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136-441: Computer animation is a digital successor to stop motion and traditional animation . Instead of a physical model or illustration, a digital equivalent is manipulated frame-by-frame. Also, computer-generated animations allow a single graphic artist to produce such content without using actors, expensive set pieces, or props . To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer monitor and repeatedly replaced by

272-410: A , b ] → R . {\displaystyle S:[a,b]\to \mathbb {R} .} We want S to be piecewise defined. To accomplish this, let the interval [ a , b ] be covered by k ordered, disjoint subintervals, [ t i , t i + 1 ] , i = 0 , … , k − 1 [

408-524: A , b ] . {\displaystyle S(t)\in C^{1}[a,b].} This spline type is also used in PostScript as well as in the definition of some computer typographic fonts. Many computer-aided design systems that are designed for high-end graphics and animation use extended knot vectors, for example Autodesk Maya . Computer-aided design systems often use an extended concept of a spline known as

544-900: A , b ] = [ t 0 , t 1 ) ∪ [ t 1 , t 2 ) ∪ ⋯ ∪ [ t k − 2 , t k − 1 ) ∪ [ t k − 1 , t k ) ∪ [ t k ] a = t 0 ≤ t 1 ≤ ⋯ ≤ t k − 1 ≤ t k = b {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&[t_{i},t_{i+1}],\quad i=0,\ldots ,k-1\\[4pt]&[a,b]=[t_{0},t_{1})\cup [t_{1},t_{2})\cup \cdots \cup [t_{k-2},t_{k-1})\cup [t_{k-1},t_{k})\cup [t_{k}]\\[4pt]&a=t_{0}\leq t_{1}\leq \cdots \leq t_{k-1}\leq t_{k}=b\end{aligned}}} On each of these k "pieces" of [

680-480: A Guinea for which Bryant & May would supply soldiers with sufficient matches. No archival records are known that could proof that the film was indeed created in 1899 during the beginning of the Second Boer War . Others place it at 1914, during the beginning of World War I . Cooper created more Animated Matches scenes in the same setting. These are believed to also have been produced in 1899, while

816-1397: A Nonuniform rational B-spline (NURBS). If sampled data from a function or a physical object is available, spline interpolation is an approach to creating a spline that approximates that data. The general expression for the i th C interpolating cubic spline at a point x with the natural condition can be found using the formula S i ( x ) = z i ( x − t i − 1 ) 3 6 h i + z i − 1 ( t i − x ) 3 6 h i + [ f ( t i ) h i − z i h i 6 ] ( x − t i − 1 ) + [ f ( t i − 1 ) h i − z i − 1 h i 6 ] ( t i − x ) {\displaystyle S_{i}(x)={\frac {z_{i}(x-t_{i-1})^{3}}{6h_{i}}}+{\frac {z_{i-1}(t_{i}-x)^{3}}{6h_{i}}}+\left[{\frac {f(t_{i})}{h_{i}}}-{\frac {z_{i}h_{i}}{6}}\right](x-t_{i-1})+\left[{\frac {f(t_{i-1})}{h_{i}}}-{\frac {z_{i-1}h_{i}}{6}}\right](t_{i}-x)} where For

952-433: A spline is a function defined piecewise by polynomials . In interpolating problems, spline interpolation is often preferred to polynomial interpolation because it yields similar results, even when using low degree polynomials, while avoiding Runge's phenomenon for higher degrees. In the computer science subfields of computer-aided design and computer graphics , the term spline more frequently refers to

1088-1198: A , b ] , we want to define a polynomial, call it P i . P i : [ t i , t i + 1 ] → R . {\displaystyle P_{i}:[t_{i},t_{i+1}]\to \mathbb {R} .} On the i th subinterval of [ a , b ] , S is defined by P i , S ( t ) = P 0 ( t ) , t 0 ≤ t < t 1 , S ( t ) = P 1 ( t ) , t 1 ≤ t < t 2 , ⋮ S ( t ) = P k − 1 ( t ) , t k − 1 ≤ t ≤ t k . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}S(t)&=P_{0}(t),&&t_{0}\leq t<t_{1},\\[2pt]S(t)&=P_{1}(t),&&t_{1}\leq t<t_{2},\\&\vdots \\S(t)&=P_{k-1}(t),&&t_{k-1}\leq t\leq t_{k}.\end{aligned}}} The given k + 1 points t i are called knots . The vector t = ( t 0 , …, t k )

1224-462: A 3D model is intended to be a solid color, it must be painted with " textures " for realism. A bone/joint animation system is set up to deform the CGI model (e.g., to make a humanoid model walk). In a process known as rigging , the virtual marionette is given various controllers and handles for controlling movement. Animation data can be created using motion capture , or keyframing by a human animator, or

1360-664: A 5-tuple ( a , b , c , d , x t ) where a, b, c, d correspond to coefficients in the form shown earlier and x t is equal to x j . Algorithm for computing Natural Cubic Splines: Input: set of coordinates C , with | C | = n + 1 Output: set splines which is composed of n 5-tuples. It might be asked what meaning more than n multiple knots in a knot vector have, since this would lead to continuities like S ( t ) ∈ C − m , m > 0 {\displaystyle S(t)\in C^{-m},\quad m>0} at

1496-477: A big impression in Paris, where it was released as L'hôtel hanté: fantasmagorie épouvantable . When Gaumont bought a copy to further distribute the film, it was carefully studied by some of their filmmakers to find out how it was made. Reportedly it was newcomer Émile Cohl who unraveled the mystery. Not long after, Cohl released his first film, Japon de fantaisie (June 1907), featuring his own imaginative use of

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1632-400: A character's arms can have a skeleton applied, and the joints can have transformation and rotation keyframes set. The movement of the arm joints will then cause the arm shape to deform. 3D animation software interpolates between keyframes by generating a spline between keys plotted on a graph which represents the animation. Additionally, these splines can follow bezier curves to control how

1768-598: A combination of the two. 3D models rigged for animation may contain thousands of control points — for example, "Woody" from Toy Story uses 700 specialized animation controllers. Rhythm and Hues Studios labored for two years to create Aslan in the movie The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe , which had about 1,851 controllers (742 in the face alone). In the 2004 film The Day After Tomorrow , designers had to design forces of extreme weather with

1904-460: A computer - such fluid simulation . 'CG' Animators can break physical laws by using mathematical algorithms to cheat mass , force and gravity , and more. Fundamentally, computer-generated animation is a powerful tool which can improve the quality of animation by using the power of computing to unleash the animator's imagination. This is because Computer Generated Animation allows for things like onion skinning which allows 2D animators to see

2040-490: A computer and an animation software. Some impressive animation can be achieved even with basic programs; however, the rendering can require much time on an ordinary home computer. Professional animators of movies, television and video games could make photorealistic animation with high detail. This level of quality for movie animation would take hundreds of years to create on a home computer. Instead, many powerful workstation computers are used; Silicon Graphics said in 1989 that

2176-428: A computer animation called " Kitty " was created with BESM -4 by Nikolai Konstantinov, depicting a cat moving around. In 1971, a computer animation called "Metadata" was created, showing various shapes. An early step in the history of computer animation was the sequel to the 1973 film Westworld , a science-fiction film about a society in which robots live and work among humans. The sequel, Futureworld (1976), used

2312-604: A feature animated film with a technique other than cel animation was produced in the US. The first was the stop motion adaptation of 19th century composer Engelbert Humperdinck 's opera Hänsel und Gretel as Hansel and Gretel: An Opera Fantasy . In 1955, Karel Zeman made his first feature film Journey to the Beginning of Time inspired by Jules Verne , featuring stop motion animation of dinosaurs and other prehistoric creatures. Art Clokey started his adventures in clay with

2448-561: A freeform clay short film called Gumbasia (1955), which shortly thereafter propelled him into the production of his more structured TV series Gumby (1955–1989), with the iconic titular character. In partnership with the United Lutheran Church in America , he also produced Davey and Goliath (1960–2004). The theatrical feature Gumby: The Movie (1992, released in 1995) was a box-office bomb . On 22 November 1959,

2584-412: A given interval [ a , b ] and a given extended knot vector on that interval, the splines of degree n form a vector space . Briefly this means that adding any two splines of a given type produces spline of that given type, and multiplying a spline of a given type by any constant produces a spline of that given type. The dimension of the space containing all splines of a certain type can be counted from

2720-573: A large close-up view of a table being set by itself baffled viewers; there were no visible wires or other noticeable well-known tricks. This inspired other filmmakers, including French animator Émile Cohl and Segundo de Chomón. De Chomón would release the similar The House of Ghosts ( La maison ensorcelée ) and Hôtel électrique in 1908, with the latter also containing some very early pixelation. The Humpty Dumpty Circus (1908, considered lost) by Blackton and his British-American Vitagraph partner Albert E. Smith showed an animated performance of

2856-487: A mathematical model for this process was the potential loss of the critical design components for an entire aircraft should the loft be hit by an enemy bomb. This gave rise to "conic lofting", which used conic sections to model the position of the curve between the ducks. Conic lofting was replaced by what we would call splines in the early 1960s based on work by J. C. Ferguson at Boeing and (somewhat later) by M.A. Sabin at British Aircraft Corporation . The word "spline"

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2992-845: A member of that type, and also S ( t ) = P 0 ( t ) = − 2 − 2 t 2 , 0 ≤ t < 1 S ( t ) = P 1 ( t ) = 1 − 6 t + t 2 , 1 ≤ t < 2 S ( t ) = P 2 ( t ) = − 1 + t − 2 t 2 , 2 ≤ t ≤ 3 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}S(t)&=P_{0}(t)=-2-2t^{2},&&0\leq t<1\\[2pt]S(t)&=P_{1}(t)=1-6t+t^{2},&&1\leq t<2\\[2pt]S(t)&=P_{2}(t)=-1+t-2t^{2},&&2\leq t\leq 3\end{aligned}}} would be

3128-417: A member of that type. (Note: while the polynomial piece 2 t is not quadratic, the result is still called a quadratic spline. This demonstrates that the degree of a spline is the maximum degree of its polynomial parts.) The extended knot vector for this type of spline would be (0, 1, 2, 2, 3) . The simplest spline has degree 0. It is also called a step function . The next most simple spline has degree 1. It

3264-399: A method of sticking needles in a stroboscopic disc so that it looked like one needle was being pushed in and out of the cardboard when animated. He realized that this method provided basically endless possibilities to make different 3D animations. He then introduced two methods to animate stereoscopic pairs of images, one was basically a stereo viewer using two stroboscopic discs and the other

3400-773: A more general understanding of a knot vector. The continuity loss at any point can be considered to be the result of multiple knots located at that point, and a spline type can be completely characterized by its degree n and its extended knot vector ( t 0 , t 1 , ⋯ , t 1 , t 2 , ⋯ , t 2 , t 3 , ⋯ , t k − 2 , t k − 1 , ⋯ , t k − 1 , t k ) {\displaystyle (t_{0},t_{1},\cdots ,t_{1},t_{2},\cdots ,t_{2},t_{3},\cdots ,t_{k-2},t_{k-1},\cdots ,t_{k-1},t_{k})} where t i

3536-1368: A neighborhood of t i , then the spline is said to be of smoothness (at least) C r i {\displaystyle C^{r_{i}}} at t i . That is, at t i the two polynomial pieces P i –1 and P i share common derivative values from the derivative of order 0 (the function value) up through the derivative of order r i (in other words, the two adjacent polynomial pieces connect with loss of smoothness of at most n – r i ) P i − 1 ( 0 ) ( t i ) = P i ( 0 ) ( t i ) , P i − 1 ( 1 ) ( t i ) = P i ( 1 ) ( t i ) , ⋮ P i − 1 ( r i ) ( t i ) = P i ( r i ) ( t i ) . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}P_{i-1}^{(0)}(t_{i})&=P_{i}^{(0)}(t_{i}),\\[2pt]P_{i-1}^{(1)}(t_{i})&=P_{i}^{(1)}(t_{i}),\\\vdots &\\P_{i-1}^{(r_{i})}(t_{i})&=P_{i}^{(r_{i})}(t_{i}).\end{aligned}}} A vector r = ( r 1 , …, r k –1 ) such that

3672-476: A new similar image but advanced slightly in time (usually at a rate of 24, 25, or 30 frames/second). This technique is identical to how the illusion of movement is achieved with television and motion pictures . To trick the visual system into seeing a smoothly moving object, the pictures should be drawn at around 12 frames per second or faster (a frame is one complete image). With rates above 75 to 120 frames per second, no improvement in realism or smoothness

3808-402: A note about improvements for his Fantascope (a.k.a. phénakisticope ). A new translucent variation had improved picture quality and could be viewed with both eyes, by several people at the same time. Plateau stated that the illusion could be advanced even further with an idea communicated to him by Charles Wheatstone : a combination of the fantascope and Wheatstone's stereoscope . Plateau thought

3944-422: A piecewise polynomial ( parametric ) curve . Splines are popular curves in these subfields because of the simplicity of their construction, their ease and accuracy of evaluation, and their capacity to approximate complex shapes through curve fitting and interactive curve design. The term spline comes from the flexible spline devices used by shipbuilders and draftsmen to draw smooth shapes. The term "spline"

4080-778: A presentation of the complete dance with a home cinema projector. Later on, he bought a movie camera and between 1906 and 1909 he made many short films, including puppet animations. As a dancer and choreographer, Shiryaev had a special talent to create motion in his animated films. According to animator Peter Lord his work was decades ahead of its time. Part of Shiryaev's animation work is featured in Viktor Bocharov's documentary Alexander Shiryaev: A Belated Premiere (2003). Polish-Russian Ladislas Starevich (1882–1965), started his film career around 1909 in Kaunas filming live insects. He wanted to document rutting stag beetles , but

4216-504: A process known as tweening . However, in 3D computer animation, this is done automatically, and is called interpolation . Finally, the animation is rendered and composited . Before becoming a final product, 3D computer animations only exist as a series of moving shapes and systems within 3d software, and must be rendered . This can happen as a separate process for animations developed for movies and short films, or it can be done in real-time when animated for videogames. After an animation

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4352-439: A project would take much time and careful effort, but would be well worth it because of the expected marvelous results. The plan was never executed, possibly because Plateau was almost completely blind by this time. In 1852, Jules Duboscq patented a "Stéréoscope-fantascope ou Bïoscope" (or abbreviated as stéréofantascope) stroboscopic disc . The only known extant disc contains stereoscopic photograph pairs of different phases of

4488-509: A raster graphic alternative to animated GIF files that enables multi-level transparency not available in GIFs. Computer animation uses different techniques to produce animations. Most frequently, sophisticated mathematics is used to manipulate complex three-dimensional polygons , apply " textures ", lighting and other effects to the polygons and finally rendering the complete image. A sophisticated graphical user interface may be used to create

4624-452: A release date of 1908 has also been given. The 1908 Animated Matches film by Émile Cohl may have caused more confusion about the release dates of Cooper's matchstick animations. It also raises the question whether Cohl may have been inspired by Melbourne-Cooper or vice versa. Melbourne-Cooper's lost films Dolly’s Toys (1901) and The Enchanted Toymaker (1904) may have included stop-motion animation. Dreams of Toyland (1908) features

4760-595: A rendition of the legend of the German scholar . Švankmajer's work has been highly influential on other artists, such as Terry Gilliam and the Quay brothers (although the latter claim to have only discovered Švankmajer's films after having developed their own similar style). French animator Serge Danot created The Magic Roundabout (1965) which played for many years on the BBC . Spline (mathematics) In mathematics ,

4896-415: A scene with many animated toys that lasts approximately three and a half minutes. As a means to plan his performances, ballet dancer and choreographer Alexander Shiryaev started making approximately 20- to 25-centimeter-tall puppets out of papier-mâché on poseable wire frames. He then sketched all the sequential movements on paper. When he arranged these vertically on a long strip, it was possible to give

5032-402: A similar manner to those who use the commercial grade equipment. The realistic modeling of human facial features is both one of the most challenging and sought after elements in computer-generated imagery. Computer facial animation is a highly complex field where models typically include a very large number of animation variables. Historically speaking, the first SIGGRAPH tutorials on State of

5168-413: A simplified representation of a character's anatomy, which is analogous to a skeleton or stick figure . They are arranged into a default position known as a bind pose , or T-Pose. The position of each segment of the skeletal model is defined by animation variables, or Avars for short. In human and animal characters, many parts of the skeletal model correspond to the actual bones, but skeletal animation

5304-532: A sitting old lady. American film pioneer Edwin S. Porter filmed a single-shot "lightning sculpting" film with a baker molding faces from a patch of dough in Fun in a Bakery Shop (1902), considered as foreshadowing of clay animation. In 1905, Porter showed animated letters and very simple cutout animation of two hands in the intertitles in How Jones Lost His Roll . Porter experimented with

5440-476: A small bit of crude stop-motion animation in his trick film Dream of a Rarebit Fiend (1906). The "Teddy" Bears (2 March 1907), made in collaboration with Wallace McCutcheon Sr. , mainly shows people in bear costumes, but the short film also features a short stop-motion segment with small teddy bears. On 15 February 1908, Porter released the trick film A Sculptor's Welsh Rabbit Dream that featured clay molding itself into three complete busts. No copy of

5576-691: A string of Academy Award for Best Animated Short Films , including Rhythm in the Ranks (1941), Tulips Shall Grow (1942), Jasper and the Haunted House (1942), the Dr. Seuss penned The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins (1943) and And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street (1944), Jasper and the Beanstalk (1945), John Henry and the Inky-Poo (1946), Jasper in a Jam (1946), and Tubby

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5712-794: A type of spline S ( t ) for which S ( t ) = P 0 ( t ) = − 1 + 4 t − t 2 , 0 ≤ t < 1 S ( t ) = P 1 ( t ) = 2 t , 1 ≤ t < 2 S ( t ) = P 2 ( t ) = 2 − t + t 2 , 2 ≤ t ≤ 3 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}S(t)&=P_{0}(t)=-1+4t-t^{2},&&0\leq t<1\\[2pt]S(t)&=P_{1}(t)=2t,&&1\leq t<2\\[2pt]S(t)&=P_{2}(t)=2-t+t^{2},&&2\leq t\leq 3\end{aligned}}} would be

5848-637: A year later. Although the films and her technique received much attention of the press, it seems she did not continue making films after she returned to New York from managing a YMCA in Paris around 1918. None of her films have yet surfaced, but the extant magazine articles have provided several stills and approximately 20 poorly printed frames from two film strips. By 1920 Starewicz had settled in Paris, and started making new stop motion films. Dans les Griffes de L'araignée (finished 1920, released 1924) featured detailed hand-made insect puppets that could convey facial expressions with moving lips and eyelids. One of

5984-548: Is Snip and Snap (1960-1961) by John Halas in collaboration with Danish paper sculptor Thok Søndergaard (Thoki Yenn), featuring dog Snap, cut from a sheet of paper by pair of scissors Snip. Apart from their cutout animation series, British studio Smallfilms ( Peter Firmin and Oliver Postgate ) produced several stop motion series with puppets, beginning with Pingwings (1961-1965) featuring penguin-like birds knitted by Peter's wife Joan and filmed on their farm (where most of their productions were filmed in an unused barn). It

6120-767: Is a career path which involves separate workflows, and different software and tools. The combination of all or some 3D computer animation disciplines is commonly referred to within the animation industry as the 3D animation pipeline. 2D computer graphics are still used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster real-time renderings . Computer animation is essentially a digital successor to stop motion techniques, but using 3D models, and traditional animation techniques using frame-by-frame animation of 2D illustrations. For 2D figure animations, separate objects (illustrations) and separate transparent layers are used with or without that virtual skeleton. In 2D computer animation, moving objects are often referred to as " sprites ." A sprite

6256-403: Is also called a linear spline . A closed linear spline (i.e, the first knot and the last are the same) in the plane is just a polygon . A common spline is the natural cubic spline . A cubic spline has degree 3 with continuity C , i.e. the values and first and second derivatives are continuous. Natural means that the second derivatives of the spline polynomials are zero at the endpoints of

6392-418: Is also incomplete and often insufficient to properly date all extant films or even identify them if original titles are missing. Possible stop motion in lost films is even harder to trace. The principles of animation and other special effects were mostly kept a secret, not only to prevent use of such techniques by competitors, but also to keep audiences interested in the mystery of the magic tricks. Stop motion

6528-457: Is also used to animate other things, with facial features (though other methods for facial animation exist). The character "Woody" in Toy Story , for example, uses 712 Avars (212 in the face alone). The computer does not usually render the skeletal model directly (it is invisible), but it does use the skeletal model to compute the exact position and orientation of that certain character, which

6664-436: Is an image that has a location associated with it. The location of the sprite is changed slightly, between each displayed frame, to make the sprite appear to move. The following pseudocode makes a sprite move from left to right: Computer-assisted animation is usually classed as two-dimensional ( 2D ) animation and is also known as digital ink and paint. Drawings are either hand drawn (pencil to paper) or interactively drawn (on

6800-542: Is attended by thousands of computer professionals each year. Developers of computer games and 3D video cards strive to achieve the same visual quality on personal computers in real-time as is possible for CGI films and animation. With the rapid advancement of real-time rendering quality, artists began to use game engines to render non-interactive movies, which led to the art form Machinima . CGI short films have been produced as independent animation since 1976. Early examples of feature films incorporating CGI animation include

6936-497: Is called a knot vector for the spline. If the knots are equidistantly distributed in the interval [ a , b ] we say the spline is uniform , otherwise we say it is non-uniform . If the polynomial pieces P i each have degree at most n , then the spline is said to be of degree ≤ n (or of order n + 1 ). If S ∈ C r i {\displaystyle S\in C^{r_{i}}} in

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7072-425: Is closely related to the stop trick , in which the camera is temporarily stopped during the recording of a scene to create a change before filming is continued (or for which the cause of the change is edited out of the film). In the resulting film, the change will be sudden and a logical cause of the change will be mysteriously absent or replaced with a fake cause that is suggested in the scene. The oldest known example

7208-445: Is detailed nicely in (Birkhoff, 1990) and (Young, 1997). Davis (1997) summarizes some of this material. We begin by limiting our discussion to polynomials in one variable . In this case, a spline is a piecewise polynomial function . This function, call it S , takes values from an interval [ a , b ] and maps them to R , {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ,} the set of real numbers , S : [

7344-516: Is eventually rendered into an image. Thus by changing the values of Avars over time, the animator creates motion by making the character move from frame to frame. There are several methods for generating the Avar values to obtain realistic motion. Traditionally, animators manipulate the Avars directly. Rather than set Avars for every frame, they usually set Avars at strategic points (frames) in time and let

7480-511: Is not always to emulate live action as closely as possible, so many animated films instead feature characters who are anthropomorphic animals, legendary creatures and characters, superheroes, or otherwise have non-realistic, cartoon-like proportions. Computer animation can also be tailored to mimic or substitute for other kinds of animation, like traditional stop-motion animation (as shown in Flushed Away or The Peanuts Movie ). Some of

7616-510: Is not composed solely of rendering). A workstation typically costs $ 2,000 to $ 16,000 with the more expensive stations being able to render much faster due to the more technologically advanced hardware that they contain. Professionals also use digital movie cameras , motion/ performance capture , bluescreens , film editing software , props, and other tools used for movie animation. Programs like Blender allow for people who can not afford expensive animation and rendering software to be able to work in

7752-406: Is perceivable due to the way the eye and the brain both process images. At rates below 12 frames per second, most people can detect jerkiness associated with the drawing of new images that detracts from the illusion of realistic movement. Conventional hand-drawn cartoon animation often uses 15 frames per second in order to save on the number of drawings needed, but this is usually accepted because of

7888-710: Is possible with traditional animation , while still retaining the stylistic elements of traditionally drawn characters or objects. Examples of films produced using computer-assisted animation are the rainbow sequence at the end of The Little Mermaid (the rest of the films listed use digital ink and paint in their entirety), The Rescuers Down Under , Beauty and the Beast , Aladdin , The Lion King , Pocahontas , The Hunchback of Notre Dame , Hercules , Mulan , Tarzan , We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story , Balto , Anastasia , Titan A.E. , The Prince of Egypt , The Road to El Dorado , Spirit: Stallion of

8024-424: Is recorded to a computer using video cameras and markers and that performance is then applied to the animated character. Each method has its advantages and as of 2007, games and films are using either or both of these methods in productions. Keyframe animation can produce motions that would be difficult or impossible to act out, while motion capture can reproduce the subtleties of a particular actor. For example, in

8160-595: Is rendered, it can be composited into a final product. For 3D models, attributes can describe any characteristic of the object that can be animated. This includes transformation (movement from one point to another), scaling, rotation, and more complex attributes like blend shape progression (morphing from one shape to another). Each attribute gets a channel on which keyframes can be set. These keyframes can be used in more complex ways such as animating in layers (combining multiple sets of key frame data), or keying control objects to deform or control other objects. For instance,

8296-402: Is repeated j i times for i = 1, …, k – 1 . A parametric curve on the interval [ a , b ] G ( t ) = ( X ( t ) , Y ( t ) ) , t ∈ [ a , b ] {\displaystyle G(t)={\bigl (}X(t),Y(t){\bigr )},\quad t\in [a,b]} is a spline curve if both X and Y are spline functions of

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8432-452: Is required, but the types of characters required exceed what can be done throughout the conventional costuming. 3D computer animation combines 3D models of objects and programmed or hand "keyframed" movement. These models are constructed out of geometrical vertices, faces, and edges in a 3D coordinate system. Objects are sculpted much like real clay or plaster, working from general forms to specific details with various sculpting tools. Unless

8568-545: Is then used to in a two-level structure – the PAD-PEP mapping and the PEP-FAP translation model. Realism in computer animation can mean making each frame look photorealistic , in the sense that the scene is rendered to resemble a photograph or make the characters' animation believable and lifelike. Computer animation can also be realistic with or without the photorealistic rendering . One trend in computer animation has been

8704-484: Is to use procedural tools such as 4D noise . Noise is any algorithm that plots pseudo-random values within a dimensional space. 4D noise can be used to do things like move a swarm of bees around; the first three dimensions correspond to the position of the bees in space, and the fourth is used to change the bee's position over time. Noise can also be used as a cheap replacement for simulation . For example, smoke and clouds can be animated using noise. Node-based animation

8840-489: Is used for the beheading in Edison Manufacturing Company 's 1895 film The Execution of Mary Stuart . The technique of stop motion can be interpreted as repeatedly applying the stop trick. In 1917, clay animation pioneer Helena Smith-Dayton referred to the principle behind her work as "stop action", a synonym of "stop motion". French trick film pioneer Georges Méliès claimed to have invented

8976-459: Is used to refer to a wide class of functions that are used in applications requiring data interpolation and/or smoothing. The data may be either one-dimensional or multi-dimensional. Spline functions for interpolation are normally determined as the minimizers of suitable measures of roughness (for example integral squared curvature) subject to the interpolation constraints. Smoothing splines may be viewed as generalizations of interpolation splines where

9112-485: Is useful for animating organic and chaotic shapes. By using nodes, an animator can build up a complex set of animation rules that can be applied either to many objects at once, or one very complex object. A good example of this would be setting the movement of particles to match the beat of a song. There are many different disciplines of 3D animation, some of which include entirely separate artforms. For example, hair simulation for computer animated characters in and of itself

9248-454: Is usually called cutout animation . The term "stop motion", relating to the animation technique, is often spelled with a hyphen as "stop-motion"—either standalone or as a compound modifier . Both orthographical variants, with and without the hyphen, are correct, but the hyphenated one has a second meaning that is unrelated to animation or cinema: "a device for automatically stopping a machine or engine when something has gone wrong". Before

9384-470: The 1862 International Exhibition in London. Desvignes "employed models, insects and other objects, instead of pictures, with perfect success". In 1874, Jules Janssen made several practice discs for the recording of the passage of Venus with his series Passage de Vénus with his photographic revolver . He used a model of the planet and a light source standing in for the sun. While actual recordings of

9520-462: The flat spline is a cubic ( n = 3 ), twice continuously differentiable ( C ), natural spline, which is a spline of this classical type with additional conditions imposed at endpoints a and b . Another type of spline that is much used in graphics, for example in drawing programs such as Adobe Illustrator from Adobe Systems , has pieces that are cubic but has continuity only at most S ( t ) ∈ C 1 [

9656-606: The 10-minute The Beautiful Leukanida (Прекрасная Люканида, или Война усачей с рогачами) (March 1912), the two-minute Happy Scenes from Animal Life (Веселые сценки из жизни животных), the 12-minute The Cameraman's Revenge (Прекрасная Люканида, или Война усачей с рогачами, October 1912) and the 5-minute The Grasshopper and the Ant (Стрекоза и муравей, 1913). Reportedly many viewers were impressed with how much could be achieved with trained insects, or at least wondered what tricks could have been used, since few people were familiar with

9792-477: The 2006 film Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest , Bill Nighy provided the performance for the character Davy Jones . Even though Nighy does not appear in the movie himself, the movie benefited from his performance by recording the nuances of his body language, posture, facial expressions, etc. Thus motion capture is appropriate in situations where believable, realistic behavior and action

9928-475: The 3D wire-frame imagery, which featured a computer-animated hand and face both created by University of Utah graduates Edwin Catmull and Fred Parke . This imagery originally appeared in their student film A Computer Animated Hand , which they completed in 1972. Developments in CGI technologies are reported each year at SIGGRAPH , an annual conference on computer graphics and interactive techniques that

10064-641: The Cimarron and Sinbad: Legend of the Seven Seas . Early digital computer animation was developed at Bell Telephone Laboratories in the 1960s by Edward E. Zajac, Frank W. Sinden, Kenneth C. Knowlton, and A. Michael Noll. Other digital animation was also practiced at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . In 1967, a computer animation named "Hummingbird" was created by Charles Csuri and James Shaffer. In 1968,

10200-526: The Missing Link: A Prehistoric Tragedy (1915). Apart from the titular dinosaur and " missing link " ape, it featured several cavemen and an ostrich-like "desert quail", all relatively lifelike models made with clay. This led to a series of short animated comedies with a prehistoric theme for Edison Company, including Prehistoric Poultry (1916), R.F.D. 10,000 B.C. (1917), The Birth of a Flivver (1917) and Curious Pets of Our Ancestors (1917). O'Brien

10336-692: The Tuba (1947). Many of his puppetoon films were selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry . Willis O' Brien's expressive and emotionally convincing animation of the big ape in King Kong (1933) is widely regarded as a milestone in stop-motion animation and a highlight of Hollywood cinema in general. A 1940 promotional film for Autolite , an automotive parts supplier, featured stop-motion animation of its products marching past Autolite factories to

10472-449: The advent of chronophotography in 1878, a small number of picture sequences were photographed with subjects in separate poses. These can now be regarded as a form of stop motion or pixilation, but very few results were meant to be animated. Until celluloid film base was established in 1888 and set the standard for the moving image, animation could only be presented via mechanisms such as the zoetrope . In 1849, Joseph Plateau published

10608-452: The advent of computers, splines have gained importance. They were first used as a replacement for polynomials in interpolation, then as a tool to construct smooth and flexible shapes in computer graphics. It is commonly accepted that the first mathematical reference to splines is the 1946 paper by Schoenberg , which is probably the first place that the word "spline" is used in connection with smooth, piecewise polynomial approximation. However,

10744-635: The animation and arrange its choreography. Another technique called constructive solid geometry defines objects by conducting Boolean operations on regular shapes, and has the advantage that animations may be accurately produced at any resolution. Some notable producers of computer-animated feature films include: Stop motion Stop motion (also known as stop frame animation ) is an animated filmmaking and special effects technique in which objects are physically manipulated in small increments between individually photographed frames so that they will appear to exhibit independent motion or change when

10880-465: The animation industry's needs typically caused graphical innovations in workstations. Graphics workstation computers use two to four processors, and they are a lot more powerful than an actual home computer and are specialized for rendering. Many workstations (known as a " render farm " ) are networked together to effectively act as a giant computer, resulting in a computer-animated movie that can be completed in about one to five years (however, this process

11016-533: The art in Facial Animation in 1989 and 1990 proved to be a turning point in the field by bringing together and consolidating multiple research elements and sparked interest among a number of researchers. The Facial Action Coding System (with 46 "action units", "lip bite" or "squint"), which had been developed in 1976, became a popular basis for many systems. As early as 2001, MPEG-4 included 68 Face Animation Parameters (FAPs) for lips, jaws, etc., and

11152-430: The computer interpolate or tween between them in a process called keyframing . Keyframing puts control in the hands of the animator and has roots in hand-drawn traditional animation . In contrast, a newer method called motion capture makes use of live action footage. When computer animation is driven by motion capture, a real performer acts out the scene as if they were the character to be animated. Their motion

11288-436: The computer) using different assisting appliances and are positioned into specific software packages. Within the software package, the creator places drawings into different key frames which fundamentally create an outline of the most important movements. The computer then fills in the "in-between frames", a process commonly known as Tweening . Computer-assisted animation employs new technologies to produce content faster than

11424-411: The construction of a sequential set of stereoscopic image pairs would be the more difficult part of the plan than adapting two copies of his improved fantascope to be fitted with a stereoscope. Wheatstone had suggested using photographs on paper of a solid object, for instance a statuette. Plateau concluded that for this purpose 16 plaster models could be made with 16 regular modifications. He believed such

11560-649: The creatures wouldn't cooperate or would even die under the bright lamps needed for filming. He solved the problem by using wire for the limbs of dried beetles and then animating them in stop motion. The resulting short film, presumably 1 minute long, was probably titled by the Latin name for the species: Lucanus Cervus (Жук-олень, 1910, considered lost). After moving to Moscow, Starevich continued animating dead insects, but now as characters in imaginative stories with much dramatic complexity. He garnered much attention and international acclaim with these short films, including

11696-1039: The earliest clay animation films was Modelling Extraordinary , which impressed audiences in 1912. The early Italian feature film Cabiria (1914) featured some stop motion techniques. Starewicz finished the first feature stop motion film Le Roman de Renard (The Tale of the Fox) in 1930, but problems with its soundtrack delayed its release. In 1937 it was released with a German soundtrack and in 1941 with its French soundtrack. Hungarian-American filmmaker George Pal developed his own stop motion technique of replacing wooden dolls (or parts of them) with similar figures displaying changed poses and/or expressions. He called it Pal-Doll and used it for his Puppetoons films since 1932. The particular replacement animation method itself also became better known as puppetoon . In Europe he mainly worked on promotional films for companies such as Philips . Later Pal gained much success in Hollywood with

11832-580: The effort to create human characters that look and move with the highest degree of realism. A possible outcome when attempting to make pleasing, realistic human characters is the uncanny valley , the concept where the human audience (up to a point) tends to have an increasingly negative, emotional response as a human replica looks and acts more and more human. Films that have attempted photorealistic human characters, such as The Polar Express , Beowulf , and A Christmas Carol have been criticized as "disconcerting" and "creepy". The goal of computer animation

11968-842: The extended knot vector: a = t 0 < t 1 = ⋯ = t 1 ⏟ j 1 < ⋯ < t k − 2 = ⋯ = t k − 2 ⏟ j k − 2 < t k − 1 = b j i ≤ n + 1 , i = 1 , … , k − 2. {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}a&=t_{0}<\underbrace {t_{1}=\cdots =t_{1}} _{j_{1}}<\cdots <\underbrace {t_{k-2}=\cdots =t_{k-2}} _{j_{k-2}}<t_{k-1}=b\\[4pt]j_{i}&\leq n+1,\qquad i=1,\ldots ,k-2.\end{aligned}}} The dimension

12104-633: The field has made significant progress since then and the use of facial microexpression has increased. In some cases, an affective space , the PAD emotional state model , can be used to assign specific emotions to the faces of avatars . In this approach, the PAD model is used as a high level emotional space and the lower level space is the MPEG-4 Facial Animation Parameters (FAP). A mid-level Partial Expression Parameters (PEP) space

12240-489: The field of special effects ) skyrocketed during the modern era of U.S. animation . Films like Avatar (2009) and The Jungle Book (2016) use CGI for the majority of the movie runtime, but still incorporate human actors into the mix. Computer animation in this era has achieved photorealism, to the point that computer-animated films such as The Lion King (2019) are able to be marketed as if they were live-action. In most 3D computer animation systems, an animator creates

12376-480: The figures from a popular wooden toy set. Smith would later claim that this was "the first stop-motion picture in America". The inspiration would have come from seeing how puffs of smoke behaved in the interrupted recordings for a stop trick film they were making. Smith would have suggested to get a patent for the technique, but Blackton thought it wasn't that important. Smith's recollections are not considered to be very reliable. Blackton's The Haunted Hotel made

12512-575: The film Mighty Joe Young (1949). Harryhausen would go on to create many memorable stop motion effects for a string of successful fantasy films over the next three decades. These included The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms (1953), It Came from Beneath the Sea (1955), Jason and the Argonauts (1963), The Golden Voyage of Sinbad (1973) and Clash of the Titans (1981). It wasn't until 1954 before

12648-453: The film has yet been located. It was soon followed by the similar extant film The Sculptor's Nightmare (6 May 1908) by Wallace McCutcheon Sr. J. Stuart Blackton 's The Haunted Hotel (23 February 1907) featured a combination of live-action with practical special effects and stop motion animation of several objects, a puppet and a model of the haunted hotel. It was the first stop motion film to receive wide scale appreciation. Especially

12784-488: The first episode of Unser Sandmänchen (Our Little Sandman) was broadcast on DFF (East German television) . The 10-minute daily bedtime show for young children features the title character as an animated puppet, and other puppets in different segments. A very similar Sandmänchen series, possibly conceived earlier, ran on West German television from 1 December 1959 until the German reunification in 1989. The East German show

12920-426: The flow of their work all at once, and interpolation which allows 3D animators to automate the process of inbetweening . For 3D computer animations, objects (models) are built on the computer monitor (modeled) and 3D figures are rigged with a virtual skeleton . Then the limbs, eyes, mouth, clothes, etc. of the figure are moved by the animator on key frames . Normally, the differences between key frames are drawn in

13056-461: The functions are determined to minimize a weighted combination of the average squared approximation error over observed data and the roughness measure. For a number of meaningful definitions of the roughness measure, the spline functions are found to be finite dimensional in nature, which is the primary reason for their utility in computations and representation. For the rest of this section, we focus entirely on one-dimensional, polynomial splines and use

13192-409: The gap by giving amateurs access to professional animations as clip art . The oldest (most backward compatible) web-based animations are in the animated GIF format, which can be uploaded and seen on the web easily. However, the raster graphics format of GIF animations slows the download and frame rate, especially with larger screen sizes. The growing demand for higher quality web-based animations

13328-497: The help of video references and accurate meteorological facts. For the 2005 remake of King Kong , actor Andy Serkis was used to help designers pinpoint the gorilla's prime location in the shots and used his expressions to model "human" characteristics onto the creature. Serkis had earlier provided the voice and performance for Gollum in J. R. R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings trilogy. Computer animation can be created with

13464-538: The ideas have their roots in the aircraft and shipbuilding industries. In the foreword to (Bartels et al., 1987), Robin Forrest describes " lofting ", a technique used in the British aircraft industry during World War II to construct templates for airplanes by passing thin wooden strips (called " splines ") through points laid out on the floor of a large design loft, a technique borrowed from ship-hull design. For years

13600-2729: The interval of interpolation. S ″ ( a ) = S ″ ( b ) = 0. {\displaystyle S''(a)\,=S''(b)=0.} Thus, the graph of the spline is a straight line outside of the interval, but still smooth. Cubic splines are of the form S j ( x ) = a j + b j ( x − x j ) + c j ( x − x j ) 2 + d j ( x − x j ) 3 . {\displaystyle S_{j}(x)=a_{j}+b_{j}(x-x_{j})+c_{j}(x-x_{j})^{2}+d_{j}(x-x_{j})^{3}.} Given set of coordinates C = [ ( x 0 , y 0 ) , ( x 1 , y 1 ) , . . . , ( x n , y n ) ] , {\displaystyle C={\bigl [}(x_{0},y_{0}),(x_{1},y_{1}),...,(x_{n},y_{n}){\bigr ]},} we wish to find set of n splines S i ( x ) for i = 0, …, n – 1 . These must satisfy: S i ( x i ) = y i = S i − 1 ( x i ) , i = 1 ,   … ,   n − 1 , S 0 ( x 0 ) = y 0 , S n − 1 ( x n ) = y n , S i ′ ( x i ) = S i − 1 ′ ( x i ) , i = 1 ,   … ,   n − 1 , S i ″ ( x i ) = S i − 1 ″ ( x i ) , i = 1 ,   … ,   n − 1 , S 0 ″ ( x 0 ) = S n − 1 ″ ( x n ) = 0. {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}S_{i}(x_{i})&=y_{i}=S_{i-1}(x_{i}),&&i=1,\ \ldots ,\ n-1,\\[4pt]S_{0}(x_{0})&=y_{0},\\[4pt]S_{n-1}(x_{n})&=y_{n},\\[4pt]S'_{i}(x_{i})&=S'_{i-1}(x_{i}),&&i=1,\ \ldots ,\ n-1,\\[4pt]S''_{i}(x_{i})&=S''_{i-1}(x_{i}),&&i=1,\ \ldots ,\ n-1,\\[4pt]S''_{0}(x_{0})&=S''_{n-1}(x_{n})=0.\end{aligned}}} Let us define one cubic spline S as

13736-524: The live-action films Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan and Tron (both 1982), and the Japanese anime film Golgo 13: The Professional (1983). VeggieTales is the first American fully 3D computer-animated series sold directly (made in 1993); its success inspired other animation series, such as ReBoot (1994) and Transformers: Beast Wars (1996) to adopt a fully computer-generated style. The first full-length computer-animated television series

13872-427: The location of this high multiplicity. By convention, any such situation indicates a simple discontinuity between the two adjacent polynomial pieces. This means that if a knot t i appears more than n + 1 times in an extended knot vector, all instances of it in excess of the ( n + 1) th can be removed without changing the character of the spline, since all multiplicities n + 1 , n + 2 , n + 3 , etc. have

14008-759: The long-standing basic principles of animation , like squash and stretch , call for movement that is not strictly realistic, and such principles still see widespread application in computer animation. The popularity of websites that allow members to upload their own movies for others to view has created a growing community of independent and amateur computer animators. With utilities and programs often included free with modern operating systems , many users can make their own animated movies and shorts. Several free and open-source animation software applications exist as well. The ease at which these animations can be distributed has attracted professional animation talent also. Companies such as PowToon and Vyond attempt to bridge

14144-541: The more complex vector graphic animations had a slower frame rate due to complex rendering compared to some of the raster graphic alternatives. Many of the GIF and Flash animations were already converted to digital video formats, which were compatible with mobile devices and reduced file sizes via video compression technology. However, compatibility was still problematic as some of the video formats such as Apple's QuickTime and Microsoft Silverlight required plugins. YouTube

14280-441: The more than 300 short films produced between 1896 and 1915 by British film pioneer Arthur Melbourne-Cooper , an estimated 36 contained forms of animation. Based on later reports by Melbourne-Cooper and by his daughter Audrey Wadowska, some believe that Cooper's Matches: an Appeal was produced in 1899 and therefore the first stop-motion animation. The extant black-and-white film shows a matchstick figure writing an appeal to donate

14416-425: The motion of a machine. Due to the long exposure times necessary to capture an image with the photographic emulsions of the period, the sequence could not be recorded live and must have been assembled from separate photographs of the various positions of the machinery. In 1855, Johann Nepomuk Czermak published an article about his Stereophoroskop and other experiments aimed at stereoscopic moving images. He mentioned

14552-933: The official selection of the 1946 Cannes Film Festival . The first Belgian animated feature was an adaptation of the Tintin comic The Crab with the Golden Claws (1947) with animated puppets. The first Czech animated feature was the package film The Czech Year (1947) with animated puppets by Jiří Trnka . The film won several awards at the Venice Film Festival and other international festivals. Trnka would make several more award-winning stop motion features including The Emperor's Nightingale (1949), Prince Bayaya (1950), Old Czech Legends (1953) or A Midsummer Night's Dream (1959). He also directed many short films and experimented with other forms of animation. Ray Harryhausen learned under O'Brien on

14688-566: The operation of adding two functions (pointwise addition) and taking real multiples of functions, this set becomes a real vector space. This spline space is commonly denoted by S n r ( t ) . {\displaystyle S_{n}^{\mathbf {r} }(\mathbf {t} ).} In the mathematical study of polynomial splines the question of what happens when two knots, say t i and t i +1 , are taken to approach one another and become coincident has an easy answer. The polynomial piece P i ( t ) disappears, and

14824-548: The passage of Venus have not been located, some practice discs survived and the images of one were turned into a short animated film decades after the development of cinematography . In 1887, Étienne-Jules Marey created a large zoetrope with a series of plaster models based on his chronophotographs of birds in flight. It is estimated that 80 to 90 percent of all silent films are lost. Extant contemporary movie catalogs, reviews and other documentation can provide some details on lost films, but this kind of written documentation

14960-547: The pieces P i −1 ( t ) and P i +1 ( t ) join with the sum of the smoothness losses for t i and t i +1 . That is, S ( t ) ∈ C n − j i − j i + 1 [ t i = t i + 1 ] , {\displaystyle S(t)\in C^{n-j_{i}-j_{i+1}}[t_{i}=t_{i+1}],} where j i = n – r i . This leads to

15096-528: The practice of ship design had employed models to design in the small. The successful design was then plotted on graph paper and the key points of the plot were re-plotted on larger graph paper to full size. The thin wooden strips provided an interpolation of the key points into smooth curves. The strips would be held in place at discrete points (called "ducks" by Forrest; Schoenberg used "dogs" or "rats") and between these points would assume shapes of minimum strain energy. According to Forrest, one possible impetus for

15232-413: The same degree with the same extended knot vectors on that interval. Suppose the interval [ a , b ] is [0, 3] and the subintervals are [0, 1], [1, 2], [2, 3] . Suppose the polynomial pieces are to be of degree 2, and the pieces on [0, 1] and [1, 2] must join in value and first derivative (at t = 1 ) while the pieces on [1, 2] and [2, 3] join simply in value (at t = 2 ). This would define

15368-555: The same meaning. It is commonly assumed that any knot vector defining any type of spline has been culled in this fashion. The classical spline type of degree n used in numerical analysis has continuity S ( t ) ∈ C n − 1 [ a , b ] , {\displaystyle S(t)\in \mathrm {C} ^{n-1}[a,b],} which means that every two adjacent polynomial pieces meet in their value and first n − 1 derivatives at each knot. The mathematical spline that most closely models

15504-407: The secrets of stop motion animation. The Insects' Christmas (Рождество обитателей леса, 1913) featured other animated puppets, including Father Christmas and a frog. Starevich made several other stop motion films in the next two years, but mainly went on to direct live-action short and feature films before he fled from Russia in 1918. Willis O' Brien 's first stop motion film was The Dinosaur and

15640-438: The series of frames is played back. Any kind of object can thus be animated, but puppets with movable joints ( puppet animation ) or plasticine figures (clay animation or claymation ) are most commonly used. Puppets, models or clay figures built around an armature are used in model animation . Stop motion with live actors is often referred to as pixilation . Stop motion of flat materials such as paper, fabrics or photographs

15776-452: The spline curves relative to the keyframes. Using interpolation allows 3D animators to dynamically change animations without having to redo all the in-between animation. This also allows the creation of complex movements such as ellipses with only a few keyframes. Lastly, interpolation allows the animator to change the framerate, timing, and even scale of the movements at any point in the animation process. Another way to automate 3D animation

15912-410: The spline has smoothness C r i {\displaystyle C^{r_{i}}} at t i for i = 1, …, k – 1 is called a smoothness vector for the spline. Given a knot vector t , a degree n , and a smoothness vector r for t , one can consider the set of all splines of degree ≤ n having knot vector t and smoothness vector r . Equipped with

16048-526: The stop-motion technique. It was followed by the revolutionary hand-drawn Fantasmagorie (17 August 1908) and many more animated films by Cohl. Other notable stop-motion films by Cohl include Les allumettes animées (Animated Matches) (1908), and Mobilier fidèle (1910, in collaboration with Romeo Bosetti ). Mobilier fidèle is often confused with Bosetti's object animation tour de force Le garde-meubles automatique (The Automatic Moving Company) (1912). Both films feature furniture moving by itself. Of

16184-478: The stop-trick and popularized it by using it in many of his short films. He reportedly used stop-motion animation in 1899 to produce moving letterforms. Spanish filmmaker Segundo de Chomón (1871–1929) made many trick films in France for Pathé . He has often been compared to Georges Méliès as he also made many fantasy films with stop tricks and other illusions (helped by his wife, Julienne Mathieu ). By 1906 Chomón

16320-864: The stylized nature of cartoons. To produce more realistic imagery, computer animation demands higher frame rates. Films seen in theaters in the United States run at 24 frames per second, which is sufficient to create the illusion of continuous movement. For high resolution, adapters are used. Computer-generated animation is an umbrella term for three-dimensional ( 3D ) animation, and 2D computer animation. These also include subcategories like asset driven , hybrid, and digital drawn animation. Creators animate using code or software instead of pencil-to-paper drawings. There are many techniques and disciplines in computer generated animation, some of which are digital representations of traditional animation - such as key frame animation - and some of which are only possible with

16456-526: The syndicated television series The New Adventures of Pinocchio (1960-1961). The Christmas TV special Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer has been telecasted annually since 1964 and has become one of the most beloved holiday specials in the United States. They made three theatrical feature films Willy McBean and His Magic Machine (1965), The Daydreamer (1966, stop motion / live-action) and Mad Monster Party? (1966, released in 1967), and

16592-450: The television special Ballad of Smokey the Bear (1966) before the collaboration ended. Rankin/Bass worked with other animators for more TV specials, with titles such as The Little Drummer Boy (1968), Santa Claus is Comin' to Town (1970) and Here Comes Peter Cottontail (1971). British television has shown many stop motion series for young children since the 1960s. An early example

16728-491: The term "spline" in this restricted sense. According to Gerald Farin, B-splines were explored as early as the nineteenth century by Nikolai Lobachevsky at Kazan University in Russia. Before computers were used, numerical calculations were done by hand. Although piecewise-defined functions like the sign function or step function were used, polynomials were generally preferred because they were easier to work with. Through

16864-501: The tune of Franz Schubert 's Military March . An abbreviated version of this sequence was later used in television ads for Autolite, especially those on the 1950s CBS program Suspense , which Autolite sponsored. The first British animated feature was the stop motion instruction film Handling Ships (1945) by Halas and Batchelor for the British Admiralty . It was not meant for general cinemas, but did become part of

17000-636: The war and stayed in China afterwards. Due to the scarcity of paint and film stock shortly after the war, Mochinaga decided to work with puppets and stop motion. His work helped popularize puppet animation in China, before he returned to Japan around 1953 where he continued working as animation director. In the 1960s, Mochinaga supervised the "Animagic" puppet animation for productions by Arthur Rankin Jr. and Jules Bass ' Videocraft International, Ltd. (later called Rankin/Bass Productions , Inc.) and Dentsu , starting with

17136-514: Was ReBoot , which debuted in September 1994; the series followed the adventures of characters who lived inside a computer. The first feature-length computer-animated film is Toy Story (1995), which was made by Disney and Pixar : following an adventure centered around anthropomorphic toys and their owners, this groundbreaking film was also the first of many fully computer-animated movies. The popularity of computer animation (especially in

17272-636: Was also relying on the Flash plugin to deliver digital video in the Flash Video format. The latest alternatives are HTML5 compatible animations. Technologies such as JavaScript and CSS animations made sequencing the movement of images in HTML5 web pages more convenient. SVG animations offered a vector graphic alternative to the original Flash graphic format, SmartSketch . YouTube offers an HTML5 alternative for digital video. APNG (Animated PNG) offered

17408-446: Was continued on other German networks when DFF ended in 1991, and is one of the longest running animated series in the world. The theatrical feature Das Sandmännchen – Abenteuer im Traumland (2010) was fully animated with stop motion puppets. Japanese puppet animator Tadahito Mochinaga started out as assistant animator in short anime (propaganda) films Arichan (1941) and Momotarō no Umiwashi (1943). He fled to Manchukuo during

17544-656: Was followed by Pogles' Wood (1965-1967), Clangers (1969-1972, 1974, revived in 2015), Bagpuss (1974) and Tottie: The Story of a Doll's House (1984). Czech surrealist filmmaker Jan Švankmajer 's released his short artistic films since 1964, which usually contain much experimental stop motion. He started to gain much international recognition in the 1980s. Since 1988 he has mostly been directing feature films which feature much more live action than stop motion. These include Alice , an adaptation of Lewis Carroll 's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland , and Faust ,

17680-509: Was met by a vector graphics alternative that relied on the use of a plugin . For decades, Flash animations were a common format, until the web development community abandoned support for the Flash Player plugin. Web browsers on mobile devices and mobile operating systems never fully supported the Flash plugin. By this time, internet bandwidth and download speeds increased, making raster graphic animations more convenient. Some of

17816-480: Was more or less similar to the later zoetrope . Czermak explained how suitable stereoscopic photographs could be made by recording a series of models, for instance to animate a growing pyramid. On 27 February 1860, Peter Hubert Desvignes received British patent no. 537 for 28 monocular and stereoscopic variations of cylindrical stroboscopic devices (much like the later zoetrope). Desvignes' Mimoscope , received an Honourable Mention "for ingenuity of construction" at

17952-432: Was originally an East Anglian dialect word. The use of splines for modeling automobile bodies seems to have several independent beginnings. Credit is claimed on behalf of de Casteljau at Citroën , Pierre Bézier at Renault , and Birkhoff , Garabedian , and de Boor at General Motors (see Birkhoff and de Boor, 1965), all for work occurring in the very early 1960s or late 1950s. At least one of de Casteljau's papers

18088-532: Was published, but not widely, in 1959. De Boor's work at General Motors resulted in a number of papers being published in the early 1960s, including some of the fundamental work on B-splines . Work was also being done at Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, where two of the authors of (Ahlberg et al., 1967) — the first book-length treatment of splines — were employed, and the David Taylor Model Basin , by Feodor Theilheimer. The work at General Motors

18224-559: Was recognized as a technique to create lifelike creatures for adventure films. O' Brien further pioneered the technique with animated dinosaur sequences for the live-action feature The Lost World (1925). New York artist Helena Smith Dayton , possibly the first female animator, had much success with her "Caricatypes" clay statuettes before she began experimenting with clay animation. Some of her first resulting short films were screened on 25 March 1917. She released an adaptation of William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet approximately half

18360-491: Was then hired by producer Herbert M. Dawley to direct, create effects, co-write and co-star with him for The Ghost of Slumber Mountain (1918). The collaborative film combined live-action with animated dinosaur models in a 45-minute film, but after the premiere it was cut down to approximately 12 minutes. Dawley did not give O'Brien credits for the visual effects, and instead claimed the animation process as his own invention and even applied for patents. O'Brien's stop motion work

18496-609: Was using stop motion animation. Le théâtre de Bob (April 1906) features over three minutes of stop motion animation with dolls and objects to represent a fictional automated theatre owned by Bob, played by a live-action child actor. It is the oldest extant film with proper stop motion and a definite release date. Segundo de Chomón 's Sculpteur moderne was released on 31 January 1908 and features heaps of clay molding itself into detailed sculptures that are capable of minor movements. The final sculpture depicts an old woman and walks around before it's picked up, squashed and molded back into

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