is a naphtha-kerosene fuel that is used for its enhanced cold-weather performance. However, Jet B's lighter composition makes it more dangerous to handle. For this reason, it is rarely used, except in very cold climates. A blend of approximately 30% kerosene and 70% gasoline, it is known as wide-cut fuel. It has a very low freezing point of −60 °C (−76 °F), and a low flash point as well. It

1596-412: Is around $ 3.1 per litre ($ 11.57/US gal), which is considerably more expensive than conventional gasoline. However, when compared with electrification of the vehicle fleet – a key advantage of such biofuel is the avoidance of the costly distribution of large amounts of electrical energy (as is required to convert existing vehicle fleets to battery electric technology), therein allowing for the re-use of

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1672-412: Is at much lower concentrations in the atmosphere than in other sources. Researchers have also suggested using biomass as a carbon source for fuel production. Adding hydrogen to the biomass would reduce its carbon to produce fuel. This method has the advantage of using plant matter to cheaply capture carbon dioxide. The plants also add some chemical energy to the fuel from biological molecules. This may be

1748-476: Is considered one of the few customers of biofuels large enough to potentially bring biofuels up to the volume production needed to reduce costs. The U.S. Navy has also flown a Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet dubbed the "Green Hornet" at 1.7 times the speed of sound using a biofuel blend. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) funded a $ 6.7 million project with Honeywell UOP to develop technologies to create jet fuels from biofeedstocks for use by

1824-582: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Carbon-neutral fuel The carbon dioxide used to make synthetic fuels may be directly captured from the air , recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Common examples of synthetic fuels include ammonia and methane , although more complex hydrocarbons such as gasoline and jet fuel have also been successfully synthesized artificially. In addition to being carbon neutral, such renewable fuels can alleviate

1900-558: Is expected to deploy the technology some time in the 2020s. In 2023, a study published by the NATO Energy Security Centre of Excellence, concluded that e-fuels offer one of the most promising decarbonization pathways for military mobility across the land, sea and air domains. A 250 kilowatt methane synthesis plant was constructed by the Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research (ZSW) at Baden-Württemberg and

1976-422: Is expected to not only cost less than the excess economic impacts of climate change if it were not done, but also to pay for itself as global fuel demand growth and peak oil shortages increase the price of petroleum and fungible natural gas . Capturing CO 2 directly from the air, known as direct air capture , or extracting carbonic acid from seawater would also reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in

2052-487: Is more costly, at between $ 94 and $ 232 per ton and is considered impractical for fuel synthesis or carbon sequestration. Direct air capture is less developed than other methods. Proposals for this method involve using a caustic chemical to react with carbon dioxide in the air to produce carbonates . These can then be broken down and hydrated to release pure CO 2 gas and regenerate the caustic chemical. This process requires more energy than other methods because carbon dioxide

2128-529: Is nontoxic, but must be stored under pressure. Larger hydrocarbons and ethanol can also be produced from carbon dioxide and hydrogen. All synthetic hydrocarbons are generally produced at temperatures of 200–300 °C, and at pressures of 20 to 50 bar. Catalysts are usually used to improve the efficiency of the reaction and create the desired type of hydrocarbon fuel. Such reactions are exothermic and use about 3 mol of hydrogen per mole of carbon dioxide involved. They also produce large amounts of water as

2204-411: Is possible to convert methanol into gasoline, jet fuel or other hydrocarbons, but that requires additional energy and more complex production facilities. Methanol is slightly more corrosive than traditional fuels, requiring automobile modifications on the order of US$ 100 each to use it. In 2016, a method using carbon spikes , copper nanoparticles and nitrogen that converts carbon dioxide to ethanol

2280-584: Is primarily used in northern Canada and Alaska , where the extreme cold makes its low freezing point necessary, and which helps mitigate the danger of its lower flash point. TS-1 is a jet fuel made to Russian standard GOST 10227 for enhanced cold-weather performance. It has somewhat higher volatility than Jet A-1 (flash point is 28 °C (82 °F) minimum). It has a very low freezing point, below −50 °C (−58 °F). The DEF STAN 91-091 (UK) and ASTM D1655 (international) specifications allow for certain additives to be added to jet fuel, including: As

2356-587: Is subject to carbon capture at the flue, they result in net- negative carbon dioxide emission and may thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Negative emissions are widely considered an indispensable component of efforts to limit global warming, although negative emissions technologies are currently not economically viable for private sector companies. Carbon credits are likely to play an important role for carbon-negative fuels. Synthetic hydrocarbons can be produced in chemical reactions between carbon dioxide, which can be captured from power plants or

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2432-399: Is the mandatory addition of an antistatic additive to Jet A-1 fuel. Jet A and Jet A-1 fuel trucks and storage tanks, as well as plumbing that carries them, are all marked "Jet A" or "Jet A-1" in white italicized text within a black rectangle background, adjacent to one or two diagonal black stripes. Jet A-1 fuel must meet: Jet A fuel must reach ASTM specification D1655 (Jet A). Jet B

2508-569: Is therefore defined as a performance specification rather than a chemical compound. Furthermore, the range of molecular mass between hydrocarbons (or different carbon numbers) is defined by the requirements for the product, such as the freezing point or smoke point. Kerosene -type jet fuel (including Jet A and Jet A-1, JP-5, and JP-8) has a carbon number distribution between about 8 and 16 (carbon atoms per molecule); wide-cut or naphtha -type jet fuel (including Jet B and JP-4), between about 5 and 15. Fuel for piston-engine powered aircraft (usually

2584-499: Is very similar to diesel fuel , and in some cases, may be used in diesel engines . The possibility of environmental legislation banning the use of leaded avgas (fuel in spark-ignited internal combustion engine, which usually contains tetraethyllead (TEL), a toxic substance added to prevent engine knocking ), and the lack of a replacement fuel with similar performance, has left aircraft designers and pilot's organizations searching for alternative engines for use in small aircraft. As

2660-579: The Fraunhofer Society in Germany and began operating in 2010. It is being upgraded to 10 megawatts, scheduled for completion in autumn 2012. The George Olah carbon dioxide recycling plant (named after George Andrew Olah )operated by Carbon Recycling International in Grindavík , Iceland, has been producing 2 million liters of methanol transportation fuel per year from flue exhaust of

2736-641: The Junkers Jumo 004 used on the Messerschmitt Me 262A fighter and the Arado Ar 234B jet recon-bomber, burned either a special synthetic "J2" fuel or diesel fuel. Gasoline was a third option but unattractive due to high fuel consumption. Other fuels used were kerosene or kerosene and gasoline mixtures. Most jet fuels in use since the end of World War II are kerosene-based. Both British and American standards for jet fuels were first established at

2812-511: The Junkers Jumo 205 family had been used during the Second World War. Jet fuel is often used in diesel-powered ground-support vehicles at airports. However, jet fuel tends to have poor lubricating ability in comparison to diesel, which increases wear in fuel injection equipment. An additive may be required to restore its lubricity . Jet fuel is more expensive than diesel fuel but the logistical advantages of using one fuel can offset

2888-651: The Royal Australian Navy Cornell NanoScale Science and Technology Facility , at Cornell University, member of the National Nanotechnology Coordinated Infrastructure Science [ edit ] Carbon nanofiber , cylindrical nanostructures with graphene layers Cellulose nanofibre, a type of nanocellulose Cytotoxic necrotising factor family , members of which are referred to as CNF followed by

2964-557: The Svartsengi Power Station since 2011. It has the capacity to produce 5 million liters per year. Audi has constructed a carbon-neutral liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant in Werlte, Germany . The plant is intended to produce transportation fuel to offset LNG used in their A3 Sportback g-tron automobiles, and can keep 2,800 metric tons of CO 2 out of the environment per year at its initial capacity. Zero ,

3040-429: The load curve for electricity peaks sharply during the warmest hours of the day, but wind tends to blow slightly more at night than during the day. Therefore, the price of nighttime wind power is often much less expensive than any alternative. Off-peak wind power prices in high wind penetration areas of the U.S. averaged 1.64 cents per kilowatt-hour in 2009, but only 0.71 cents/kWh during the least expensive six hours of

3116-417: The 20-year global warming potential . More energy can be used to combine methanol or methane into larger hydrocarbon fuel molecules. Researchers have also suggested using methanol to produce dimethyl ether . This fuel could be used as a substitute for diesel fuel due to its ability to self ignite under high pressure and temperature. It is already being used in some areas for heating and energy generation. It

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3192-662: The B-1B, B-52H, C-17, Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules , McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom (as QF-4 target drones ), McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle , Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor , and Northrop T-38 Talon to use the synthetic fuel blend. The U.S. Air Force's C-17 Globemaster III, F-16 and F-15 are certified for use of hydrotreated renewable jet fuels. The USAF plans to certify over 40 models for fuels derived from waste oils and plants by 2013. The U.S. Army

3268-532: The State Standard ( GOST ) number, or a Technical Condition number, with the principal grade available being TS-1. Jet A specification fuel has been used in the United States since the 1950s and is usually not available outside the United States and a few Canadian airports such as Toronto , Montreal , and Vancouver , whereas Jet A-1 is the standard specification fuel used in most of the rest of

3344-692: The United States LSD is now only available to the off-road construction, locomotive and marine markets. As more EPA regulations are introduced, more refineries are hydrotreating their jet fuel production, thus limiting the lubricating abilities of jet fuel, as determined by ASTM Standard D445. JP-8 , which is similar to Jet A-1, is used in NATO diesel vehicles as part of the single-fuel policy. Fischer–Tropsch (FT) Synthesized Paraffinic Kerosene (SPK) synthetic fuels are certified for use in United States and international aviation fleets at up to 50% in

3420-820: The United States and NATO militaries. In April 2011, four USAF F-15E Strike Eagles flew over the Philadelphia Phillies opening ceremony using a blend of traditional jet fuel and synthetic biofuels. This flyover made history as it was the first flyover to use biofuels in the Department of Defense . The air transport industry is responsible for 2–3 percent of man-made carbon dioxide emitted. Boeing estimates that biofuels could reduce flight-related greenhouse-gas emissions by 60 to 80 percent. One possible solution which has received more media coverage than others would be blending synthetic fuel derived from algae with existing jet fuel: Solazyme produced

3496-484: The United States, ASTM International produces standards for civilian fuel types, and the U.S. Department of Defense produces standards for military use. The British Ministry of Defence establishes standards for both civil and military jet fuels. For reasons of inter-operational ability, British and United States military standards are harmonized to a degree. In Russia and the CIS members, grades of jet fuels are covered by

3572-555: The air, and hydrogen . The fuel, often referred to as electrofuel , stores the energy that was used in the production of the hydrogen. Hydrogen fuel is typically prepared by the electrolysis of water in a power to gas process. To minimize emissions, the electricity is produced using a low-emission energy source such as wind , solar , or nuclear power. Through the Sabatier reaction methane can then be produced which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants (as

3648-597: The atmosphere. Capturing the carbon dioxide in flue gas emissions from power plants would eliminate their greenhouse gas emissions, although burning the fuel in vehicles would release that carbon because there is no economical way to capture those emissions. This approach would reduce net carbon dioxide emission by about 50% if it were used on all fossil fuel power plants. Most coal and natural gas power plants have been predicted to be economically retrofittable with carbon dioxide scrubbers for carbon capture to recycle flue exhaust or for carbon sequestration . Such recycling

3724-420: The aviation industry's jet kerosene demands have increased to more than 5% of all refined products derived from crude, it has been necessary for the refiner to optimize the yield of jet kerosene, a high-value product, by varying process techniques. New processes have allowed flexibility in the choice of crudes, the use of coal tar sands as a source of molecules and the manufacture of synthetic blend stocks. Due to

3800-438: The costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels, enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles. In order to be truly carbon-neutral, any energy required for the process must be itself be carbon-neutral or emissions-free, like renewable energy or nuclear energy . If the combustion of carbon-neutral fuels

3876-453: The current production capability it can only produce 3,000 liters in a few months, 0.0002% of the daily production of fuel in the US. Furthermore, the thermodynamic and economic feasibility of this technology have been questioned. An article suggests that this technology does not create an alternative to fossil fuel but rather converting renewable energy into liquid fuel. The article also states that

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3952-544: The day. Typically, wholesale electricity costs 2 to 5 cents/kWh during the day. Commercial fuel synthesis companies suggest they can produce gasoline for less than petroleum fuels when oil costs more than $ 55 per barrel. In 2010, a team of process chemists led by Heather Willauer of the U.S. Navy, estimates that 100 megawatts of electricity can produce 160 cubic metres (41,000 US gal) of jet fuel per day and shipboard production from nuclear power would cost about $ 1,600 per cubic metre ($ 6/US gal). While that

4028-473: The detection of free water in jet fuel uses a water-sensitive filter pad that turns green if the fuel exceeds the specification limit of 30 ppm (parts per million) free water. A critical test to rate the ability of jet fuel to release emulsified water when passed through coalescing filters is ASTM standard D3948 Standard Test Method for Determining Water Separation Characteristics of Aviation Turbine Fuels by Portable Separometer. Military organizations around

4104-537: The emissions from conventional fossil diesel. The inefficiency is due to the amount of electricity used to pump the algae broth around the system. Using co-product to generate electricity is one strategy that might improve the overall carbon balance. Another thing that needs to be acknowledged is that environmental impacts can also come from water management, carbon dioxide handling, and nutrient supply, several aspects that could constrain system design and implementation options. But, in general, Raceway Pond systems demonstrate

4180-589: The end of World War II. British standards derived from standards for kerosene use for lamps—known as paraffin in the UK—whereas American standards derived from aviation gasoline practices. Over the subsequent years, details of specifications were adjusted, such as minimum freezing point, to balance performance requirements and availability of fuels. Very low temperature freezing points reduce the availability of fuel. Higher flash point products required for use on aircraft carriers are more expensive to produce. In

4256-405: The energy return on energy invested using fossil diesel is 18 times higher than that for e-diesel. Investigation of carbon-neutral fuels has been ongoing for decades. A 1965 report suggested synthesizing methanol from carbon dioxide in air using nuclear power for a mobile fuel depot. Shipboard production of synthetic fuel using nuclear power was studied in 1977 and 1995. A 1984 report studied

4332-501: The environment, and create a closed cycle of carbon to eliminate new carbon dioxide emissions. Use of these methods would eliminate the need for fossil fuels entirely, assuming that enough renewable energy could be generated to produce the fuel. Using synthetic hydrocarbons to produce synthetic materials such as plastics could result in permanent sequestration of carbon from the atmosphere. Some authorities have recommended producing methanol instead of traditional transportation fuels. It

4408-703: The existing liquid-fuel transportation infrastructure. Biofuel such as ethanol is also greatly more energy dense than current battery technologies (approximately 6x as much ) further promoting its economic viability. The construction of large-scale microalgae cultivation facilities would inevitably result in negative environmental impacts related to land use change , such as the destruction of existing natural habitats. Microalgae can also under certain conditions emit greenhouse gases, like methane or nitrous oxide , or foul-smelling gases, like hydrogen sulfide , although this has not been widely studied to date. If poorly managed, toxins naturally produced by microalgae may leak into

4484-473: The extra expense of its use in certain circumstances. Jet fuel contains more sulfur, up to 1,000 ppm, which therefore means it has better lubricity and does not currently require a lubricity additive as all pipeline diesel fuels require. The introduction of Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel or ULSD brought with it the need for lubricity modifiers. Pipeline diesels before ULSD were able to contain up to 500 ppm of sulfur and were called Low Sulfur Diesel or LSD. In

4560-505: The first six months of 2008, largely due to fuel costs. In 2015 ASTM approved a modification to Specification D1655 Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuels to permit up to 50 ppm (50 mg/kg) of FAME ( fatty acid methyl ester ) in jet fuel to allow higher cross-contamination from biofuel production. Worldwide demand of jet fuel has been steadily increasing since 1980. Consumption more than tripled in 30 years from 1,837,000 barrels/day in 1980, to 5,220,000 in 2010. Around 30% of

4636-440: The low temperatures in the upper atmosphere . This causes precipitation of the dissolved water from the fuel. The separated water then drops to the bottom of the tank, because it is denser than the fuel. Since the water is no longer in solution, it can form droplets which can supercool to below 0 °C (32 °F). If these supercooled droplets collide with a surface they can freeze and may result in blocked fuel inlet pipes. This

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4712-439: The microalgae cultures. It takes up an energy fraction ranging from 22% to 79%. In contrast, capital cost dominates the cost of production of microalgae-biofuel in PBRs. This system has a high installation cost though the operational cost is relatively lower than raceway pond systems. Microalgae-biofuel production costs a larger amount of money compared to fossil fuel production. The cost estimation of producing microalgae-biofuel

4788-405: The number and severity of the processes used, it is often necessary and sometimes mandatory to use additives. These additives may, for example, prevent the formation of harmful chemical species or improve a property of a fuel to prevent further engine wear. It is very important that jet fuel be free from water contamination . During flight, the temperature of the fuel in the tanks decreases, due to

4864-682: The program to certify the Boeing C-17 Globemaster III and then the Rockwell B-1B Lancer to use the fuel. To test these two aircraft, the USAF has ordered 281,000 US gal (1,060,000 L) of FT fuel. The USAF intends to test and certify every airframe in its inventory to use the fuel by 2011. They will also supply over 9,000 US gal (34,000 L; 7,500 imp gal) to NASA for testing in various aircraft and engines. The USAF has certified

4940-521: The recovery of carbon dioxide from fossil fuel plants. A 1995 report compared converting vehicle fleets for the use of carbon-neutral methanol with the further synthesis of gasoline . Jet fuel Jet fuel or aviation turbine fuel ( ATF , also abbreviated avtur ) is a type of aviation fuel designed for use in aircraft powered by gas-turbine engines . It is colorless to straw-colored in appearance. The most commonly used fuels for commercial aviation are Jet A and Jet A-1, which are produced to

5016-486: The six-hour flight from London to Doha came from Shell's GTL plant in Bintulu , Malaysia . The world's first passenger aircraft flight to use only synthetic jet fuel was from Lanseria International Airport to Cape Town International Airport on September 22, 2010. The fuel was developed by Sasol . Chemist Heather Willauer is leading a team of researchers at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory who are developing

5092-630: The standard required by military jets, but they were able in September 2013 to use the fuel to fly a radio-controlled model airplane powered by a common two-stroke internal combustion engine. Because the process requires a large input of electrical energy, a plausible first step of implementation would be for American nuclear-powered aircraft carriers (the Nimitz-class and the Gerald R. Ford-class ) to manufacture their own jet fuel. The U.S. Navy

5168-493: The surrounding soil or ground water. Water undergoes electrolysis at high temperatures to form hydrogen gas and oxygen gas. The energy to perform this is extracted from renewable sources such as wind power. Then, the hydrogen is reacted with compressed carbon dioxide captured by direct air capture . The reaction produces blue crude which consists of hydrocarbon. The blue crude is then refined to produce high efficiency E-diesel. This method is, however, still debatable because with

5244-578: The test program. This program is part of the Department of Defense Assured Fuel Initiative, an effort to develop secure domestic sources for the military energy needs. The Pentagon hopes to reduce its use of crude oil from foreign producers and obtain about half of its aviation fuel from alternative sources by 2016. With the B-52 now approved to use the FT blend, the USAF will use the test protocols developed during

5320-405: The world use a different classification system of JP (for "Jet Propellant") numbers. Some are almost identical to their civilian counterparts and differ only by the amounts of a few additives; Jet A-1 is similar to JP-8 , Jet B is similar to JP-4 . Other military fuels are highly specialized products and are developed for very specific applications. Jet fuel

5396-443: The world's first 100 percent algae-derived jet fuel, Solajet, for both commercial and military applications. Oil prices increased about fivefold from 2003 to 2008, raising fears that world petroleum production is becoming unable to keep up with demand . The fact that there are few alternatives to petroleum for aviation fuel adds urgency to the search for alternatives . Twenty-five airlines were bankrupted or stopped operations in

5472-456: The world's first scheduled passenger flight flew with some synthetic kerosene from a non-fossil fuel source. 500 liters of synthetic kerosene was mixed with regular jet fuel. Synthetic kerosene was produced by Shell and the flight was operated by KLM. On August 8, 2007, Air Force Secretary Michael Wynne certified the B-52H as fully approved to use the FT blend, marking the formal conclusion of

5548-414: The world, the main exceptions being Russia and the CIS members, where TS-1 fuel type is the most common standard. Both Jet A and Jet A-1 have a flash point higher than 38 °C (100 °F), with an autoignition temperature of 210 °C (410 °F). The differences between Jet A and Jet A-1 are twofold. The primary difference is the lower freezing point of Jet A-1 fuel: The other difference

5624-465: Was about twice the petroleum fuel cost in 2010, it is expected to be much less than the market price in less than five years if recent trends continue. Moreover, since the delivery of fuel to a carrier battle group costs about $ 2,100 per cubic metre ($ 8/US gal), shipboard production is already much less expensive. Willauer said seawater is the "best option" for a source of synthetic jet fuel. By April 2014, Willauer's team had not yet made fuel to

5700-726: Was developed. Fuel made from microalgae could potentially have a low carbon footprint and is an active area of research, although no large-scale production system has been commercialized to date. Microalgae are aquatic unicellular organisms . Although they, unlike most plants, have extremely simple cell structures, they are still photoautotrophic , able to use solar energy to convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and fats via photosynthesis . These compounds can serve as raw materials for biofuels like bioethanol or biodiesel . Therefore, even though combusting microalgae-based fuel for energy would still produce emissions like any other fuel, it could be close to carbon-neutral if they, as

5776-505: Was the cause of the British Airways Flight 38 accident. Removing all water from fuel is impractical; therefore, fuel heaters are usually used on commercial aircraft to prevent water in fuel from freezing. There are several methods for detecting water in jet fuel. A visual check may detect high concentrations of suspended water, as this will cause the fuel to become hazy in appearance. An industry standard chemical test for

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