75-541: CADAM (computer-augmented design and manufacturing) is CAD -related software that was developed by Lockheed . CADAM was originally written for IBM mainframes and later ported to UNIX workstations , including the IBM RT PC . A variant of CADAM called Micro CADAM was also developed for PCs under DOS . This computer-aided design software article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Computer-aided design Computer-aided design ( CAD )
150-463: A concept car to test new technology for future products, but in this case, the work is directly used for the next product generation. Individual components cannot be constructed in isolation. CAD and CAID models of components are created within the context of some or all of the other components within the product being developed. This is achieved using assembly modelling techniques. The geometry of other components can be seen and referenced within
225-567: A personal computer system. Most applications support solid modeling with boundary representation (B-Rep) and NURBS geometry, and enable the same to be published in a variety of formats. Based on market statistics, commercial software from Autodesk, Dassault Systems , Siemens PLM Software , and PTC dominate the CAD industry. The following is a list of major CAD applications, grouped by usage statistics. Product lifecycle management In industry , product lifecycle management ( PLM )
300-698: A technical drawing with the use of computer software . CAD software for mechanical design uses either vector-based graphics to depict the objects of traditional drafting, or may also produce raster graphics showing the overall appearance of designed objects. However, it involves more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings , the output of CAD must convey information, such as materials , processes , dimensions , and tolerances , according to application-specific conventions. CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves, surfaces , and solids in three-dimensional (3D) space. CAD
375-407: A central database. The product data management was so effective that after AMC was purchased by Chrysler, the system was expanded throughout the enterprise connecting everyone involved in designing and building products. While an early adopter of PLM technology, Chrysler was able to become the auto industry's lowest-cost producer, recording development costs that were half of the industry average by
450-633: A graphical, textual, and meta nature – such as product bills of materials (BOMs) – needs to be managed. At the engineering departments level, this is the domain of Product Data Management (PDM) software, or at the corporate level Enterprise Data Management (EDM) software; such rigid level distinctions may not be consistently used, however, it is typical to see two or more data management systems within an organization. These systems may also be linked to other corporate systems such as SCM , CRM , and ERP . Associated with these systems are project management systems for project/program planning. This central role
525-442: A new form of prototyping called digital prototyping . In contrast to physical prototypes, which entail manufacturing time in the design. That said, CAD models can be generated by a computer after the physical prototype has been scanned using an industrial CT scanning machine. Depending on the nature of the business, digital or physical prototypes can be initially chosen according to specific needs. Today, CAD systems exist for all
600-495: A number of key C modules with their own APIs . A CAD system can be seen as built up from the interaction of a graphical user interface (GUI) with NURBS geometry or boundary representation (B-rep) data via a geometric modeling kernel . A geometry constraint engine may also be employed to manage the associative relationships between geometry, such as wireframe geometry in a sketch or components in an assembly. Unexpected capabilities of these associative relationships have led to
675-557: A number of tasks in parallel. For example: starting tool design as soon as the detailed design has started, and before the detailed designs of the product are finished; or starting on detailed design solid models before the concept design surfaces models are complete. Although this does not necessarily reduce the amount of manpower required for a project, as more changes are required due to incomplete and changing information, it does drastically reduce lead times and thus time to market. Feature-based CAD systems have allowed simultaneous work on
750-416: A single software product but as a collection of software tools and working methods integrated together to address either single stages of the lifecycle or connect different tasks or manage the whole process. Some software providers cover the whole PLM range while others have a single niche application. Some applications can span many fields of PLM with different modules within the same data model. An overview of
825-435: A suitable component that combines these may be available. The positive value of top–down design is that it preserves a focus on the optimum solution requirements. A part-centric top–down design may eliminate some of the risks of top–down design. This starts with a layout model, often a simple 2D sketch defining basic sizes and some major defining parameters, which may include some Industrial design elements. Geometry from this
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#1732787707047900-755: A wide group of users. These include the CAVE or HMDs and interactive devices like motion-sensing technology Starting with the IBM Drafting System in the mid-1960s, computer-aided design systems began to provide more capabilitties than just an ability to reproduce manual drafting with electronic drafting, and the cost-benefit for companies to switch to CAD became apparent. The software automated many tasks that are taken for granted from computer systems today, such as automated generation of bills of materials , auto layout in integrated circuits , interference checking, and many others. Eventually, CAD provided
975-469: Is a type of virtual construction engineering simulation incorporating time or schedule-related information for project management. CAD has become an especially important technology within the scope of computer-aided technologies , with benefits such as lower product development costs and a greatly shortened design cycle . CAD enables designers to layout and develop work on screen, print it out and save it for future editing, saving time on their drawings. In
1050-409: Is about business processes, people, and methods as much as software application solutions. Although PLM is mainly associated with engineering tasks it also involves marketing activities such as product portfolio management (PPM), particularly with regard to new product development (NPD). There are several life-cycle models in each industry to consider, but most are rather similar. What follows below
1125-568: Is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications, including automotive , shipbuilding , and aerospace industries, industrial and architectural design ( building information modeling ), prosthetics , and many more. CAD is also widely used to produce computer animation for special effects in movies, advertising and technical manuals, often called DCC digital content creation . The modern ubiquity and power of computers means that even perfume bottles and shampoo dispensers are designed using techniques unheard of by engineers of
1200-445: Is an iterative process, often designs need to be modified due to manufacturing constraints or conflicting requirements. Whether a customer order fits into the timeline depends on the industry type and whether the products are, for example, built to order, engineered to order, or assembled to order. Many software solutions have been developed to organize and integrate the different phases of a product's lifecycle. PLM should not be seen as
1275-401: Is associatively copied down to the next level, which represents different subsystems of the product. The geometry in the sub-systems is then used to define more detail in the levels below. Depending on the complexity of the product, a number of levels of this assembly are created until the basic definition of components can be identified, such as position and principal dimensions. This information
1350-492: Is covered by numerous collaborative product development tools that run throughout the whole lifecycle and across organizations. This requires many technology tools in the areas of conferencing, data sharing, and data translation. This specialized field is referred to as product visualization which includes technologies such as DMU ( digital mock-up ), immersive virtual digital prototyping ( virtual reality ), and photo-realistic imaging . The broad array of solutions that make up
1425-406: Is generally via a computer mouse but can also be via a pen and digitizing graphics tablet . Manipulation of the view of the model on the screen is also sometimes done with the use of a Spacemouse/SpaceBall . Some systems also support stereoscopic glasses for viewing the 3D model . Technologies that in the past were limited to larger installations or specialist applications have become available to
1500-422: Is often in the form of electronic files for print, machining , or other manufacturing operations. The terms computer-aided drafting ( CAD ) and computer-aided design and drafting ( CADD ) are also used. Its use in designing electronic systems is known as electronic design automation ( EDA ). In mechanical design it is known as mechanical design automation ( MDA ), which includes the process of creating
1575-426: Is one possible life-cycle model; while it emphasizes hardware-oriented products, similar phases would describe any form of product or service, including non-technical or software-based products: The first stage is the definition of the product requirements based on customer, company, market, and regulatory bodies' viewpoints. From this specification, the product's major technical parameters can be defined. In parallel,
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#17327877070471650-465: Is that a lot of the experimental/investigative work has already been completed. A lot of knowledge is built into these templates to be reused on new products. This does require additional resources "up front" but can drastically reduce the time between project kick-off and launch. Such methods do however require organizational changes, as considerable engineering efforts are moved into "offline" development departments. It can be seen as an analogy to creating
1725-471: Is that it very efficiently provides solutions to low-value problems. The focus of bottom–up design is "what can we most efficiently do with this technology?" rather than the focus of top–down which is "What is the most valuable thing to do?" Top–down design is focused on high-level functional requirements, with relatively less focus on existing implementation technology. A top-level spec is repeatedly decomposed into lower-level structures and specifications until
1800-421: Is the creation and central management of all product data and the technology used to access this information and knowledge. PLM as a discipline emerged from tools such as CAD , CAM and PDM , but can be viewed as the integration of these tools with methods, people and the processes through all stages of a product's life. It is not just about software technology but is also a business strategy. For simplicity,
1875-486: Is the process of managing the entire lifecycle of a product from its inception through the engineering , design and manufacture , as well as the service and disposal of manufactured products. PLM integrates people, data, processes, and business systems and provides a product information backbone for companies and their extended enterprises. The inspiration for the burgeoning business process now known as PLM came from American Motors Corporation (AMC). The automaker
1950-439: Is the use of computers (or workstations ) to aid in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design . This software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve communications through documentation, and to create a database for manufacturing. Designs made through CAD software help protect products and inventions when used in patent applications. CAD output
2025-410: Is then associatively copied to component files. In these files the components are detailed; this is where the classic bottom–up assembly starts. The top–down assembly is sometimes known as a "control structure". If a single file is used to define the layout and parameters for the review structure it is often known as a skeleton file. Defense engineering traditionally develops the product structure from
2100-403: Is used for tasks such as Dimensional tolerance (engineering) analysis. Another task performed at this stage is the sourcing of bought-out components, possibly with the aid of procurement systems. Once the design of the product's components is complete, the method of manufacturing is defined. This includes CAD tasks such as tool design; including the creation of CNC machining instructions for
2175-441: Is used in many ways depending on the profession of the user and the type of software in question. CAD is one part of the whole digital product development (DPD) activity within the product lifecycle management (PLM) processes, and as such is used together with other tools, which are either integrated modules or stand-alone products, such as: CAD is also used for the accurate creation of photo simulations that are often required in
2250-760: Is used in the design of tools and machinery and in the drafting and design of all types of buildings, from small residential types (houses) to the largest commercial and industrial structures (hospitals and factories). CAD is mainly used for detailed design of 3D models or 2D drawings of physical components, but it is also used throughout the engineering process from conceptual design and layout of products, through strength and dynamic analysis of assemblies to definition of manufacturing methods of components. It can also be used to design objects such as jewelry, furniture, appliances, etc. Furthermore, many CAD applications now offer advanced rendering and animation capabilities so engineers can better visualize their product designs. 4D BIM
2325-785: Is where the detailed design and development of the product's form starts, progressing to prototype testing, from pilot release to full product launch. It can also involve redesign and ramp for improvement to existing products as well as planned obsolescence . The main tool used for design and development is CAD. This can be simple 2D drawing/drafting or 3D parametric feature-based solid/surface modeling. Such software includes technology such as Hybrid Modeling, Reverse Engineering , KBE ( knowledge-based engineering ), NDT ( Nondestructive testing ), and Assembly construction. This step covers many engineering disciplines including mechanical, electrical, electronic, software ( embedded ), and domain-specific, such as architectural, aerospace, automotive, … Along with
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2400-443: The 1960s. Because of its enormous economic importance, CAD has been a major driving force for research in computational geometry , computer graphics (both hardware and software), and discrete differential geometry . The design of geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is occasionally called computer-aided geometric design ( CAGD ). Computer-aided design is one of the many tools used by engineers and designers and
2475-519: The 2000s, some CAD system software vendors shipped their distributions with a dedicated license manager software that controlled how often or how many users can utilize the CAD system. It could run either on a local machine (by loading from a local storage device) or a local network fileserver and was usually tied to a specific IP address in latter case. CAD software enables engineers and architects to design, inspect and manage engineering projects within an integrated graphical user interface (GUI) on
2550-457: The 2D systems, although many 3D systems allow using the wireframe model to make the final engineering drawing views. 3D "dumb" solids are created in a way analogous to manipulations of real-world objects. Basic three-dimensional geometric forms (e.g., prisms, cylinders, spheres, or rectangles) have solid volumes added or subtracted from them as if assembling or cutting real-world objects. Two-dimensional projected views can easily be generated from
2625-421: The 3D solid model and the 2D drawing by means of two separate files, with the drawing looking at the data in the model; when the model changes the drawing will associatively update. Some CAD packages also allow associative copying of geometry between files. This allows, for example, the copying of a part design into the files used by the tooling designer. The manufacturing engineer can then start work on tools before
2700-419: The CAD tool being used. The other referenced components may or may not have been created using the same CAD tool, with their geometry being translated from other collaborative product development (CPD) formats. Some assembly checking such as DMU is also carried out using product visualization software. Product and process lifecycle management (PPLM) is an alternate genre of PLM in which the process by which
2775-451: The PLM arena. One such advance is the availability of "role" specific user interfaces. Through tailorable user interfaces (UIs), the commands that are presented to users are appropriate to their function and expertise. These techniques include: Concurrent engineering (British English: simultaneous engineering ) is a workflow that, instead of working sequentially through stages, carries out
2850-525: The above phases should be considered as isolated. In reality, a project does not run sequentially or separated from other product development projects, with information flowing between different people and systems. A major part of PLM is the coordination and management of product definition data. This includes managing engineering changes and release status of components; configuration product variations; document management; planning project resources as well as timescale and risk assessment. For these tasks data of
2925-476: The actual creation of geometry, there is the analysis of the components and product assemblies. Simulation, validation, and optimization tasks are carried out using CAE ( computer-aided engineering ) software either integrated into the CAD package or stand-alone. These are used to perform tasks such as Stress analysis, FEA ( finite element analysis ); kinematics ; computational fluid dynamics (CFD); and mechanical event simulation (MES). CAQ ( computer-aided quality )
3000-417: The best features of top–down design, and bottom–up design into one process. A BEATM design process flow may begin with an emergent technology that suggests solutions that may have value, or it may begin with a top–down view of an important problem that needs a solution. In either case, the key attribute of BEATM design methodology is to immediately focus on both ends of the design process flow: a top–down view of
3075-493: The best success stories from either top–down or bottom–up have been successful because of an intuitive, yet unconscious use of the BEATM methodology . When employed consciously, BEATM offers even more powerful advantages. Front loading is taking top–down design to the next stage. The complete control structure and review structure, as well as downstream data such as drawings, tooling development, and CAM models, are constructed before
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3150-474: The commercial management of the life of a product in the business market with respect to costs and sales measures. Product lifecycle management can be considered one of the four cornerstones of a manufacturing corporation's information technology structure. All companies need to manage communications and information with their customers (CRM- customer relationship management ), their suppliers and fulfillment (SCM- supply chain management ), their resources within
3225-475: The definition of 3D models of a product starts with the construction of individual components. These are then virtually brought together in sub-assemblies of more than one level until the full product is digitally defined. This is sometimes known as the "review structure" which shows what the product will look like. The BOM contains all of the physical (solid) components of a product from a CAD system; it may also (but not always) contain other 'bulk items' required for
3300-418: The designer to create products that fit the human form and visual requirements as well as they interface with the machine. Originally software for CAD systems was developed with computer languages such as Fortran , ALGOL but with the advancement of object-oriented programming methods this has radically changed. Typical modern parametric feature-based modeler and freeform surface systems are built around
3375-431: The designer with the ability to perform engineering calculations. During this transition, calculations were still performed either by hand or by those individuals who could run computer programs. CAD was a revolutionary change in the engineering industry, where draftsman, designer, and engineer roles that had previously been separate began to merge. CAD is an example of the pervasive effect computers were beginning to have on
3450-452: The development of the product. One variant of PPLM implementations are Process Development Execution Systems (PDES). They typically implement the whole development cycle of high-tech manufacturing technology developments, from initial conception, through development, and into manufacture. PDES integrates people with different backgrounds from potentially different legal entities, data, information and knowledge, and business processes. After
3525-413: The drawing sheet can easily be adjusted in the final draft as required, unlike in hand drafting. 3D wireframe is an extension of 2D drafting into a three-dimensional space . Each line has to be manually inserted into the drawing. The final product has no mass properties associated with it and cannot have features directly added to it, such as holes. The operator approaches these in a similar fashion to
3600-562: The enterprise (ERP- enterprise resource planning ) and their product planning and development (PLM). One form of PLM is called people-centric PLM. While traditional PLM tools have been deployed only on the release or during the release phase, people-centric PLM targets the design phase. As of 2009, ICT development (EU-funded PROMISE project 2004–2008) has allowed PLM to extend beyond traditional PLM and integrate sensor data and real-time 'lifecycle event data' into PLM, as well as allowing this information to be made available to different players in
3675-410: The fields within PLM is covered here. The simple classifications do not always fit exactly; many areas overlap and many software products cover more than one area or do not fit easily into one category. It should also not be forgotten that one of the main goals of PLM is to collect knowledge that can be reused for other projects and to coordinate the simultaneous concurrent development of many products. It
3750-456: The final design freeze; when a design changes size or shape the tool geometry will then update. Concurrent engineering also has the added benefit of providing better and more immediate communication between departments, reducing the chance of costly, late design changes. It adopts a problem-prevention method as compared to the problem-solving and re-designing method of traditional sequential engineering. Bottom–up design (CAD-centric) occurs where
3825-507: The final product but which (in spite of having definite physical mass and volume) are not usually associated with CAD geometry such as paint, glue, oil, adhesive tape, and other materials. Bottom–up design tends to focus on the capabilities of available real-world physical technology, implementing those solutions to which this technology is most suited. When these bottom–up solutions have real-world value, bottom–up design can be much more efficient than top–down design. The risk of bottom–up design
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#17327877070473900-450: The full advantages of PLM requires the participation of many people of various skills from throughout an extended enterprise, each requiring the ability to access and operate on the inputs and output of other participants. Despite the increased ease of use of PLM tools, cross-training all personnel on the entire PLM tool-set has not proven to be practical. Now, however, advances are being made to address ease of use for all participants within
3975-400: The industry. Current computer-aided design software packages range from 2D vector -based drafting systems to 3D solid and surface modelers . Modern CAD packages can also frequently allow rotations in three dimensions, allowing viewing of a designed object from any desired angle, even from the inside looking out. Some CAD software is capable of dynamic mathematical modeling. CAD technology
4050-411: The initial concept design work is performed defining the aesthetics of the product together with its main functional aspects. Many different media are used for these processes, from pencil and paper to clay models to 3D CAID computer-aided industrial design software. In some concepts, the investment of resources into research or analysis-of-options may be included in the conception phase – e.g. bringing
4125-405: The major platforms ( Windows , Linux , UNIX and Mac OS X ); some packages support multiple platforms. Currently, no special hardware is required for most CAD software. However, some CAD systems can do graphically and computationally intensive tasks, so a modern graphics card , high speed (and possibly multiple) CPUs and large amounts of RAM may be recommended. The human-machine interface
4200-471: The mid-1990s. PLM systems help organizations in coping with the increasing complexity and engineering challenges of developing new products for the global competitive markets. Product lifecycle management (PLM) should be distinguished from ' product life-cycle management (marketing) ' (PLCM). PLM describes the engineering aspect of a product, from managing descriptions and properties of a product through its development and useful life; whereas, PLCM refers to
4275-422: The models. Basic 3D solids do not usually include tools to easily allow the motion of the components, set their limits to their motion, or identify interference between components. There are several types of 3D solid modeling Top-end CAD systems offer the capability to incorporate more organic, aesthetic and ergonomic features into the designs. Freeform surface modeling is often combined with solids to allow
4350-448: The operational phase, a product owner may discover components and consumables which have reached their individual end of life and for which there are Diminishing Manufacturing Sources or Material Shortages (DMSMS), or that the existing product can be enhanced for a wider or emerging user market easier or at less cost than a full redesign. This modernization approach often extends the product lifecycle and delays end-of-life disposal. None of
4425-441: The operator to think differently about how to use them and design their virtual components in a different manner. Virtually all of CAD tools rely on constraint concepts that are used to define geometric or non-geometric elements of a model. There are many producers of the lower-end 2D sketching systems, including a number of free and open-source programs. These provide an approach to the drawing process where scale and placement on
4500-491: The original CAD data with the use of computer-aided inspection equipment and software. Parallel to the engineering tasks, sales product configuration, and marketing documentation work takes place. This could include transferring engineering data (geometry and part list data) to a web-based sales configurator and other desktop publishing systems. Another phase of the lifecycle involves managing "in-service" information. This can include providing customers and service engineers with
4575-408: The physical implementation layer is reached. The risk of a top–down design is that it may not take advantage of more efficient applications of current physical technology, due to excessive layers of lower-level abstraction due to following an abstraction path that does not efficiently fit available components e.g. separately specifying sensing, processing, and wireless communications elements even though
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#17327877070474650-430: The preparation of environmental impact reports, in which computer-aided designs of intended buildings are superimposed into photographs of existing environments to represent what that locale will be like, where the proposed facilities are allowed to be built. Potential blockage of view corridors and shadow studies are also frequently analyzed through the use of CAD. There are several different types of CAD, each requiring
4725-476: The product has been defined or a project kick-off has been authorized. These assemblies of files constitute a template from which a family of products can be constructed. When the decision has been made to go with a new product, the parameters of the product are entered into the template model, and all the associated data is updated. Obviously, predefined associative models will not be able to predict all possibilities and will require additional work. The main principle
4800-428: The product is made is just as important as the product itself. Typically, this is the life sciences and advanced specialty chemicals markets. The process behind the manufacture of a given compound is a key element of the regulatory filing for a new drug application. As such, PPLM seeks to manage information around the development of the process in a similar fashion that baseline PLM talks about managing information around
4875-444: The product lifecycle that must be considered. Connecting and enriching a common digital thread will provide enhanced visibility across functions, improve data quality, and minimize costly delays and rework. There is an end-of-life to every product. Whether it be the disposal or destruction of material objects or information, this needs to be carefully considered since it may be legislated and hence not free from ramifications. During
4950-739: The product's parts as well as the creation of specific tools to manufacture those parts, using integrated or separate CAM ( computer-aided manufacturing ) software. This will also involve analysis tools for process simulation of operations such as casting, molding, and die-press forming. Once the manufacturing method has been identified, CPM comes into play. This involves CAPE (computer-aided production engineering) or CAP/CAPP (computer-aided production planning ) tools for carrying out factory, plant and facility layout, and production simulation e.g. press-line simulation, industrial ergonomics, as well as tool selection management. After components are manufactured, their geometrical form and size can be checked against
5025-400: The solution requirements, and a bottom–up view of the available technology which may offer the promise of an efficient solution. The BEATM design process proceeds from both ends in search of an optimum merging somewhere between the top–down requirements, and bottom–up efficient implementation. In this fashion, BEATM has been shown to genuinely offer the best of both methodologies. Indeed, some of
5100-416: The stages described are shown in a traditional sequential engineering workflow. The exact order of events and tasks will vary according to the product and industry in question but the main processes are: The major key point events are: The reality is however more complex, people and departments cannot perform their tasks in isolation and one activity cannot simply finish, and the next activity start. Design
5175-431: The support and information required for repair and maintenance , as well as waste management or recycling . This can involve the use of tools such as Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul Management ( MRO ) software. An effective service consideration begins during and even prior to product design as an integral part of product lifecycle management. Service Lifecycle Management (SLM) has critical touchpoints at all phases of
5250-463: The technology to a level of maturity sufficient to move to the next phase. However, life-cycle engineering is iterative. It is always possible that something does not work well in any phase enough to back up into a prior phase – perhaps all the way back to conception or research. There are many examples to draw from. The new product development process phase collects and evaluates both market and technical risks by measuring KPI and scoring model. This
5325-403: The tools used within a PLM solution-set (e.g., CAD, CAM, CAx...) were initially used by dedicated practitioners who invested time and effort to gain the required skills. Designers and engineers produced excellent results with CAD systems, manufacturing engineers became highly skilled CAM users, while analysts, administrators, and managers fully mastered their support technologies. However, achieving
5400-404: The top down. The system engineering process prescribes a functional decomposition of requirements and then the physical allocation of product structure to the functions. This top down approach would normally have lower levels of the product structure developed from CAD data as a bottom–up structure or design. Both-ends-against-the-middle (BEATM) design is a design process that endeavors to combine
5475-500: The total lifecycle of an individual product (closing the information loop). This has resulted in the extension of PLM into closed-loop lifecycle management (CL 2 M). Documented benefits of product lifecycle management include: Within PLM there are five primary areas; Note: While application software is not required for PLM processes, the business complexity and rate of change requires organizations to execute as rapidly as possible. The core of PLM (product lifecycle management)
5550-581: The vehicle that launched the modern sport utility vehicle (SUV) market, AMC began development of a new model, that later came out as the Jeep Grand Cherokee . The first part in its quest for faster product development was computer-aided design (CAD) software system that made engineers more productive. The second part of this effort was the new communication system that allowed conflicts to be resolved faster, as well as reducing costly engineering changes because all drawings and documents were in
5625-470: Was looking for a way to speed up its product development process to compete better against its larger competitors in 1985, according to François Castaing , Vice President for Product Engineering and Development. AMC focused its R&D efforts on extending the product lifecycle of its flagship products, particularly Jeeps, because it lacked the "massive budgets of General Motors, Ford, and foreign competitors." After introducing its compact Jeep Cherokee (XJ) ,
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