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129-665: The definition of 'Terrorism' is set out within the Terrorism Act 2000. CONTEST is composed of the "four Ps" – prevent, pursue, protect, and prepare – which aim to reduce terrorism at all levels through: Preventing more people from being radicalised; Pursuing suspects operationally and legally; Protecting the public through security measures, and Preparing to manage the response to mitigate the impact of an inevitable attack. CONTEST has thus far survived to its seventh Prime Minister largely due to its risk equation, that: risk = likelihood × vulnerability × impact. The purpose of Prevent

258-740: A bifurcated society and use state's reactions to violence as a justification for further violence. Al-Qaeda 's strategy of luring the West, specifically the United States , into ground wars in Islamic states that polarize the Ummah against the West while avoiding engagements that would allow the American military to draw on its technical superiority is an example of jiujitsu politics. David Kilcullen , Counterinsurgency advisor to David Petraeus during

387-511: A calculus of greed, fear, and perhaps familial loyalty, Berman argues that religious radicalization greatly increases the defection constraints of radical terrorist organizations by requiring outsized demonstrations of commitment to the cause prior to recruiting operatives. Mutual aid is the voluntary and reciprocal exchange of goods within an organization. Examples in various religious antecedents include Judaic Tzedakah , Islamic Zakat , and various Christian institutions of charity, as described in

516-658: A combination of attraction and loyalty. This particular force was especially notable in New Left radical groups, such as the American Weather Underground and the German Red Army Faction . The connections between Bill Ayers and Bernardine Dohrn , or between Gudrun Ensslin and Andreas Baader served as the organizational and intellectual nucleus of these groups. Within a radical group, high-risk behavior, if successful, offers

645-585: A common set of pathways that translate real or perceived grievances into increasingly extreme ideas and readiness to participate in political action beyond the status quo. Shira Fishman, a researcher at the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism , wrote "Radicalization is a dynamic process that varies for each individual, but shares some underlying commonalities that can be explored." Though there are many end products of

774-496: A convoy as it passes through, sell the goods off, and escape, increases as the value of the convoy increases. The same dynamic applies to attacks; while an individual in a terrorist group may not feel drawn by the reward of alerting the police to an impending low level crime, the reward for alerting the police to an impending high-profile attack, such as a mass bombing, becomes more attractive. While non-radicalized and criminal organizations can only rely on organizational cohesion through

903-824: A family. Although the Council invoked powers under RIPA to establish whether a family fell into a certain school catchment area, when taken before the Investigatory Powers Tribunal it was found guilty of improper use of surveillance powers. In October 2020 the Government introduced the Covert Human Intelligence Sources (Criminal Conduct) Bill which would permit, in certain circumstances, to authorise security, intelligence and police agencies to participate in criminal conduct during their operations. This Bill would amend

1032-466: A good example. "Group grievance" radicalization dynamics are similar to those that are primed by personal grievances; the difference is that the subject perceives harm inflicted on a group that she belongs to or has sympathy for. This pathway accounts for the larger portion of political and ethnic radical violence, in which action is taken on behalf of the group at large rather than as an act of personal revenge. Radicalization out of sympathy for an outgroup

1161-411: A group's resilience and lethality . Furthermore, by compromising a group's ability to blend in with non-radical society and to participate in a modern, national or international economy , radicalization serves as a kind of sociological trap that gives individuals no other place to go to satisfy their material and spiritual needs. There is no universally accepted definition of radicalization. One of

1290-508: A journalist was acting in the public interest, they would be protected, he added. Hughes further said that if the police made an application to a court he would assume a journalist would be informed that the authorities were seeking to access his phone records. More than 100,000 RIPA requests are made every year for access to communications data against targets including private citizens. It is not known how many have involved journalists' phones. A number of offences have been prosecuted involving

1419-513: A letter to the leaders of every council in England, urging local governments not to use the new powers granted by RIPA "for trivial matters", and suggested "reviewing these powers annually by an appropriate scrutiny committee". Especially contentious was Part III of the Act, which requires persons to (allegedly) self-incriminate by disclosing a password to government representatives. Failure to do so

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1548-499: A new identity that may include political radicalization. Isolated from friends, family, or other basic needs, individuals may begin to associate with unlike parties, to include political, religious, or cultural radicals. This is especially noted in prison radicalization , where individuals bind together over racial, religious, and gang identity to a greater degree than in the outside world and often bring their newfound radical identity beyond prison to connect with radical organizations in

1677-605: A paradigm for how governments should tackle international development and climate change . Hill was speaking at an official summit side event convened by Community Jameel and the Islamic Development Bank at the headquarters of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development . Radicalised Radicalization (or radicalisation ) is the process by which an individual or a group comes to adopt increasingly radical views in opposition to

1806-551: A particular school catchment area. Council officials carried out directed surveillance on the family a total of 21 times. Tim Martin, the council's head of legal services, had authorised the surveillance and tried to argue that it was justified under RIPA, but in a subsequent ruling by the Investigatory Powers Tribunal – its first ever ruling – the surveillance was deemed to be unlawful. The same council put fishermen under covert surveillance to check for

1935-527: A pathway to status insofar as it becomes re-construed as bravery and commitment to the cause. As such, violence or other radical activity provides a pathway to success, social acceptance, and physical rewards that might otherwise be out of reach. Disproportionate involvement in risk taking and status seeking is particularly true of those young men who come from disadvantaged family backgrounds, have lower IQ levels, are of lower socioeconomic status, and who therefore have less opportunity to succeed in society along

2064-477: A person to an increasing extent accepts the use of undemocratic or violent means, including terrorism, in an attempt to reach a specific political/ideological objective." In a UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) research report on the impact of the Internet and social media on youth and violent extremism , the difficulty of defining radicalization is discussed. A distinction

2193-466: A police investigation into a child exploitation network, was sentenced, at Preston Crown Court, to four months' imprisonment. Mr Drage was arrested in May 2009, after investigating officers searched his home near Blackpool. He had been required, under this act, to provide his 50-character encryption key but had not complied. In a further case in 2010 Poole Borough Council was accused of spying unfairly on

2322-533: A political, social, or religious status quo . The ideas of society at large shape the outcomes of radicalization. Radicalization can result in both violent and nonviolent action – academic literature focuses on radicalization into violent extremism (RVE) or radicalisation leading to acts of terrorism . Multiple separate pathways can promote the process of radicalization, which can be independent but are usually mutually reinforcing. Radicalization that occurs across multiple reinforcing pathways greatly increases

2451-492: A private detective were also jailed for their part in running a private detective agency called Active Investigation Services. In 2008, four people were cautioned for 'Unlawful intercepting of a postal, public or private telecommunications scheme', under ss. 1(1), (2) and (7). The circumstances of the offences are not known at the time of writing. Three people were tried for 'Failure to disclose key to protected information' under s. 53 (of which 2 were tried). One person

2580-481: A product of which one becomes increasingly serious about their political, social, and religious beliefs as a product of "taking the next step". One can begin by participating in nonviolent activities such as mutual aid, wherein the best way to raise one's in-group social status is to demonstrate seriousness about the cause and increase the level of commitment in terms of beliefs and activities. As an individual commits act after act, sunk costs are developed. Even if activity

2709-421: A promise of friendship, acceptance, or a sense of purpose." Groups can become radicalized vis-a-vis other groups as they compete for legitimacy and prestige with the general populace. This pathway emphasizes increased radicalization in an effort to outdo other groups, whether that increase is in violence, time spent in religious ritual, economic and physical hardship endured, or all four. Religious movements and

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2838-425: A senior officer rather than the formal approval of a court hearing. Media lawyers and press freedom groups are concerned by the use of RIPA because it happens in secret and the press have no way of knowing whether their sources have been compromised. Responding to The Sun's complaint Sir Paul Kennedy, the interception of communications commissioner, launched a full inquiry and urged Home Office ministers to accelerate

2967-673: A sense believe their actions are heroic. Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 ( c. 23 ) ( RIP or RIPA ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom , regulating the powers of public bodies to carry out surveillance and investigation, and covering the interception of communications . It was introduced by the Tony Blair Labour government ostensibly to take account of technological change such as

3096-444: A sophisticated criminal surveillance business organised by corrupt police officers. A former Metropolitan Police officer, Jeremy Young, was jailed for 27 months for various offences including six counts of conspiracy to intercept communications unlawfully. A second former policeman, Scott Gelsthorpe, was sentenced to 24 months for offences including conspiracy to intercept communications unlawfully. Three other former police officers and

3225-598: A terrorist attack in an event whereby that attack cannot be stopped. Prepare includes bringing a terrorist attack to an end quickly, preventing its spread, and increasing the UK's resilience to enable rapid recovery in its aftermath. The main objectives of Prepare are to: The public should follow Prepare advice on the nature of terrorist threats overseas, which is communicated through the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office travel advice and advice on how to safely respond in

3354-400: A tight-knit group of friends who share religious, economic, social, and sexual bonds. While this example is evident in more extreme cases, such as those of Charles Manson 's "Family" and other radical cults , it also applies to radicalization in secular and orthodox religious environments. Love can serve as a connection between influential figures, connecting their networks of followers through

3483-605: A totalizing influence over the individual—disapproval would be tantamount to social death, personal isolation, and often a lack of access to the basic services that mutual aid communities fulfill. As an isolated minority, Islamic groups in the West are especially vulnerable to this form of radicalization. Being cut off from society at large through language barriers , cultural difference, and occasionally discriminatory treatment, Muslim communities become more vulnerable to additional pathways of radicalization. One such additional pathway of radicalization of individuals that feel isolated

3612-513: A traditional career path. These young men are more likely to be involved in gang activity, violent crime, and other high-risk behavior. James Pugel conducted a study in which Liberian ex-combatants indicated that their radicalization was motivated by the opportunity to increase their economic and social status within their community. There was a belief that radicalized individuals lived better than non-radicalized individuals. Specifically, extremists groups offered compensatory employment, which provided

3741-539: A variety of strategies such as leafleting, violent rituals, and house parties to recruit, targeting angry and marginalized youth looking for solutions to their problems. But their most effective recruitment tool is extremist music, which avoids monitoring by moderating parties such as parents and school authorities. Risk factors for recruitment include exposure to racism during childhood, dysfunctional families such as divorced parents, physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, neglect, and disillusionment. In 2018, researchers from

3870-528: A warrant from the Secretary of State to intercept transmission of communications. There is information related to security and intelligence, and special investigation powers which is protected by the Official Secrets Act 1989 . This provides legal protection against unauthorised disclosure of information and espionage, and protest certain tactics of information gathering. Under section 41 of

3999-406: A young man spends several years in a Yeshiva in order to establish himself within a Haredi community, he foregoes future earnings that would be accessible should he choose a secular education. To quote Berman "As consumption opportunities are limited, work for pay becomes less appealing, freeing up even more time for community activities." This sunk cost figures into future calculations, and raises

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4128-563: Is a criminal offence, with a penalty of two years in prison or five years in cases involving national security or child indecency. Using the mechanism of secondary legislation , some parts of the Act required activation by a ministerial order before attaining legal force. Such orders have been made in respect of the relevant sections of Part I and Part II of the RIP Act and Part III. The latter became active in October 2007. The first case where

4257-562: Is a referral to the police, who continually use information obtained in order to assess risk, and may make a referral to a channel panel who suggest and prioritise referrals to other services. Involvement is voluntary and referred individuals can refuse to participate. If an individual refuses to participate and a risk is identified the police will be informed, and assessments can be made by a channel panel whether an individual chooses to participate or not. The August 2018 strategy reportedly puts more focus on ways of prevention and how to best alert

4386-613: Is authorised if they believe that exercising this right may result in any of the consequences listed in section 41 of the Terrorism Act 2000 , for example sending out a dangerous message which may instigate an act of terrorism. There are a number of extremist groups which are banned under UK law, as part of the counter-terrorist legislation. Section 3 of the Terrorism Act 2000 allows the Home Secretary to proscribe an organisation if they are concerned in terrorism. This means

4515-511: Is being abused for "petty and vindictive" cases. Similarly, Brian Binley , Member of Parliament (MP) for Northampton South , has urged councils to stop using the law, accusing them of acting like comic strip detective Dick Tracy . The Trading Standards Institute has been very critical of these views, stating that the use of surveillance is critical to their success. The " deniable encryption " features in free software such as FreeOTFE , TrueCrypt and BestCrypt could be said to make

4644-501: Is by no means problematic in itself, it becomes a threat to national security when Canadian citizens or residents espouse or engage in violence or direct action as a means of promoting political, ideological or religious extremism. Sometimes referred to as "homegrown terrorism", this process of radicalization is more correctly referred to as domestic radicalization leading to terrorist violence. The Danish Security and Intelligence Service (PET) defines radicalization as "A process by which

4773-460: Is drawn "between a process of radicalization, a process of violent radicalization (legitimizing the adoption of violence), and acts of violence." For the purposes of the UNESCO report, radicalization is defined by these three points: Despite being composed of multifarious pathways that lead to different outcomes and sometimes diametrically opposed ideological purposes, radicalization can be traced to

4902-426: Is initially only ideological or only criminal, the process of radicalization equates the two such that criminal acts are justified for intellectually radical purposes, and radical purposes are invoked to justify what are ultimately criminal acts. Romantic and familial entanglement is often an overlooked factor in radicalization. Several violent extremist organizations, especially at their origin, owe their structure to

5031-405: Is not unique to rightist groups. The Weather Underground Organization and Red Army Faction often characterized police officers and government officials as "pigs" worthy of death and subhuman treatment. Martyrdom implies that the person in question died for a cause or is willing to die for a cause. The symbolic impact of martyrdom varies across cultures, but within the field of radicalization

5160-476: Is one of many examples. The dynamics of group polarization imply that members of this larger group must either commit to one faction and demonstrate their loyalty through further radicalization, or leave the group entirely. Isolation reinforces the influence of radical thinking by allowing serious and or persuasive members of the group to disproportionately define the body's agenda. When an individual only has access to one in-group social environment, that group gains

5289-413: Is permitted vary with each authority. Refer to the legislation for more specific information. The reasons for which the use of directed surveillance is permitted vary with each authority. Refer to the legislation for more specific information. Critics claim that the spectres of terrorism , internet crime and paedophilia were used to push the act through and that there was little substantive debate in

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5418-569: Is rarer, but can be observed in the Weather Underground's attempted alignment with the Black Panthers and Viet Cong . The tie between radicalization into violent extremism through group grievance and suicide bombing has also been quantifiably demonstrated: perceived threats to proximal identity such as the presence of foreign troops or invasion accounts for the majority of suicide bombings. Some commentators believe that

5547-531: Is similar to a threshold price-point in that it denotes what rewards would justify the defection of any one individual within the context of an organization . Berman uses the example of a Taliban protection racket for convoys of consumer goods moving through Afghanistan: checkpoints are set up at several points along a trade route, and each checkpoint's team is given a small percentage of the convoy's total value if it arrives safely at its destination. The incentive for any one checkpoint's team deciding to simply hijack

5676-599: Is the Internet. Utilizing data compiled by the Internet World Stats, Robin Thompson contends that the rate of Middle East and North African Internet usage is "above average" in comparison to other countries, yet in countries where Internet availability is more widespread, individuals are "more likely to be recruited and radicalized via the Internet." Hence, the Internet, specifically social media sites such as extremists' chat rooms and blogs, "lures its users with

5805-644: Is the phenomenon of people embracing opinions, views and ideas which could lead to acts of terrorism as defined in Article 1 of the Framework Decision on Combating Terrorism. The term "violent radicalisation" originated in EU policy circles and was coined after the Madrid bombing of 11 March 2004 . It was not widely used in social science as a concept but it obviously refers to a process of socialisation leading to

5934-400: Is to stop people from becoming terrorists or terrorist sympathisers. Prevent includes countering terrorist ideology and challenging those who promote it, supporting individuals who are especially vulnerable to becoming radicalised , and working with sectors and institutions where the risk of radicalisation is assessed to be high. The deradicalisation programme is known as Channel. It is led by

6063-430: Is to strengthen protection against terrorist attacks in the UK or its interests overseas and thus reduce vulnerability. The main areas of focus include borders and aviation, other transport systems, Critical National Infrastructure, crowded public places and access to sensitive state information. The process works by first recognising the threats and then identifying the measures to reduce risks. An example of 'Protect' are

6192-525: The Acts of the Apostles . Berman argues that religious organizations experience economic risks by extending mutual aid to all alleged believers—theological assent is cheap, action can be costly. By imposing a series of outwardly visible social rules, such as restrictions (or prescriptions) on dress, diet, language, and social interactions, groups impose a cost on entering into a mutual aid partnership, diminishing

6321-528: The Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 2015 where it requires staff to report possible signs of extremism or radicalization between primary and nursery school-aged children, following several high-profile cases where the provision was inappropriately used about the Prevent strategy. The Bill did not become law. In 2017, two brothers, aged seven and five, were paid damages after they were reported to

6450-727: The European Convention on Human Rights . Pursue is becoming increasingly complex as the threat of terrorism continues to diversify. Between 1 January and 31 December 2022, 169 persons were arrested for terrorism related activity, with 232 persons held in custody for terrorism-connected offences. From 2017 to July 2023, MI5 and the police have disrupted 39 late stage attack plots. Within Pursue there are different elements of strategy involved: detection, prosecution, punishment, control, and disruption. Detection involves gaining specific reliable information and evidence. This may require

6579-553: The House of Commons . The act has numerous critics, many of whom regard the RIPA regulations as excessive and a threat to civil liberties in the UK. Campaign group Big Brother Watch published a report in 2010 investigating the improper use of RIPA by local councils. Critics such as Keith Vaz , the chairman of the House of Commons home affairs committee, have expressed concern that the act

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6708-577: The Iraq Surge , has called this the "accidental guerrilla syndrome". This tactic is also pillar of Maoist insurgency and serves both the purposes of tactical and ideological advantage. In protracted conflicts the enemy is increasingly seen as less human, such that their common humanity does not readily trigger natural inhibitions against violence. This involves "essentializing" both the self and enemies as respectively good and evil entities. The Islamist use of Takfirism , or ( apostasy ), to justify

6837-609: The Irish National Liberation Army , incorporated communist and socialist ideology into their policies. UNESCO explored the role of the Internet and social media on the development of radicalization among youth in a 2017 research report, Youth and violent extremism on social media: mapping the research . The report explores violent extremism in the countries within Europe, North America, Latin America, and

6966-412: The Terrorism Act 2000 a suspect can be detained for a maximum of 14 day before being charged, compared to the maximum of four days under standard arrest powers. This allows more time for police to investigate and gather evidence in relation to the potential terrorism offences. Additional powers allow a senior police officer to delay a suspect's access to a solicitor and/or contact with a named person. This

7095-516: The Terrorism Act 2000 . He has since pleaded guilty to preparing acts of terrorism by travelling to Turkey to join IS in Syria, as well as being charged with being a member of the proscribed group, IS, and receiving training in the use of firearms. Although there are specific terrorist offences which are criminalised in the UK, the prosecution process remains the same, and prosecutors are tried fairly through

7224-1032: The United States in the 1970s, and Eastern Europe following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Groups associated with right-wing radicals include white power skinhead gangs, right-wing/far-right hooligans , and sympathizers. Examples of right-wing/far-right radical organizations and individuals include Aryan Nations , Aryan Republican Army (ARA), Atomwaffen Division (AWD), Army of God (AOG), Anders Behring Breivik , Alexandre Bissonnette , Brenton Harrison Tarrant , Cesar Sayoc , Cliven Bundy , Dylann Roof , David Koresh , David Lane , Eric Robert Rudolph , Frazier Glenn Miller , James Mason , James Alex Fields , John T. Earnest , Jim David Adkisson , Ku Klux Klan (KKK), National Action (NA), National Socialist Underground (NSU), Timothy McVeigh , Robert Bowers , Thomas Mair , The Order and Wade Michael Page . From 2008 to 2016, there were more right-wing terror attacks both attempted and accomplished in

7353-517: The United States Department of Homeland Security identified economic and political conditions as leading to a rise in right-wing radicalization and recruitment. The Anti-Defamation League reports that white supremacist propaganda and recruitment efforts on and around college campuses have been increasing sharply, with 1,187 incidents in 2018 compared to 421 in 2017, far exceeding any previous year. Far-right terrorists rely on

7482-531: The "Plebgate" affair. The Sun's complaint coincided with confirmation that the phone records of the news editor of the Mail on Sunday and one of its freelance journalists had also been obtained by Kent police force when they investigated Chris Huhne's speeding fraud. Journalists' sources are usually agreed to be privileged and protected from disclosure under European laws with which the UK complies. However, by using RIPA an investigating office just needs approval from

7611-521: The 2017 Parsons Green train bombing had been referred to Prevent. The perpetrator in the 2021 murder of David Amess was referred to Prevent. The aim of Pursue is to stop terrorist attacks happening in the UK or against UK interests overseas. The main objectives of Pursue are to detect, understand, investigate, and disrupt terrorist activity. There are multiple types of terrorists that are being pursued under this system, including: Counter Terrorism Policing work with MI5 to develop intelligence, and with

7740-639: The Caribbean; violent radicalization in the Arab world and Africa; and, violent radicalization in Asia. At this time, more research is available on this issue within Europe, North America, Latin America, and the Caribbean than is available in the Arab world, Africa, and Asia. The report expresses a need for continued research on this topic overall as there are multiple types of radicalization (political, religious, psychosocial) that can be explored in relation to youth and

7869-538: The Citizenship lessons on the National Curriculum. Since July 2015, schools also have a legal responsibility to have "due regard to the need to prevent people from being drawn into terrorism" under the Prevent duty and Child Protection and Safeguarding guidelines. In 2020, 6,287 people were referred to Prevent. Of these, 1,424 were referred to Channel and 697 were taken on as cases for Channel. 43% of

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7998-715: The Criminal Justice System. The Ministry of Defence is a key contributor to CONTEST strategy. It particularly supports Pursue through its military capability to disrupt overseas terrorist groups and its support of overseas law enforcement and security agencies. Its support for conflict prevention work has also contributed to the CONTEST objectives. Work overseas is crucial to Pursue, as previous UK attack plots have had support from terrorists overseas, as well as UK individuals being radicalised while overseas. Working with international partners therefore attempts to disrupt

8127-728: The Crown Prosecution Service to put compelling evidence before the courts. The public can also support law enforcement to pursue potential terrorist activity through calling the anti-terrorist hotline. Action Counters Terrorism (ACT) encourages individuals to report suspicious activity which could be related to terrorism through online reporting, or by contacting the police in confidence on their dedicated phone number. Government departments and agencies work collaboratively to disrupt terrorist activity. Counter-terrorism policing, MI5, and wider intelligence work together closely to investigate, detect, and disrupt terrorism, alongside

8256-597: The Data & Society think tank identified the YouTube recommendation system as promoting a range of political positions from mainstream libertarianism and conservatism to overt white nationalism. Many other online discussion groups and forums are used for online right-wing radicalization. Facebook was found to be offering advertisements targeted to 168,000 users in a white genocide conspiracy theory category, which they removed shortly after being contacted by journalists in

8385-496: The New Economics of Terrorism applies a rational choice model to the process of radicalization, demonstrating that the presence of mutual aid networks increase the resilience of radical groups. When those groups decide to use violence, they also enjoy a heightened level of lethality and are protected from defection and other forms of intervention by states and outside groups. All organizations insofar as they include

8514-551: The Prevent programme after telling a teacher they had been given toy guns. The children had been kept from parents for two hours. After a legal challenge, the Central Bedfordshire Council admitted the children's human rights were breached and they had been racially discriminated against. Prevent has also been accused of reducing academic freedom. In November 2018, the University of Reading highlighted

8643-475: The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (Ripa) to provide me with full details of all investigations that have used Ripa powers to acquire communications data to identify journalistic sources. My office will undertake a full inquiry into these matters and report our findings to the prime minister". On 12 October 2014, the justice minister, Simon Hughes , confirmed on Sky News 's Murnaghan programme that

8772-471: The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000. Despite claims in the press that local councils are conducting over a thousand RIPA-based covert surveillance operations every month for petty offences such as under-age smoking and breaches of planning regulations, the Office of Surveillance Commissioners' last report shows that public bodies granted 8,477 requests for directed surveillance, down over 1,400 on

8901-595: The UK and that the only way to combat it is by targeting the at-risk vulnerable groups and trying to assimilate them into society. This may include helping young people find jobs, better integrating immigrant populations into the local culture, and effectively reintegrating ex-prisoners into society. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police defines radicalization as "the process by which individuals—usually young people—are introduced to an overtly ideological message and belief system that encourages movement from moderate, mainstream beliefs towards extreme views." While radical thinking

9030-406: The UK government would reform RIPA to prevent the police using surveillance powers to discover journalists' sources. He said that the police's use of RIPA's powers had been "entirely inappropriate" and in future the authorisation of a judge would be needed for police forces to be given approval to access journalists' phone records in pursuit of a criminal investigation. The presumption would be that if

9159-512: The UK's response to the threat of terrorism; in relation to Pursue it enhances the ability of operational agencies to monitor and control actions of those posing a threat. The Counter-Extremism Strategy was published by the UK Government in 2015 and focuses on disrupting extremism, as well as extremists' rehabilitation and reintegration into society. This is an example of the punishment and control elements of Pursue. The purpose of Protect

9288-604: The UK. At the National Union of Teachers ' 2016 conference in Brighton , the union members voted overwhelmingly against the Prevent strategy. They supported its abolition, citing concerns over the implementation of the strategy and causing "suspicion in the classroom and confusion in the staff room." In June 2016, the MPs Lucy Allan and Norman Lamb introduced a private member's bill to repeal provisions in

9417-525: The US than Islamist and left-wing attacks combined. Right-wing populism by those who support ethnocentrism (usually white nationalism) and oppose immigration creates a climate of "us versus them" leading to radicalization. The growth of white nationalism in a political climate of polarization has provided an opportunity for both on- and offline radicalization and recruitment as an alternative to increasingly distrusted traditional mainstream choices. In 2009,

9546-462: The United States", or ironically Senator Ted Cruz 's call to "patrol and secure Muslim neighborhoods before they become radicalized". The "Slippery slope" represents gradual radicalization through activities that incrementally narrow the individual's social circle, narrow their mindset, and in some cases desensitize them to violence. This has also been called the "True Believer" syndrome, as

9675-614: The abuse of investigatory powers. Widely reported cases include the Stanford/Liddell case, the Goodman/Mulcaire Royal voicemail interception, and Operation Barbatus. Cliff Stanford and George Nelson Liddell pleaded guilty to offences under the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act in 2005. They were found to have intercepted emails at the company Redbus Interhouse. Stanford was sentenced to six months' imprisonment suspended for two years, and fined £20,000. It

9804-614: The act or pursuit of martyrdom denotes the absolute value of a radical's way of life. Robert Barrett is one of the leading researchers in field research with Nigerian terrorist groups. Barrett contributes a unique perspective to this type of research because his studies are conducted with current, not former, members of insurgent groups. Barrett's 2008 field research study revealed unique typologies and motivations for radicalization as reported by insurgent groups. For instance, individuals that were radicalized expressed sentiments of volunteerism, yet extremist recruiters conveyed that their objective

9933-618: The anger and suspicion directed toward innocent Muslims living in Western countries after the September 11 attacks and the indignities inflicted upon them by security forces and the general public contributes to radicalization of new recruits. Such "us vs. them" hostility cited by commentators includes political positions such as the Trump travel ban which Donald Trump initially campaigned for as "a total and complete shutdown of Muslims entering

10062-473: The article Our Morals: The Ethics of Revolution by Professor Norman Geras as potentially harmful. Students were instructed not to download the article on personal devices and not to leave the article where it could be visible "inadvertently or otherwise, by those who are not prepared to view it". In March 2019, the Court of Appeal found that the Prevent guidance on inviting controversial speakers at universities

10191-489: The cases taken on by Channel were for right wing extremism and 30% for Islamic extremism . A film associated with Prevent, Reclaim Radical – Radical versus Radicalised , was released in 2017. An independent review of Prevent was announced in August 2019 as part of the Counter-Terrorism and Border Security Act 2019 . The leader of the 2017 London Bridge attack and his brother were involved with Prevent. The perpetrator of

10320-490: The current ruling government. Most left-wing terrorist groups that had operated in the 1970s and 1980s disappeared by the mid-1990s. One exception was the Greek Revolutionary Organization 17 November (17N), which lasted until 2002. Since then, left-wing terrorism has been relatively minor in the Western world in comparison with other forms, and is now mostly carried out by insurgent groups in

10449-507: The defection constraint in a way that non-radicalized group dynamics cannot. Going back to the Taliban convoy example, not only have the two footsoldiers in question have been vetted by demonstrating commitment to the cause, they also have had their exterior options limited such that it would be difficult to blend into a new environment for lack of skills and cultural understanding. As such, the threshold price point to defect, as represented by

10578-504: The developing world. According to Sarah Brockhoff, Tim Krieger and Daniel Meierrieks, while left-wing terrorism is ideologically motivated, nationalist-separatist terrorism is ethnically motivated. They argue that the revolutionary goal of left-wing terrorism is non-negotiable whereas nationalist terrorists are willing to make concessions. They suggest that rigidity of the demands of left-wing terrorists may explain their lack of support relative to nationalist groups. Nevertheless, many on

10707-410: The difficulties with defining radicalization appears to be the importance of the context to determine what is perceived as radicalization. Therefore, radicalization can mean different things to different people. Presented below is a list of definitions used by different governments. The European Commission defined and coined the term "radicalization" in the year 2005 as follows: "Violent radicalisation"

10836-407: The encouragement of terrorism, preparation of terrorist acts and terrorist training, and offences involving radioactive devices and materials and nuclear facilities and sites. An example of this is 19-year-old Matthew King who pleaded guilty to the preparation of terrorist acts, and has now been sentenced to life imprisonment. In 2021 Shabazz Suleman was arrested and charged with terror offences under

10965-458: The event of a terrorist incident. One example of Prepare is the improved protection implemented for UK tourists in Tunisia following the 2015 Sousse attacks . Channel is a programme that seeks to reduce radicalisation by referring reported individuals to other services. People working in health or education are required by law to report individuals that meet certain criteria. A channel referral

11094-687: The faith. Dr. Abdul Haqq Baker developed the Convert's Cognitive Development Framework that describes how new converts conceptualize Islam and the stages where they are most vulnerable to radicalization. Radical right-wing terrorism is motivated by a variety of different right-wing / far-right ideologies, most prominently neo-fascism , neo-Nazism , white nationalism and to a lesser extent "Patriot" / Sovereign citizen beliefs and anti-abortion sentiment . Modern radical right-wing terrorism appeared in Western Europe , Central Europe and

11223-543: The group or community is more important than survival or preservation of oneself". Combatants' express concerns that their basic survival depends on joining extremist groups. Hence, combatants are not motivated by ideologies and their primary objective is self-preservation. Criminals are predominantly motivated by their "freedom to carry out activities that would otherwise be deemed illegal". As such, criminals thrive on instant self-gratification of engaging in violent acts against their enemies. Criminals thrive on conflict and in

11352-408: The group's purpose and preferred tactics. Within a radical group, internal dynamics can contribute to the formation of different factions as a result of internal disillusionment (or, conversely, ambitions) with the group's activities as a whole, especially when it comes to a choice between violent terrorism and nonviolent activism. The Weather Underground 's split with Students for a Democratic Society

11481-561: The growth of the Internet and strong encryption . The Regulation of Investigatory Powers (RIP) Bill was introduced in the House of Commons on 9 February 2000 and completed its Parliamentary passage on 26 July. Following a public consultation and Parliamentary debate, Parliament approved new additions in December 2003, April 2005, July 2006 and February 2010. A draft bill was put before Parliament during 4 November 2015. RIPA regulates

11610-599: The illegal harvesting of cockles and clams in ways that are regulated by RIPA. David Smith, deputy commissioner at the ICO (Information Commissioner's Office) stated that he was concerned about the surveillance which took place in Poole . Other councils in the UK have conducted undercover operations regulated by RIPA against dog fouling and fly-tipping . In April 2016, 12 councils said that they use unmanned aerial vehicles for "covert operations", and that such flights are covered by

11739-431: The influence of the Internet and social media on radicalizing them are to be studied, there are ethical concerns when it comes to the age of the youth being studied as well as the privacy and safety of these youth. The authors conclude their report with general recommendations as well as recommendations for government entities, the private sector, and civil society. Eli Berman 's 2009 book Radical, Religious, and Violent:

11868-445: The information obtained could not reasonably have been obtained by any other means. The intelligence gain must be sufficiently great to justify an intrusion, as well as any unavoidable collateral intrusion against individuals other than the target. The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 ensures that investigatory techniques are used in a way that is compatible with the Article 8 right to respect for private and family life, as in

11997-405: The introduction of promised protections for journalists, lawyers and others who handle privileged information, including confidential helplines, from such police surveillance operations. He said: "I fully understand and share the concerns raised by the protection of journalistic sources so as to enable a free press. Today I have written to all chief constables and directed them under section 58 (1) of

12126-408: The large bollards places strategically around busy city centres, and especially on bridges, to prevent the rise of vehicle-based attacks such as the 2017 London Bridge attack . The main objectives of Protect are to: Schedule 7 of the Terrorism Act 2000 permits examination officers to stop, question, search, and detain anyone transiting through ports, airports, and international rail stations, with

12255-465: The mainstream criminal justice system. The Crown Prosecution Service has a Special Crime and Counter Terrorism Division (SCCTD) to deal with the prosecution of terrorism cases. In 2021 Greer emphasised why this process is significant stating that it "... offers the best prospects of securing the legitimacy of counterterrorist law enforcement and of maintaining public confidence in it." The Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 2015 contains more powers to aid

12384-409: The manner in which certain public bodies may conduct surveillance and access a person's electronic communications. The Act: The type of communications data that can be accessed varies with the reason for its use, and cannot be adequately explained here. Refer to the legislation for more specific information. The reasons for which the use of directed surveillance & covert human intelligence sources

12513-626: The means for basic needs to be met such as food and housing. In addition, radicalization provided protection and safety from local violence (i.e. abductions) for their entire family. Other researchers such as Alpaslan Ozerdem and Sukanya Podder contend that radicalization "can become the only route to survival, offering protection from torture, abuse, and politically instigated killing." Furthermore, individuals that do not join radical groups may be subjected to an indefinite "insufferable social burden that included demeaning names and labels". Loss of social connection can open an individual to new ideas and

12642-491: The murder of non-radical Muslims and nonbelievers ( kafir : "pagans") is an example of this. Hannah Arendt , in The Origins of Totalitarianism outlines a similar dynamic that contributed to the ideologies of pan-slavism , Nazism , and antisemitism , where an in-group constructs an exalted self identity for political purposes and mobilizes against out-groups in order to solidify that identity. This dynamic of hatred

12771-542: The occurrence of free riding. These restrictions have a dual effect in radical groups. Not only do they ensure that an individual is committed to the cause, but they also diminish individual's access to consumption opportunities and social interaction that might persuade them to distance themselves from the cause. As individuals become more involved with radical activities, their social circles become more constrained, which diminishes contact with non-radicalized persons and further entrenches radicalized thinking. For example, when

12900-527: The organisation commits or participates in acts of terrorism, prepares for terrorism, promotes, or encourages terrorism. Proscription must be proportionate, which means the following factors must be taken into account when deciding whether to proscribe an organisation: Between 2018 and 2023 there have been six terrorist groups proscribed, including extreme right-wing groups such as Atomwaffen Division and The Base (hate group) . The Terrorism Act 2006 introduced further established terrorist offences including

13029-422: The police and liberal Muslim mentors. The UK Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 2015 created a positive duty for those working in education or health to report those who they deem at risk of radicalization. As of February 2015, all National Health Service (NHS) staff are required to undergo basic Prevent Awareness Training. Schools are valuable in providing the educational dimension of the Prevent duty through

13158-583: The police are encouraging schools to place an emphasis on safeguarding those most vulnerable and provide the resources necessary to help combat radicalisation grooming. At the Summit for a New Global Financing Pact chaired by Emmanuel Macron in Paris on 22–23 June 2023, CONTEST was presented by Fiona Hill , former chief of staff to Theresa May as home secretary and prime minister , as an exemplar for interdepartmental cooperation for tackling major threats, and

13287-421: The populace at large and produce domestic blowback that legitimates further violent action. The primary purpose of a radical group using this tactic is not to destroy the enemy outright, but to make the enemy strike at political and ideological moderates, such that the existing political order loses its claim on legitimacy while the radical group gains legitimacy. By destroying moderates, radical groups encourage

13416-430: The populace at large. Insofar as a group is a dynamic system with a common goal or set of values it is possible that the group's mindset as a whole can affect individuals such that those individuals become more radical. Discussion, interaction, and experience within a radical group can result in an aggregate increase in commitment to the cause, and in some cases can contribute to the formation of divergent conceptions of

13545-399: The possibility of free riders by extension experience defection constraints. Within the context of a violent extremist organization, defection means either defection to a counterintelligence or security apparatus, or defection to a non-radical criminal apparatus. Both of these outcomes spoil specific plans to exercise violence in the name of the group at large. The "defection constraint"

13674-409: The potential grooming, and later radicalisation, of vulnerable young people. As a result of face-to-face teaching being suspended and most schools and statutory agencies closing throughout the nationwide lockdown, there has been a marked decreased in the number of people referred to the Prevent programme since restrictions were put in place. Whilst the full effect of COVID restrictions are yet to be seen,

13803-505: The powers of the act in order to identify their sources, bypassing the usual court proceedings needed to obtain such information. The UK newspaper The Sun made an official written complaint to the Investigatory Powers Tribunal to seek a public review of the London Metropolitan Police's use of anti-terror laws to obtain the phone records of Tom Newton Dunn , its political editor, in relation to its inquiry into

13932-480: The powers were used was against animal rights activists in November 2007. In October 2014, it was revealed that RIPA had been used by UK police forces to obtain information about journalists' sources in at least two cases. These related to the so-called Plebgate inquiry and the prosecution of Chris Huhne for perversion of the course of justice . In both cases, journalists' telephone records were obtained using

14061-491: The previous year. Less than half of those were granted by local authorities, and the commissioner reported that, "Generally speaking, local authorities use their powers sparingly with over half of them granting five or fewer authorisations for directed surveillance. Some sixteen per cent granted none at all." In June 2008, the chairman of the Local Government Association , Sir Simon Milton , sent out

14190-471: The process of radicalization, to include all manner of extremist groups both violent and nonviolent, a common series of dynamics have been consistently demonstrated in the course of academic inquiry. Jihadis have a "tried and tested model" of contact with different vulnerable , and extremist individuals through online messaging services or social media platforms, and then rapidly manipulating them towards participating in violent action in their name. It

14319-415: The public to terrorist threats. In an article written for The Observer , former UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown stated that the strategy is "recognised by our allies to be world-leading in its wide-ranging nature, [and] leaves us better prepared and strengthened in our ability to ensure all peace-loving people of this country can live normally, with confidence and free from fear." The 'Prevent' strategy

14448-406: The purpose of determining whether those concerned have been involved in the commission, preparation, or instigation of acts of terrorism. The Authority to Carry Scheme 2023 prevents certain individuals travelling to or from the UK when it is necessary in the public interest, in order to prevent or disrupt those who pose a terrorism-related threat. The purpose of Prepare is to mitigate the impact of

14577-752: The revolutionary left have shown solidarity for national liberation groups employing terrorism, such as Irish nationalists , the Palestine Liberation Organization and the South American Tupamaros , seeing them as engaged in a global struggle against capitalism. Since the nationalist sentiment is fueled by socio-economic conditions, some separatist movements, including the Basque ETA , the Provisional Irish Republican Army and

14706-530: The role the Internet and social media play. One key conclusion of the report is that "social media constitutes a facilitating environment rather than a driving force for violent radicalization or the actual commission of violence." As stated before the authors of the 2017 UNESCO report repeatedly call for the support of more research into the study of online violent radicalization. Especially as it relates to young people and women as available research has been gendered. Gaps in research also apply to specific areas of

14835-673: The task of investigations featuring RIPA much more difficult. Another concern is that the Act requires sufficiently large UK internet service providers to install technical systems to assist law enforcement agencies with interception activity. Although this equipment must be installed at the ISPs' expense, RIPA does provide that Parliament will examine appropriate funding for ISPs if the cost burden became unfairly high. In April 2008, it became known that council officials in Poole put three children and their parents under surveillance, at home and in their daily movements, to check whether they lived in

14964-468: The terrorist elements that form in their name display this characteristic. While in some cases there may be doctrinal or ethnic differences that motivate this kind of competition, its greatest outward sign is an increased demand by the group for commitment to radical actions. Also called "the logic of political violence", Jiujitsu politics is a form of asymmetrical political warfare in which radical groups act to provoke governments to crack down on

15093-416: The threat before it manifests itself in the UK. An important element of Pursue is the independent oversight regime, which scrutinises the significant powers and tools used to stop potential terrorist attacks, ensuring they are used proportionately and appropriately. Proportionality (law) must be considered when using broader powers for terrorism investigations. The Secretary of State must be satisfied that

15222-507: The use of various surveillance methods such as hacking for digital information, or human surveillance through undercover policing. There are specific powers which can be utilised for these purposes, such as the specific power of arrest on suspicion of a terrorist, under section 41 of the Terrorism Act 2000 . Additionally those within the Investigatory Powers Act 2016 , such as targeted interception, which involves requesting

15351-665: The use of violence. In an initiating report of the European Commission's Expert Group on Violent Radicalisation – based on four deepening studies – the research paradigm has been opened for further scientific research, also flanked by research grants and funding via different security research programs. The UK Home Office , MI5 's parent agency, defines radicalisation as "The process by which people come to support terrorism and violent extremism and, in some cases, then join terrorist groups." The MI5 report closes by saying that no single measure will reduce radicalisation in

15480-1006: The value of the convoy, increases to include both the price of losing their existing support network and non-quantifiable factors such as friends, family, safety, and other goods over the course of their lives. While the overall arch of radicalization usually involves multiple reinforcing processes, scholars have identified a series of individual pathways to radicalization. Clark McCauley and Sofia Mosalenko's 2009 book Friction: How Radicalization Happens to Them and Us identifies 12 following sociological and psychodynamic pathways: This pathway emphasizes revenge for real or perceived harm inflicted upon oneself by an outside party. This initial offense triggers other psychodynamic mechanisms, such as thinking in more stark in-group and out-group terms, lowered inhibitions to violence, and lessened incentives to avoid violence. Chechen " Shahidka " also known as Black Widows, women who have lost husbands, children, or other close family members in conflict with Russian forces are

15609-553: The wake of the 2018 Pittsburgh synagogue shooting . After the March 15, 2019 Christchurch mosque shootings , Facebook announced that they have banned white nationalist and white separatist content along with white supremacy. Left-wing terrorism is terrorism committed with the aim of overthrowing current capitalist systems and replacing them with Marxist–Leninist or socialist societies. Left-wing terrorism can also occur within already socialist states as criminal action against

15738-606: The world. There is a notable absence of research on this topic when it comes to the Arab world, Africa, and Asia. So much so, that the authors of this report had difficulty developing specific conclusions about the connections between the Internet and social media, radicalization, and youth in these three areas of the world. The authors see these multiple gaps in research as opportunities for future studies, but also admit that there are specific challenges in carrying out research in this area successfully. They discuss empirical, methodological, and ethical challenges. For example, if youth and

15867-630: Was alleged Stanford had intercepted emails between Dame Shirley Porter and John Porter (Chairman of Redbus Interhouse). In 2007, News of the World royal editor Clive Goodman was sentenced to four months in prison for intercepting the voice mail of members of the Royal Family as part of the News International phone hacking scandal . His associate Glenn Mulcaire received a six-month sentence. In 2007, Operation Barbatus exposed

15996-471: Was being withdrawn. Amnesty International were highly critical of the error, and Extinction Rebellion said they were considering legal action. In 2024, Amnesty International began a campaign for Prevent to be scrapped. There is growing concern over the link of the COVID-19 pandemic and a greater risk of radicalisation. Due to social isolation and increased reliance on the internet, there are concerns over

16125-577: Was criticised in 2009 by Shami Chakrabarti , director of Liberty , as a domestic spying programme collecting intelligence about the beliefs of British Muslims not involved in criminal activity. The Communities and Local Government Committee were also critical of the Prevent programme in 2010, stating that it stigmatised and alienated the Muslims the government wanted to work with. Prevent has been criticised as legitimising and reinforcing Islamophobia and restricting freedom of expression for Muslims in

16254-533: Was reported that Raffia Hayat of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Association warned that jailed extremists attempt to recruit violent criminals into radical groups so they carry out attacks on the public once released. There have been several notable criticisms of radicalization theories for focusing disproportionately on Islam. There have been concerns that converts to Islam are more susceptible to violent radicalization than individuals born into

16383-418: Was to make "coercion feel like volunteerism." Barrett asserted that the motivations to become radicalized can be characterized as: ideologue, combatant, criminals, pragmatist, soldier, and follower. Ideologues uphold a belief that ethnic supremacy is necessary and violence was the means to achieve this truth. Ideologues maintain a "readiness to die for the ethnic group if necessary; survival and preservation of

16512-418: Was tried for 'Disclosing details of Section 49 Notice' under s. 54. In August 2009 it was announced that two people had been prosecuted and convicted for refusing to provide British authorities with their encryption keys, under Part III of the Act. The first of these was sentenced to a term of 9 months' imprisonment. In a 2010 case, Oliver Drage, a 19-year-old takeaway worker being investigated as part of

16641-400: Was unlawfully unbalanced and must be rewritten. In January 2020, The Guardian reported that Extinction Rebellion , the climate emergency campaign group promoted by Greta Thunberg , had been wrongly included on an official list of extremist organisations whose members should be reported to the authorities. The South East Counter Terrorism Unit later said that after review, the document

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