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68-457: CCGT may refer to: Combined cycle gas turbine, a type of combined cycle power plant commonly used for high efficiency, fast responding electricity generators Closed-cycle gas turbine (but combined cycle, see above, is the more common usage for gas turbines) Koenigsegg CCGT , race car Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with

136-502: A 100% renewable energy supply with the aim of providing affordable solutions for the energy transformation. To this purpose, the institute develops materials, components, systems and processes for basic research and beyond. The areas of expertise include the development of production techniques and prototypes, setting up and monitoring demonstration systems and operating indoor and outdoor testing and calibration centers. The various areas of research at Fraunhofer ISE are categorized into

204-513: A heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) with a live steam temperature between 420 and 580 °C. The condenser of the Rankine cycle is usually cooled by water from a lake, river, sea or cooling towers . This temperature can be as low as 15 °C. Plant size is important in the cost of the plant. The larger plant sizes benefit from economies of scale (lower initial cost per kilowatt) and improved efficiency. For large-scale power generation,

272-430: A 50.00 MJ/kg (21,500 BTU/lb) LHV: a 11% increase. Efficiency of the turbine is increased when combustion can run hotter, so the working fluid expands more. Therefore, efficiency is limited by whether the first stage of turbine blades can survive higher temperatures. Cooling and materials research are continuing. A common technique, adopted from aircraft, is to pressurise hot-stage turbine blades with coolant. This

340-634: A backup or supplementary power. It is named after American professor D. Y. Cheng who patented the design in 1976. The efficiency of a heat engine, the fraction of input heat energy that can be converted to useful work, is limited by the temperature difference between the heat entering the engine and the exhaust heat leaving the engine. In a thermal power station , water is the working medium. High pressure steam requires strong, bulky components. High temperatures require expensive alloys made from nickel or cobalt , rather than inexpensive steel . These alloys limit practical steam temperatures to 655 °C while

408-415: A business add plant capacity as it is needed. Multiple-pressure reheat steam cycles are applied to combined-cycle systems with gas turbines with exhaust gas temperatures near 600 °C. Single- and multiple-pressure non-reheat steam cycles are applied to combined-cycle systems with gas turbines that have exhaust gas temperatures of 540 °C or less. Selection of the steam cycle for a specific application

476-449: A combined heat and power (CHP) plant. In general, combined cycle efficiencies in service are over 50% on a lower heating value and Gross Output basis. Most combined cycle units, especially the larger units, have peak, steady-state efficiencies on the LHV basis of 55 to 59%. A limitation of combined cycles is that efficiency is reduced when not running at continuous output. During start up,

544-867: A large gas turbine (operating by the Brayton cycle ). The turbine's hot exhaust powers a steam power plant (operating by the Rankine cycle ). This is a combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) plant. These achieve a best-of-class real (see below) thermal efficiency of around 64% in base-load operation. In contrast, a single cycle steam power plant is limited to efficiencies from 35 to 42%. Many new power plants utilize CCGTs. Stationary CCGTs burn natural gas or synthesis gas from coal . Ships burn fuel oil . Multiple stage turbine or steam cycles can also be used, but CCGT plants have advantages for both electricity generation and marine power. The gas turbine cycle can often start very quickly, which gives immediate power. This avoids

612-520: A marine CCGT safer by permitting a ship to operate with equipment failures. A flexible stationary plant can make more money. Duct burning raises the flue temperature, which increases the quantity or temperature of the steam (e.g. to 84 bar, 525 degree Celsius). This improves the efficiency of the steam cycle. Supplementary firing lets the plant respond to fluctuations of electrical load, because duct burners can have very good efficiency with partial loads. It can enable higher steam production to compensate for

680-552: A means of load control or load shifting since ice can be made during periods of low power demand and, potentially in the future the anticipated high availability of other resources such as renewables during certain periods. Combustion technology is a proprietary but very active area of research, because fuels, gasification and carburation all affect fuel efficiency. A typical focus is to combine aerodynamic and chemical computer simulations to find combustor designs that assure complete fuel burn up, yet minimize both pollution and dilution of

748-422: A more efficient steam cycle. However, a multi-shaft system is about 5% higher in initial cost. The overall plant size and the associated number of gas turbines required can also determine which type of plant is more economical. A collection of single shaft combined cycle power plants can be more costly to operate and maintain, because there are more pieces of equipment. However, it can save interest costs by letting

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816-407: A percentage of the lower heating value of the fuel consumed, can be over 60% when operating new, i.e. unaged, and at continuous output which are ideal conditions. As with single cycle thermal units, combined cycle units may also deliver low temperature heat energy for industrial processes, district heating and other uses. This is called cogeneration and such power plants are often referred to as

884-694: A robust product for reliable operation in PV power plants. Fraunhofer ISE supports the product development concentrating on increasing efficiencies, reducing costs and achieving the highest reliability. Over and above, the Institute offers its services for quality assurance of modules and power plants. Alternative Photovoltaic Technologies In addition to silicon photovoltaics, the solar cell research at Fraunhofer ISE also extends to other photovoltaic technologies: With III-V based semiconductors like gallium indium phosphide, aluminum gallium arsenide or gallium arsenide,

952-434: A single electrical generator on a single shaft. This arrangement is simpler to operate, smaller, with a lower startup cost. Single-shaft arrangements can have less flexibility and reliability than multi-shaft systems. With some expense, there are ways to add operational flexibility: Most often, the operator desires to operate the gas turbine as a peaking plant. In these plants, the steam turbine's shaft can be disconnected with

1020-602: A synchro-self-shifting (SSS) clutch, for start up or for simple cycle operation of the gas turbine. Another less common set of options enable more heat or standalone operation of the steam turbine to increase reliability: Duct burning, perhaps with a fresh air blower in the duct and a clutch on the gas turbine side of the shaft. A multi-shaft system usually has only one steam system for up to three gas turbines. Having only one large steam turbine and heat sink has economies of scale and can have lower cost operations and maintenance. A larger steam turbine can also use higher pressures, for

1088-564: A thermodynamic cycle that operates between the gas-turbine's high firing temperature and the waste heat temperature from the condensers of the steam cycle. This large range means that the Carnot efficiency of the cycle is high. The actual efficiency, while lower than the Carnot efficiency, is still higher than that of either plant on its own. The electric efficiency of a combined cycle power station, if calculated as electric energy produced as

1156-626: A typical set would be a 270 MW primary gas turbine coupled to a 130 MW secondary steam turbine, giving a total output of 400 MW. A typical power station might consist of between 1 and 6 such sets. Gas turbines for large-scale power generation are manufactured by at least four separate groups – General Electric, Siemens, Mitsubishi-Hitachi, and Ansaldo Energia. These groups are also developing, testing and/or marketing gas turbine sizes in excess of 300 MW (for 60 Hz applications) and 400 MW (for 50 Hz applications). Combined cycle units are made up of one or more such gas turbines, each with

1224-478: A waste heat steam generator arranged to supply steam to a single or multiple steam turbines, thus forming a combined cycle block or unit. Combined cycle block sizes offered by three major manufacturers (Alstom, General Electric and Siemens) can range anywhere from 50 MW to well over 1300 MW with costs approaching $ 670/kW. The heat recovery boiler is item 5 in the COGAS figure shown above. Hot gas turbine exhaust enters

1292-430: A water washing procedure. A simpler and less expensive purification system will do the same job for light crude and light distillates. A magnesium additive system may also be needed to reduce the corrosive effects if vanadium is present. Fuels requiring such treatment must have a separate fuel-treatment plant and a system of accurate fuel monitoring to assure reliable, low-maintenance operation of gas turbines. Xcel Energy

1360-508: A wider range of temperatures or heat to electric power. Systems burning low quality fuels such as brown coal or peat might use relatively expensive closed-cycle helium turbines as the topping cycle to avoid even more expensive fuel processing and gasification that would be needed by a conventional gas turbine. A typical single-shaft system has one gas turbine, one steam turbine, one generator and one heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). The gas turbine and steam turbine are both coupled in tandem to

1428-406: Is a simplified form of combined cycle where the steam turbine is eliminated by injecting steam directly into the combustion turbine. This has been used since the mid 1970s and allows recovery of waste heat with less total complexity, but at the loss of the additional power and redundancy of a true combined cycle system. It has no additional steam turbine or generator, and therefore it cannot be used as

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1496-471: Is also bled-off in proprietary ways to improve the aerodynamic efficiencies of the turbine blades. Different vendors have experimented with different coolants. Air is common but steam is increasingly used. Some vendors might now utilize single-crystal turbine blades in the hot section, a technique already common in military aircraft engines. The efficiency of CCGT and GT can also be boosted by pre-cooling combustion air. This increases its density, also increasing

1564-419: Is also some development of modified Rankine cycles. Two promising areas are ammonia/water mixtures, and turbines that utilize supercritical carbon dioxide. Modern CCGT plants also need software that is precisely tuned to every choice of fuel, equipment, temperature, humidity and pressure. When a plant is improved, the software becomes a moving target. CCGT software is also expensive to test, because actual time

1632-418: Is determined by an economic evaluation that considers a plant's installed cost, fuel cost and quality, duty cycle, and the costs of interest, business risks, and operations and maintenance. By combining both gas and steam cycles, high input temperatures and low output temperatures can be achieved. The efficiency of the cycles add, because they are powered by the same fuel source. So, a combined cycle plant has

1700-941: Is going to build two natural gas power plants in the Midwestern United States that can mix 30% hydrogen with the natural gas. Intermountain Power Plant is being retrofitted to a natural gas/hydrogen power plant that can run on 30% hydrogen as well, and is scheduled to run on pure hydrogen by 2045. However others think low-carbon hydrogen should be used for things which are harder to decarbonize , such as making fertilizer , so there may not be enough for electricity generation. Combined-cycle systems can have single-shaft or multi-shaft configurations. Also, there are several configurations of steam systems. The most fuel-efficient power generation cycles use an unfired heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) with modular pre-engineered components. These unfired steam cycles are also

1768-559: Is limited on the multimillion-dollar prototypes of new CCGT plants. Testing usually simulates unusual fuels and conditions, but validates the simulations with selected data points measured on actual equipment. Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE The Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE (or Fraunhofer ISE) is an institute of the Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft . Located in Freiburg, Germany ,

1836-479: Is often readily available in rural areas. Gas turbines burn mainly natural gas and light oil. Crude oil, residual, and some distillates contain corrosive components and as such require fuel treatment equipment. In addition, ash deposits from these fuels result in gas turbine deratings of up to 15%. They may still be economically attractive fuels however, particularly in combined-cycle plants. Sodium and potassium are removed from residual, crude and heavy distillates by

1904-482: Is supplied to the low-temperature turbine. A super heater can be provided in the low-pressure circuit. Some part of the feed water from the low-pressure zone is transferred to the high-pressure economizer by a booster pump . This economizer heats up the water to its saturation temperature . This saturated water goes through the high-temperature zone of the boiler and is supplied to the high-pressure turbine . The HRSG can be designed to burn supplementary fuel after

1972-447: Is that after completing its cycle in the first engine, the working fluid (the exhaust) is still hot enough that a second subsequent heat engine can extract energy from the heat in the exhaust. Usually the heat passes through a heat exchanger so that the two engines can use different working fluids. By generating power from multiple streams of work, the overall efficiency can be increased by 50–60%. That is, from an overall efficiency of

2040-410: Is the gas turbine power plant cycle is the topping cycle. It depicts the heat and work transfer process taking place in the high temperature region. The cycle a-b-c-d-e-f-a which is the Rankine steam cycle takes place at a lower temperature and is known as the bottoming cycle. Transfer of heat energy from high temperature exhaust gas to water and steam takes place in a waste heat recovery boiler in

2108-529: The International Energy Agency (IEA), the Institute contributes in the establishment of the international boundary conditions for the realization of these concepts. In this business area, many disciplines come together: from material research and coating development through to component and system development and finally the required tests. Applied Optics and functional Surfaces Solar energy systems convert solar radiation incident on

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2176-408: The super heater , then passes through the evaporator and finally through the economiser section as it flows out from the boiler . Feed water comes in through the economizer and then exits after having attained saturation temperature in the water or steam circuit. Finally it flows through the evaporator and super heater. If the temperature of the gases entering the heat recovery boiler is higher, then

2244-676: The European Renewable Energy Research Centres Agency (EUREC), as well as other alliances. The Institute maintains a close cooperation with the Material Research Center of the University of Freiburg , which assists the Institute with fundamental research. Th institute director holds a faculty position at that University as professor of physics and applied sciences . To date, 12 spin-off companies have been founded from

2312-896: The Institute performs applied scientific and engineering research and development for all areas of solar energy . Fraunhofer ISE has three external branches in Germany which carry out work on solar cell and semiconductor material development: the Laboratory and Service Center (LSC) in Gelsenkirchen , the Technology Center of Semiconductor Materials (THM) in Freiberg, and the Fraunhofer Center for Silicon Photovoltaics (CSP) in Halle . From 2006 to 2016 Eicke Weber

2380-419: The PV small device program, numerous other successful products were developed. When the clean room was put into operation in 1989, the production of high efficiency solar cells began. In 1998, selective solar absorber coatings, which were developed at Fraunhofer ISE for solar thermal collectors, were put into industrial-scale production. In 2011 Fraunhofer ISE celebrated its 30th anniversary. Since its founding,

2448-422: The applied research results at Fraunhofer ISE. Among them are the following: The laboratory has a staff of 1139, of whom 439 hold permanent positions. (as of 04/2012). The research institute has a net floor area of 21,000 m² which contains offices, laboratories and test fields. New labs and office space are presently under construction. The 2011 operational budget totaled €61.3 million. Just five percent of

2516-406: The area of hydrogen technology, the research focuses on innovative technologies for hydrogen generation and on processes for the highly efficient conversion of hydrogen into electricity and heat using the most modern equipment. Together with partners from industry and science, components and complete fuel cell systems are developed for autonomous, portable as well as mobile applications. Presently

2584-406: The area of power electronics and controls. This includes inverter development and testing in a modern power electronics laboratory as well as research in the field of energy management including smart metering and smart grids. In future, vehicles will run partly or completely on electricity and draw their energy from the grid (electric and plug-in). Fraunhofer ISE is working at the interface between

2652-514: The bottoming cycle. During the constant pressure process 4-1 the exhaust gases from the gas turbine reject heat. The feed water, wet and super heated steam absorb some of this heat in the process a-b, b-c and c-d. The steam power plant takes its input heat from the high temperature exhaust gases from a gas turbine power plant. The steam thus generated can be used to drive a steam turbine . The Waste Heat Recovery Boiler (WHRB) has 3 sections: Economiser, evaporator and superheater. The Cheng cycle

2720-507: The capital costs of combined cycle power is relatively low, at around $ 1000/kW, making it one of the cheapest types of generation to install. The thermodynamic cycle of the basic combined cycle consists of two power plant cycles. One is the Joule or Brayton cycle which is a gas turbine cycle and the other is the Rankine cycle which is a steam turbine cycle. The cycle 1-2-3-4-1 which

2788-519: The earth into thermal, electrical or chemical energy. In order to better transmit, reflect, absorb, filter, redirect or concentrate the incoming radiation, Fraunhofer ISE develops optical components and systems. This business area serves as an interdisciplinary field and serves many areas of solar technology: windows and facades, solar thermal collectors, concentrator systems for photovoltaics and solar power plants as well as photovoltaic module technology. Solar Thermal Systems This business area covers

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2856-600: The energy harvested from solar radiation with another fuel to cut fuel costs and environmental impact (See: ISCC section ). Many next generation nuclear power plants can use the higher temperature range of a Brayton top cycle, as well as the increase in thermal efficiency offered by a Rankine bottoming cycle. Where the extension of a gas pipeline is impractical or cannot be economically justified, electricity needs in remote areas can be met with small-scale combined cycle plants using renewable fuels. Instead of natural gas, these gasify and burn agricultural and forestry waste, which

2924-400: The expansion ratio of the turbine. This is practised in hot climates and also has the effect of increasing power output. This is achieved by evaporative cooling of water using a moist matrix placed in the turbine's inlet, or by using Ice storage air conditioning . The latter has the advantage of greater improvements due to the lower temperatures available. Furthermore, ice storage can be used as

2992-407: The failure of another unit. Also, coal can be burned in the steam generator as an economical supplementary fuel. Supplementary firing can raise exhaust temperatures from 600 °C (GT exhaust) to 800 or even 1000 °C. Supplemental firing does not raise the efficiency of most combined cycles. For single boilers it can raise the efficiency if fired to 700–750 °C; for multiple boilers however,

3060-470: The flexibility of the plant should be the major attraction. "Maximum supplementary firing" is the condition when the maximum fuel is fired with the oxygen available in the gas turbine exhaust. Combined cycle plants are usually powered by natural gas , although fuel oil , synthesis gas or other fuels can be used. The supplementary fuel may be natural gas, fuel oil, or coal. Biofuels can also be used. Integrated solar combined cycle power stations combine

3128-419: The fluorescent collector FLUKO, transparent insulation and the initial steps towards high efficiency silicon and III-V solar cells, silicon thin film solar cells and material research. Already in 1983, the first fully electronic so-called "ISE inverter" was developed for use in autonomous photovoltaic systems. In 1986, the first serial product using fluorescent collectors as a power supply was produced. Within

3196-443: The following business areas: Energy Efficient Buildings At Fraunhofer ISE, energy-efficient buildings are one of the main areas of research. Teaming up with architects, expert planners and the industry, the researchers at Fraunhofer ISE optimize the performance of existing building and develop the buildings of tomorrow with consideration to the economic aspects, the energy efficiency and the user comfort. Through its involvement in

3264-693: The following certified test labs provide testing and calibration services at the laboratories: Other service establishments at the laboratories are: The Institute is one of the founding members and the Member-in-Charge of the Fraunhofer Energy Alliance, comprising sixteen Fraunhofer institutes with expertise in energy technology and energy research. The Institute is a member of the ForschungsVerbund Erneuerbare Energien (FVEE) and

3332-407: The gas turbine. Supplementary burners are also called duct burners . Duct burning is possible because the turbine exhaust gas (flue gas) still contains some oxygen . Temperature limits at the gas turbine inlet force the turbine to use excess air, above the optimal stoichiometric ratio to burn the fuel. Often in gas turbine designs part of the compressed air flow bypasses the burner in order to cool

3400-466: The highest efficiencies can be reached today. The technology of the dye solar cells has developed well beyond the laboratory stage and organic solar cells are attractive especially due to the expected low manufacturing costs. Renewable Power Supply The construction of grid-connected systems is the largest market for the photovoltaic branch today. The Institute provides consultancy services for system planning, characterizes solar modules and carries out

3468-607: The hot exhaust gases. Some combustors inject other materials, such air or steam, to reduce pollution by reducing the formation of nitrates and ozone. Another active area of research is the steam generator for the Rankine cycle. Typical plants already use a two-stage steam turbine, reheating the steam between the two stages. When the heat-exchangers' thermal conductivity can be improved, efficiency improves. As in nuclear reactors, tubes might be made thinner (e.g. from stronger or more corrosion-resistant steel). Another approach might use silicon carbide sandwiches, which do not corrode. There

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3536-426: The input temperature to the turbine (the firing temperature), is relatively high (900 to 1,400 °C). The output temperature of the flue gas is also high (450 to 650 °C). This is therefore high enough to provide heat for a second cycle which uses steam as the working fluid (a Rankine cycle ). In a combined cycle power plant, the heat of the gas turbine's exhaust is used to generate steam by passing it through

3604-431: The lower temperature of a steam plant is fixed by the temperature of the cooling water. With these limits, a steam plant has a fixed upper efficiency of 35–42%. An open circuit gas turbine cycle has a compressor , a combustor and a turbine . For gas turbines the amount of metal that must withstand the high temperatures and pressures is small, and lower quantities of expensive materials can be used. In this type of cycle,

3672-427: The lowest in initial cost, and they are often part of a single shaft system that is installed as a unit. Supplementary-fired and multishaft combined-cycle systems are usually selected for specific fuels, applications or situations. For example, cogeneration combined-cycle systems sometimes need more heat, or higher temperatures, and electricity is a lower priority. Multishaft systems with supplementary firing can provide

3740-638: The markets of low and high temperature applications. Solar thermal collectors and collector systems with flat or evacuated tube collectors find numerous applications in the practice. These include process water and solar heating systems, cooling and ventilation systems and sea water desalination systems. Also façade-integrated collectors are implemented. With linear concentrating collectors, operating temperatures from 150 °C to over 400 °C are achieved. Both trough and parabolic collectors are not only used for solar thermal power production in large power plants, but also in simpler and more cost-effective plants for

3808-581: The need for separate expensive peaker plants , or lets a ship maneuver. Over time the secondary steam cycle will warm up, improving fuel efficiency and providing further power. In November 2013, the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE assessed the levelised cost of energy for newly built power plants in the German electricity sector . They gave costs of between 78 and €100 /MWh for CCGT plants powered by natural gas. In addition

3876-512: The production of process heat, process steam and driving heat for absorption chillers. Silicon Photovoltaics Especially due to the market introduction programs in Japan and Germany, the role of photovoltaics is gaining more and more on importance. More than 85% of the solar cells produced worldwide are based on crystalline silicon. The price-performance ratio, long-term stability and the cost-reduction potential indicate that this top performer in

3944-411: The scientists have received many prestigious prizes and awards for their research results in the field. The solar energy research at Fraunhofer ISE establishes the technical prerequisites for an efficient and environmentally friendly energy supply for industrial as well as threshold and developing countries. The institute is committed to moving away from fossil fuels and nuclear power and moving towards

4012-517: The second cycle can take time to start up. Thus efficiency is initially much lower until the second cycle is running, which can take an hour or more. Heat engine efficiency can be based on the fuel Higher Heating Value (HHV), including latent heat of vaporisation that would be recuperated in condensing boilers , or the Lower Heating Value (LHV), excluding it. The HHV of methane is 55.50 MJ/kg (23,860 BTU/lb), compared to

4080-406: The system of say 34% for a simple cycle, to as much as 64% net for the turbine alone in specified conditions for a combined cycle. Historically successful combined cycles have used mercury vapour turbines , magnetohydrodynamic generators and molten carbonate fuel cells , with steam plants for the low temperature "bottoming" cycle. Very low temperature bottoming cycles have been too costly due to

4148-493: The technical analysis and performance testing of photovoltaic systems. Off-grid power supplies also are a focus of the ongoing research at the institute. People living in remote rural areas, the countless number of telecommunication systems, environmental measurement technology as well as portable electronic devices require an autonomous power supply, independent of the grid. Fraunhofer ISE develops renewable energy systems for this purpose. Fraunhofer ISE also performs research in

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4216-428: The temperature of the exiting gases is also high. In order to remove the maximum amount of heat from the gasses exiting the high temperature cycle, a dual pressure boiler is often employed. It has two water / steam drums. The low-pressure drum is connected to the low-pressure economizer or evaporator. The low-pressure steam is generated in the low temperature zone of the turbine exhaust gasses. The low-pressure steam

4284-418: The terrestrial photovoltaic market will retain its place as market leader longer than just the next decade. Fraunhofer ISE's expertise ranges over the entire value chain of crystalline silicon photovoltaics, starting from material development and crystallization, through to solar cell processing and photovoltaic module technology. Photovoltaic Modules and Systems Module technology converts solar cells into

4352-466: The title CCGT . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CCGT&oldid=900397562 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Combined cycle power plant The principle

4420-413: The turbine blades. The turbine exhaust is already hot, so a regenerative air preheater is not required as in a conventional steam plant. However, a fresh air fan blowing directly into the duct permits a duct-burning steam plant to operate even when the gas turbine cannot. Without supplementary firing, the thermal efficiency of a combined cycle power plant is higher. But more flexible plant operations make

4488-473: The vehicles and the grid on concepts for an environmentally acceptable power supply and the optimal integration of the vehicles into the electricity grid, including metering and billing systems. Hydrogen Technology In a fuel cell, hydrogen reacts with oxygen and sets useful energy free in the form of electricity and heat. Since hydrogen does not exist in its pure form in nature, it must be produced from one of its many chemical compounds. At Fraunhofer ISE in

4556-413: The very large sizes of equipment needed to handle the large mass flows and small temperature differences. However, in cold climates it is common to sell hot power plant water for hot water and space heating. Vacuum-insulated piping can let this utility reach as far as 90 km. The approach is called " combined heat and power " (CHP). In stationary and marine power plants, a widely used combined cycle has

4624-533: Was the director of Fraunhofer ISE. With over 1,100 employees, Fraunhofer ISE is the largest institute for applied solar energy research in Europe. The 2012 Operational Budget including investments was 74.3 million euro. Fraunhofer ISE was founded in 1981 by Adolf Goetzberger in Freiburg, Germany. It was the first non-university establishment for applied solar energy research in Europe. The first areas of focus were

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