Crime prevention through environmental design ( CPTED ) is an agenda for manipulating the built environment to create safer neighborhoods .
106-397: It originated in the contiguous United States around 1960 when urban designers recognized that urban renewal strategies were risking the social framework needed for self-policing . Architect Oscar Newman created the concept of " defensible space ", developed further by criminologist C. Ray Jeffery, who coined the term CPTED . The growing interest in environmental criminology led to
212-441: A crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term crime does not, in modern criminal law , have any simple and universally accepted definition, though statutory definitions have been provided for certain purposes. The most popular view is that crime is a category created by law ; in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law. One proposed definition
318-437: A catalogue of crimes called the criminal code , in some common law nations no such comprehensive statute exists. The state ( government ) has the power to severely restrict one's liberty for committing a crime. In modern societies, there are procedures to which investigations and trials must adhere. If found guilty , an offender may be sentenced to a form of reparation such as a community sentence , or, depending on
424-601: A certainty of capture in the criminal mind. Natural surveillance increases the perceived risk of attempting deviant actions by improving the visibility of potential offenders to the general public. Natural surveillance occurs by designing the placement of physical features, activities, and people in such a way as to maximize the visibility of the space and its users, fostering positive social interaction among legitimate users of private and public space . Potential offenders feel increased scrutiny and thus inherently perceive an increase in risk. This perceived increase in risk extends to
530-469: A common boundary"), other terms commonly used to describe the 48 contiguous states have a greater degree of ambiguity. Because Alaska is also a part of North America , the term continental United States also includes that state, so the term is qualified with the explicit inclusion of Alaska to resolve any ambiguity. On May 14, 1959, the United States Board on Geographic Names issued
636-607: A comprehensive theory and used it to identify a wide range of crime prevention functions that should drive design and management standards. Concurrent with Jeffery's essentially theoretical work was Oscar Newman and George Rand's empirical study of the crime-environment connection conducted in the early 1970s. As an architect, Newman emphasized the specific design features, an emphasis missing in Jeffery's work. Newman's "Defensible Space – Crime Prevention through Urban Design (1972) includes an extensive discussion of crime related to
742-402: A crime can be resolved through financial compensation varies depending on the culture and the specific context of the crime. Historically, many societies have absolved acts of homicide through compensation to the victim's relatives. If a crime is committed, the individual responsible is considered to be liable for the crime. For liability to exist, the individual must be capable of understanding
848-445: A crime is found guilty of the crime, the state delivers a sentence to determine the penalty for the crime. Authorities may respond to crime through corrections, carrying out punishment as a means to censure the criminal act. Punishment is generally reserved for serious offenses. Individuals regularly engage in activity that could be scrutinized under criminal law but are deemed inconsequential. Retributive justice seeks to create
954-461: A crime. In many cases, disputes over a crime in this system lead to a feud that lasts over several generations. The state determines what actions are considered criminal in the scope of the law. Criminalization has significant human rights considerations, as it can infringe on rights of autonomy and subject individuals to unjust punishment. The enforcement of criminal law seeks to prevent crime and sanction crimes that do occur. This enforcement
1060-627: A criminal's unlawful action to prevent recidivism . Different criminological theories propose different methods of rehabilitation, including strengthening social networks , reducing poverty , influencing values , and providing therapy for physical and mental ailments. Rehabilitative programs may include counseling or vocational education . Developed nations are less likely to use physical punishments. Instead, they will impose financial penalties or imprisonment. In places with widespread corruption or limited rule of law , crime may be punished extralegally through mob rule and lynching . Whether
1166-424: A detailed study of specific topics such as natural surveillance , access control, and territoriality. The " broken window " principle, that neglected zones invite crime, reinforced the need for good property maintenance to assert visible ownership of space. Appropriate environmental design can also increase the perceived likelihood of detection and apprehension, the most significant crime deterrent. There has also been
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#17327810318391272-493: A disproportionate response to provocation. Common examples of property crime include burglary , theft , and vandalism . Examples of financial crimes include counterfeiting , smuggling , tax evasion , and bribery . The scope of financial crimes has expanded significantly since the beginning of modern economics in the 17th century. In occupational crime , the complexity and anonymity of computer systems may help criminal employees camouflage their operations. The victims of
1378-419: A given state, and they are necessarily applied against political dissidents . Due to their unique relation to the state, political crimes are often encouraged by one nation against another, and it is political alignment rather than the act itself that determines criminality. State crime that is carried out by the state to repress law-abiding citizens may also be considered political crime. Inchoate crime
1484-439: A less affluent region. Many of the traits that indicate criminality also indicate victimality; victims of crime are more likely to engage in unlawful behavior and respond to provocation. Overall demographic trends of victims and criminals are often similar, and victims are more likely to have engaged in criminal activities themselves. The victims may only want compensation for the injuries suffered, while remaining indifferent to
1590-420: A matter of private compensation. The most significant Roman law concept involved dominion . Most acts recognized as crimes in ancient societies, such as violence and theft, have persisted to the modern era. The criminal justice system of Imperial China existed unbroken for over 2,000 years. Many of the earliest conceptions of crime are associated with sin and corresponded to acts that were believed to invoke
1696-400: A more complex model of behavior in which variable physical environments, offender behavior as individuals, and behavior of individual members of the general public have reciprocal influences on one another. This laid the foundation for Jeffery to develop a behavioral model to predict the effects of modifying both the external and internal environments of individual offenders. By the 1980s,
1802-496: A multi-disciplinary approach to crime prevention that incorporates biology and psychology, a situation accepted even by Jeffery himself. (Robinson, 1996). A revision of CPTED, initiated in 1997 and termed 2nd Generation CPTED, adapts CPTED to offender individuality, further indicating that Jeffery's work is not popularly considered to be already a part of CPTED. In 2012, Woodbridge introduced and developed CPTED in prison and showed how design flaws allowed criminals to keep offending. In
1908-521: A new interest in the interior design of prisons as an environment that significantly affects offending decisions. Wide-ranging recommendations to architects include planting trees and shrubs, eliminating escape routes, correcting the use of lighting, and encouraging pedestrian and bicycle traffic in streets. Tests show that the application of CPTED measures reduces criminal activity. CPTED was coined initially and formulated by criminologist C. Ray Jeffery. A more limited approach, termed defensible space ,
2014-432: A possible desire for deterrence . Victims, on their own, may lack the economies of scale that could allow them to administer a penal system, let alone to collect any fines levied by a court. Historically, from ancient times until the 19th century, many societies believed that non-human animals were capable of committing crimes, and prosecuted and punished them accordingly. Prosecutions of animals gradually dwindled during
2120-627: A potential offender can easily be observed, identified, and apprehended. Second, people must be willing to intervene or report crime when it occurs. Increasing the sense of security in settings where people live, and work encourages people to take control of the areas and assume a role of ownership. When people feel safe in their neighborhoods, they are more likely to interact with one another and intervene when crime occurs. These remain central to most implementations of CPTED as of 2004. In 1977, Jeffery's second edition of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design expanded his theoretical approach to embrace
2226-596: A sense of ownership. Owners have a vested interest and are more likely to challenge intruders or report them to the police. Second, the sense of owned space creates an environment where "strangers" or "intruders" stand out and are more easily identified. Natural territorial reinforcement uses buildings, fences, pavement, signs, lighting, and landscape to express ownership and define public, semi-public, and private spaces. Additionally, these objectives can be achieved by assignment of space to designated users in previously unassigned locations. Territorial reinforcement measures make
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#17327810318392332-454: A site's intended users and a greater tolerance of disorder. The Broken Windows Theory is a valuable tool in understanding the importance of maintenance in deterring crime. Broken Windows theory proponents support a zero tolerance approach to property maintenance, observing that a broken window will entice vandals to break more nearby windows. The sooner broken windows are fixed, the less likely such vandalism will occur. Vandalism falls into
2438-433: A societal issue as early as the 17th century. Imprisonment developed as a long-term penalty for crime in the 18th century. Increasing urbanization and industrialization in the 19th century caused crime to become an immediate issue that affected society, prompting government intervention in crime and the establishment of criminology as its own field. Anthropological criminology was popularized by Cesare Lombroso in
2544-580: A societal issue, and criminal law was seen as a means to protect the public from antisocial behavior. This idea was associated with a larger trend in the western world toward social democracy and centre-left politics . Through most of history, reporting of crime was generally local. The advent of mass media through radio and television in the mid-20th century allowed for the sensationalism of crime. This created well-known stories of criminals such as Jeffrey Dahmer , and it allowed for dramatization that perpetuates misconceptions about crime. Forensic science
2650-400: A system of accountability and punish criminals in a way that knowingly causes suffering. This may arise out of a feeling that criminals deserve to suffer and that punishment should exist for its own sake. The existence of punishment also creates an effect of deterrence that discourages criminal action for fear of punishment. Rehabilitation seeks to understand and mitigate the causes of
2756-404: A system of traveling judges that tried accused criminals in each region of England by applying precedent from previous rulings. Legal developments in 12th century England also resulted in the earliest known recording of official crime data. In the modern era, crime came to be seen as an issue affecting society rather than conflicts between individuals. Writers such as Thomas Hobbes saw crime as
2862-420: A victim. Some factors may cause victims of crime to experience short-term or long-term "repeat victimization". Common long-term victims are those that have close relationships with the criminal, manifesting in crimes such as domestic violence , embezzlement , child abuse , and bullying . Repeat victimization may also occur when a potential victim appears to be a viable target, such as when indicating wealth in
2968-733: Is a U.S. territory located directly to the east of Puerto Rico in the Caribbean Sea. The term "stateside" is used to refer to the mainland, in relation to the U.S. Virgin Islands (see Stateside Virgin Islands Americans ). American Samoa is a U.S. territory located in the South Pacific Ocean in Polynesia , south of the equator — it is 2,200 miles (3,500 km) southwest of Hawaii . In American Samoa,
3074-497: Is a type of social construct , and societal attitudes determine what is considered criminal. In legal systems based on legal moralism , the predominant moral beliefs of society determine the legal definition as well as the social definition of crime. This system is less prominent in liberal democratic societies that prioritize individualism and multiculturalism over other moral beliefs. Paternalism defines crime not only as harm to others or to society, but also as harm to
3180-628: Is also used, especially in relation to Alaska. The related but distinct term continental United States includes Alaska, which is also on North America, but separated from the 48 states by British Columbia in Canada, but excludes Hawaii and all the insular areas in the Caribbean and the Pacific . The greatest distance (on a great-circle route) entirely within the contiguous U.S. is 2,802 miles (4,509 km), coast-to-coast between Florida and
3286-432: Is an individual who has been treated unjustly or made to suffer. In the context of crime, the victim is the individual that is harmed by a violation of criminal law. Victimization is associated with post-traumatic stress and a long-term decrease in quality of life . Victimology is the study of victims, including their role in crime and how they are affected. Several factors affect an individual's likelihood of becoming
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3392-452: Is any crime committed by an individual from a lower social class as opposed to white-collar crime which is associated with crime committed by someone of a higher-level social class. These crimes are primarily small scale, for immediate beneficial gain to the individual or group involved in them. Examples of blue-collar crime include Narcotic production or distribution, sexual assault , theft , burglary , assault or murder . Violent crime
3498-478: Is associated with the broken windows theory , which posits that public order crimes increase the likelihood of other types of crime. Some public order crimes are considered victimless crimes in which no specific victim can be identified. Most nations in the Western world have moved toward decriminalization of victimless crimes in the modern era. Adultery , fornication , blasphemy , apostasy , and invoking
3604-410: Is carried out by the state through law enforcement agencies , such as police , which are empowered to arrest suspected perpetrators of crimes. Law enforcement may focus on policing individual crimes, or it may focus on bringing down overall crime rates. One common variant, community policing , seeks to prevent crime by integrating police into the community and public life. When the perpetrator of
3710-569: Is crime that involves an act of violent aggression against another person. Common examples of violent crime include homicide , assault , sexual assault , and robbery . Some violent crimes, such as assault, may be committed with the intention of causing harm. Other violent crimes, such as robbery, may use violence to further another goal. Violent crime is distinct from noncriminal types of violence, such as self-defense , use of force , and acts of war . Acts of violence are most often perceived as deviant when they are committed as an overreaction or
3816-428: Is crime that is carried out in anticipation of other illegal actions but does not cause direct harm. Examples of inchoate crimes include attempt and conspiracy . Inchoate crimes are defined by substantial action to facilitate a crime with the intention of the crime's occurrence. This is distinct from simple preparation for or consideration of criminal activity. They are unique in that renunciation of criminal intention
3922-532: Is crucial when trying to prevent crime in any neighborhood, whether crime-ridden or not. Natural surveillance and access control strategies limit the opportunity for crime. Territorial reinforcement promotes social control through a variety of measures. Image/maintenance and activity support provide the community with reassurance and the ability to inhibit crime through citizen activities. Target hardening strategies work within CPTED, delaying entry sufficiently to ensure
4028-425: Is defined by the criminal law of a given jurisdiction, including all actions that are subject to criminal procedure . There is no limit to what can be considered a crime in a legal system, so there may not be a unifying principle used to determine whether an action should be designated as a crime. From a legal perspective, crimes are generally wrong actions that are severe enough to warrant punishment that infringes on
4134-406: Is derived from CONUS with O for outside added, thus referring to Outside of Continental United States. The term lower 48 is also used to refer to the conterminous United States. The National Geographic style guide recommends the use of contiguous or conterminous United States instead of lower 48 when the 48 states are meant, unless used in the context of Alaska. Almost all of Hawaii
4240-514: Is entitled to make law, and a theory of legislative justice, which describes the law they are entitled or obliged to make. There are natural-law theorists who have accepted the idea of enforcing the prevailing morality as a primary function of the law. This view entails the problem that it makes any moral criticism of the law impossible: if conformity with natural law forms a necessary condition for legal validity, all valid law must, by definition, count as morally just. Thus, on this line of reasoning,
4346-493: Is generally enough to absolve the perpetrator of criminal liability, as their actions are no longer facilitating a potential future crime. A criminal is an individual who commits a crime. What constitutes a criminal can vary depending on the context and the law, and it often carries a pejorative connotation. Criminals are often seen as embodying certain stereotypes or traits and are seen as a distinct type of person from law-abiding citizens. Despite this, no mental or physical trend
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4452-429: Is identifiable that differentiates criminals from non-criminals. Public response to criminals may be indignant or sympathetic. Indignant responses involve resentment and a desire for vengeance, wishing to see criminals removed from society or made to suffer for harm that they cause. Sympathetic responses involve compassion and understanding, seeking to rehabilitate or forgive criminals and absolve them of blame. A victim
4558-473: Is implemented. These people may be unable or unwilling to care for their appearance. They also may be judged to have less scruples due to either mental or financial difficulties, based on common stereotypes of the homeless. Contiguous United States The contiguous United States (officially the conterminous United States ) consists of the 48 adjoining U.S. states and the District of Columbia of
4664-489: Is not directly connected by land, but is accessible by road via bridges from within Vermont and from New York. By contrast, Hyder, Alaska , is physically part of contiguous Alaska and its easternmost town, but the only practical access is by road through Canada or by seaplane. The 48 contiguous states are: In addition, the District of Columbia is within the contiguous United States. Crime In ordinary language,
4770-415: Is often associated with law and psychology. Information and statistics about crime in a given jurisdiction are collected as crime estimates, typically produced by national or international agencies. Methods to collect crime statistics may vary, even between jurisdictions within the same nation. Under-reporting of crime is common, particularly in developing nations. Victim studies may be used to determine
4876-560: Is sometimes used synonymously with continental United States , but technically refers only to those parts of states connected to the landmass of North America, thereby excluding not only Hawaii and overseas insular areas , but also islands which are part of continental states but separated from the mainland, such as the Aleutian Islands ( Alaska ), San Juan Islands ( Washington ), the Channel Islands ( California ),
4982-787: Is south of the southernmost point of the conterminous United States in Florida. During World War II , the first four numbered Air Forces of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) were said to be assigned to the Zone of the Interior by the American military organizations of the time—the future states of Alaska and Hawaii , then each only organized incorporated territories of the Union, were respectively covered by
5088-436: Is that a crime or offence (or criminal offence ) is an act harmful not only to some individual but also to a community, society, or the state ("a public wrong "). Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law. The notion that acts such as murder , rape , and theft are to be prohibited exists worldwide. What precisely is a criminal offence is defined by the criminal law of each relevant jurisdiction . While many have
5194-399: Is the reason , which is the first principle of human acts". He regarded people as by nature rational beings, concluding that it becomes morally appropriate that they should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature. Thus, to be valid, any law must conform to natural law and coercing people to conform to that law is morally acceptable. In the 1760s, William Blackstone described
5300-602: The Eleventh Air Force and Seventh Air Force during the war. Residents of Alaska, Hawaii and off-shore U.S. territories have unique labels for the contiguous United States because of their own locations relative to them. The vast territory of Alaska became the 49th state of the United States on January 3, 1959. Alaska is the northwest extremity of the North American continent, separated from
5406-490: The State of Washington ; the greatest north–south line is 1,650 miles (2,660 km). The contiguous United States occupies an area of 3,119,884.69 square miles (8,080,464.3 km ). Of this area, 2,959,064.44 square miles (7,663,941.7 km ) is actual land, composing 83.65 percent of the country's total land area, and is comparable in size to the area of Australia. Officially, 160,820.25 square miles (416,522.5 km ) of
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#17327810318395512-548: The U.S. West Coast by the Canadian province of British Columbia . The term Lower 48 has, for many years, been a common Alaskan equivalent for "contiguous United States"; today, many Alaskans use the term "Outside" for those states, though some may use "Outside" to refer to any location not within Alaska. The territory of Hawaii , consisting of the entire Hawaiian Islands archipelago except for Midway Atoll , became
5618-564: The United States in central North America . The term excludes the only two non- contiguous states, which are Alaska and Hawaii (they are also the last two states to be admitted to the Union ), and all other offshore insular areas , such as the U.S. territories of American Samoa , Guam , the Northern Mariana Islands , Puerto Rico , and the U.S. Virgin Islands . The colloquial term " Lower 48 "
5724-588: The 1960s, Elizabeth Wood developed guidelines for addressing security issues while working with the Chicago Housing Authority , emphasizing design features that would support natural survivability. Her guidelines were never implemented, but they stimulated some of the original thinking that led to CPTED. Jane Jacobs' book, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961), argued that urban diversity and vitality were being destroyed by urban planners and their urban renewal strategies. She
5830-418: The 19th century, although a few were recorded as late as the 1910s and 1920s. Virtually all countries in the 21st century have criminal law grounded in civil law , common law , Islamic law , or socialist law . Historically, criminal codes have often divided criminals by class or caste, prescribing different penalties depending on status. In some tribal societies, an entire clan is recognized as liable for
5936-699: The 49 states in North America. Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea , approximately 1,000 miles (1,609 km) southeast of Miami , Florida . Puerto Ricans born in Puerto Rico are U.S. citizens and are free to move to the mainland United States. The term Stateside Puerto Rican refers to residents of any U.S. state or the District of Columbia who were born in, or can trace their family ancestry to, Puerto Rico. The U.S. Virgin Islands
6042-554: The 50th state of the United States on August 21, 1959. It is the southernmost U.S. state, and the latest one to join the Union. Not part of any continent, Hawaii is located in the Pacific Ocean , about 2,200 miles (3,541 km) from North America and almost halfway between North America and Asia . In Hawaii and overseas American territories , for instance, the terms the Mainland or U.S. Mainland are often used to refer to
6148-501: The Keys ( Florida ), the barrier islands ( Gulf and East Coast states), and Long Island (New York). CONUS , a technical term used by the U.S. Department of Defense , General Services Administration , NOAA/National Weather Service , and others, has been defined both as the continental United States, and as the 48 contiguous states. The District of Columbia is not always specifically mentioned as being part of CONUS . OCONUS
6254-749: The US Government's largest CPTED technical assistance and training program titled Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) in Public Housing Technical Assistance and Training Program, funded by the US Department of Housing and Urban Development. During this period, Sorensen worked with Ronald V. Clarke and the Sparta team to develop a new CPTED Curriculum that used Situational Crime Prevention as an underlying theoretical basis for CPTED measures. A curriculum
6360-666: The United States has found that they have decreased robberies between 30% and 84% (Casteel and Peek-Asa, 2000). In terms of effectiveness, a more accurate title for the strategy would be crime deterrence through environmental design. Research demonstrates that offenders might not always be prevented from committing some crimes by using CPTED. CPTED relies upon changes to the physical environment that will cause an offender to make certain behavioral decisions, and some of those decisions will include desisting from crime. Those changes deter rather than conclusively "prevent" behavior. CPTED may stereotype local homeless populations in areas where it
6466-502: The advance of CPTED in the 1980s included: Criminology: An Interdisciplinary Approach (1990) was Jeffery's final contribution to CPTED. The Jeffery CPTED model evolved to one which assumes that Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (1991) by criminologist Tim Crowe provided a solid foundation for CPTED's progress throughout the 1990s. From 1994 through 2002, Sparta Consulting Corporation, led by Severin Sorensen, CPP, managed
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#17327810318396572-511: The anger of a deity. This idea was further popularized with the development of the Abrahamic religions . The understanding of crime and sin were closely associated with one another for much of history, and conceptions of crime took on many of the ideas associated with sin. Islamic law developed its own system of criminal justice as Islam spread in the seventh and eighth centuries. In post-classical Europe and East Asia, central government
6678-451: The broken windows category as well. The faster the graffiti is painted over, the less likely one is to repeat it because no one saw what has been done. A positive image in the community shows a sense of pride and self-worth that no one can take away from the property owner. Activity support increases the use of a built environment for safe activities to increase the risk of detecting criminal and undesirable activities. Natural surveillance by
6784-438: The community, or against the state. The criminality of an action is dependent on its context; acts of violence will be seen as crimes in many circumstances but as permissible or desirable in others. Crime was historically seen as a manifestation of evil , but this has been superseded by modern criminal theories. Legal and political definitions of crime consider actions that are banned by authorities or punishable by law. Crime
6890-560: The contiguous United States is called the "mainland United States" or "the states"; those not from American Samoa are called palagi (outsiders). Apart from off-shore U.S. islands , a few continental portions of the contiguous United States are accessible by road only by traveling through Canada. Point Roberts, Washington ; Elm Point, Minnesota ; and the Northwest Angle in Minnesota are three such places. Alburgh, Vermont ,
6996-445: The contiguous United States is water area, composing 62.66 percent of the nation's total water area. The contiguous United States, if it were a country, would be fifth on the list of countries and dependencies by area , behind Russia , Canada , China , and Brazil . However, the total area of the United States, including Alaska and Hawaii, ranks third or fourth. Brazil is 431,000 square kilometers (166,000 sq mi) larger than
7102-473: The contiguous United States, but smaller than the entire United States including Alaska, Hawaii and overseas territories. The 2020 U.S. census population of the area was 328,571,074, comprising 99.13 percent of the nation's total population, and a density of 111.04 inhabitants/sq mi (42.872/km ), compared to 93.844/sq mi (36.233/km ) for the nation as a whole. While conterminous U.S. has the precise meaning of contiguous U.S. (both adjectives meaning "sharing
7208-456: The decision to offend or not to offend is more influenced by cues to the perceived risk of being caught than by cues to reward or ease of entry. The certainty of being caught is the central deterrence for criminals, not the severity of the punishment. By emphasizing a certainty of capture, criminal actions can be decreased. Consistent with this research, CPTED-based strategies enhance the perceived risk of detection and apprehension. Consistent with
7314-530: The defensible space prescriptions of the 1970s were determined to have mixed effectiveness. They worked best in residential settings, especially where residents were relatively free to respond to cues to increase social interaction. Defensible space design tools were observed to be marginally effective in institutional and commercial settings. As a result, Newman and others moved to improve defensible space, adding CPTED-based features. They also deemphasized less effective aspects of defensible space. Contributions to
7420-400: The end user the least and when the CPTED design process relies upon the combined efforts of environmental designers , land managers, community activists, and law enforcement professionals. These strategies cannot be fulfilled without the community's help, and they require the whole community in the location to make the environment safer. A meta-analysis of multiple-component CPTED initiatives in
7526-419: The equal respect and concern of those who govern them as a fundamental political right. He offers a theory of compliance overlaid by a theory of deference (the citizen's duty to obey the law) and a theory of enforcement, which identifies the legitimate goals of enforcement and punishment. Legislation must conform to a theory of legitimacy, which describes the circumstances under which a particular person or group
7632-593: The following definitions based partially on the reference in the Alaska Omnibus Bill, which defined the continental United States as "the 49 States on the North American Continent and the District of Columbia..." The Board reaffirmed these definitions on May 13, 1999. However, even before Alaska became a state, it was properly included within the continental U.S. due to being an incorporated territory . The term mainland United States
7738-437: The frequency of crime in a given population. Justifying the state's use of force to coerce compliance with its laws has proven a consistent theoretical problem. One of the earliest justifications involved the theory of natural law . This posits that the nature of the world or of human beings underlies the standards of morality or constructs them. Thomas Aquinas wrote in the 13th century: "the rule and measure of human acts
7844-463: The intended user feel safe and make the potential offender aware of a substantial risk of apprehension or scrutiny. When people take pride in what they own and take the proper measures to protect their belongings, crime is deterred from those areas because it makes it more of a challenge. Support and maintenance activities complement physical design elements. Maintenance is an expression of ownership of property. Deterioration indicates less control by
7950-438: The intended users is casual, and there is no specific plan for people to watch out for criminal activity. By placing signs cautioning children to play and signs for certain activities in the area, the citizens of that area will be more involved in what is happening around them. They will be more tuned in to who is and is not supposed to be there and what looks suspicious. CPTED strategies are most successful when they inconvenience
8056-574: The lack of "natural guardianship" in the environment promoted crime . Jacobs developed the concept that crime flourishes when people do not meaningfully interact with their neighbors. In Death and Life , Jacobs listed the three attributes needed to make a city street safe: a clear distinction between private and public space ; diversity of use; and a high level of pedestrian use of the sidewalks . Schlomo Angel pioneered CPTED and studied under noted planner Christopher Alexander . Angel's Ph.D. thesis, Discouraging Crime Through City Planning , (1968),
8162-586: The last one published in 1990. The Jeffery CPTED model is more comprehensive than the Newman CPTED model, which limits itself to the built environment. Later, CPTED models were developed based on the Newman Model, with criminologist Tim Crowe being the most popular. As of 2004, CPTED is popularly understood to refer strictly to the Newman/Crowe type models, with the Jeffery model treated more as
8268-449: The late-19th century. This was a biological determinist school of thought based in social darwinism , arguing that certain people are naturally born as criminals. The eugenics movement of the early-20th century similarly held that crime was caused primarily by genetic factors. The concept of crime underwent a period of change as modernism was widely accepted in the years following World War II . Crime increasingly came to be seen as
8374-433: The law counts as a crime. Breaches of private law ( torts and breaches of contract ) are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through civil procedure . The exact definition of crime is a philosophical issue without an agreed upon answer. Fields such as law, politics, sociology, and psychology define crime in different ways. Crimes may be variously considered as wrongs against individuals, against
8480-465: The legal validity of a norm necessarily entails its moral justice. Restrictions on behavior existed in all prehistoric societies. Crime in early human society was seen as a personal transgression and was addressed by the community as a whole rather than through a formal legal system, often through the use of custom, religion, or the rule of a tribal leader. Some of the oldest extant writings are ancient criminal codes . The earliest known criminal code
8586-524: The legislature decrees to achieve social utility, but every individual remains free to choose what to do. Similarly, H.L.A. Hart saw the law as an aspect of sovereignty , with lawmakers able to adopt any law as a means to a moral end. Thus the necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth of a proposition of law involved internal logic and consistency , and that the state's agents used state power with responsibility . Ronald Dworkin rejects Hart's theory and proposes that all individuals should expect
8692-486: The most costly scams include banks, brokerage houses, insurance companies, and other large financial institutions. Public order crime is crime that violates a society's norms about what constitutes socially acceptable behavior. Examples of public order crimes include gambling , drug-related crime , public intoxication , prostitution , loitering , breach of the peace , panhandling , vagrancy , street harassment , excessive noise , and littering . Public order crime
8798-445: The motivation for the crime to occur, the risk to the offender if the crime occurs, and the history of the offender who might consider committing the crime. The first three of these are within the control of the potential victim while the last is not. Jeffery's work was ignored throughout the 1970s for reasons that have received little attention. Jeffery explains that when the world wanted prescriptive design solutions, his work presented
8904-413: The name of God are commonly recognized as crimes in theocratic societies or those heavily influenced by religion. Political crime is crime that directly challenges or threatens the state. Examples of political crimes include subversion , rebellion , treason , mutiny , espionage , sedition , terrorism , riot , and unlawful assembly . Political crimes are associated with the political agenda of
9010-412: The nature of their offence, to undergo imprisonment , life imprisonment or, in some jurisdictions , death . Usually, to be classified as a crime, the "act of doing something criminal" ( actus reus ) must – with certain exceptions – be accompanied by the "intention to do something criminal" ( mens rea ). While every crime violates the law, not every violation of
9116-422: The offender seems to have been lost, even on those promoting the expansion of CPTED to include social ecology and psychology under the banner of 2nd Generation CPTED. In 2012, Woodbridge introduced and developed the concept of CPTED within a prison environment, a place where crime continues after conviction. Jeffery's understanding of the criminal mind from his study in rehabilitative facilities over forty years ago
9222-415: The original social ecology origins of CPTED, including social and psychological issues beyond the built environment. By 2004, elements of the CPTED approach had gained wide international acceptance due to law enforcement efforts to embrace it. The CPTED term "environment" is commonly used to refer to the external environment of the place. Jeffery's intention that CPTED also embrace the internal environment of
9328-860: The perceived lack of viable and covert escape routes. Mechanical and organizational measures can complement natural surveillance measures. For example, closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras can be added in areas where window surveillance is unavailable. Natural access control limits the opportunity for crime by taking steps to differentiate between public space and private space. Natural access control occurs by selectively placing entrances and exits, fencing, lighting, and landscape to limit access or control flow. Natural access control complements mechanical and operational access control measures, such as target hardening . Territorial reinforcement promotes social control through an increased space definition and improved proprietary concern. An environment designed to delineate private space does two things. First, it creates
9434-466: The perpetrator's liberties. English criminal law and the related common law of Commonwealth countries can define offences that the courts alone have developed over the years, without any actual legislation: common law offences . The courts used the concept of malum in se to develop various common law offences. As a sociological concept, crime is associated with actions that cause harm and violate social norms . Under this definition, crime
9540-539: The physical form of housing based on crime data analysis from New York City public housing. "Defensible Space" changed the nature of the crime prevention and environmental design field. Within two years of its publication, substantial federal funding became available to demonstrate and study defensible space concepts. As established by Newman, defensible space must contain two components. First, defensible space should allow people to see and be seen continuously. Ultimately, this diminishes residents' fear because they know that
9646-717: The relationship of crime and the community. Due to the wide range of concepts associated with crime and the disagreement on a precise definition, the focus of criminology can vary considerably. Various theories within criminology provide different descriptions and explanations for crime, including social control theory , subcultural theory , strain theory , differential association , and labeling theory . Subfields of criminology and related fields of study include crime prevention , criminal law , crime statistics , anthropological criminology , criminal psychology , criminal sociology, criminal psychiatry , victimology , penology , and forensic science . Besides sociology, criminology
9752-477: The self. Psychological definitions consider the state of mind of perpetrators and their relationship with their environment. The study of crime is called criminology . Criminology is a subfield of sociology that addresses issues of social norms , social order , deviance , and violence . It includes the motivations and consequences of crime and its perpetrators , as well as preventative measures , either studying criminal acts on an individual level or
9858-475: The street and that the commercial strip environment was particularly vulnerable to crime because it thinned out activity, making it easier for people to commit street crime. Angel developed and published CPTED concepts in 1970 in work supported and widely distributed by the United States Department of Justice (Luedtke, 1970). The phrase crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED)
9964-467: The thesis: But John Austin (1790–1859), an early positivist , applied utilitarianism in accepting the calculating nature of human beings and the existence of an objective morality. He denied that the legal validity of a norm depends on whether its content conforms to morality. Thus, in Austinian terms, a moral code can objectively determine what people ought to do, the law can embody whatever norms
10070-407: The way cities were being designed and built meant that the general public could not develop the social framework needed for effective self-policing. She pointed out that the new forms of urban design broke down many of the traditional controls on criminal behavior, for example, the ability of residents to watch the street and the presence of people using the street both night and day. She suggested that
10176-628: The widespread implementation of defensible space guidelines in the 1970s, most implementations of CPTED by 2004 were based solely upon the theory that the proper design and effective use of the built environment can reduce crime, reduce the fear of crime, and improve the quality of life. Built environment implementations of CPTED seek to dissuade offenders from committing crimes by manipulating the built environment in which those crimes occur. The six main concepts, according to Moffat, are territoriality, surveillance, access control, image/maintenance, activity support, and target hardening. Applying these strategies
10282-475: Was a study of street crime in Oakland , CA. In it, he states: "The physical environment can exert a direct influence on crime settings by delineating territories, reducing or increasing accessibility by the creation or elimination of boundaries and circulation networks, and by facilitating surveillance by the citizenry and the police ." He asserted that crime was inversely related to the level of activity on
10388-425: Was challenging the basic tenets of urban planning of the time: that neighborhoods should be isolated from each other, that an empty street is safer than a crowded one, and that the car represents progress over the pedestrian . An editor for Architectural Forum magazine (1952–1964), she had no formal training in urban planning, but her work emerged as a founding text for a new way of seeing cities. She felt that
10494-753: Was developed and trained for public and assisted housing stakeholders, and follow-up CPTED assessments were conducted at various sites. The Sparta-led CPTED projects showed statistical reductions in self-reported FBI UCR Part I crimes between 17% and 76% depending on the basket of CPTED measures employed in specific high-crime, low-income settings in the United States. In 1996, Oscar Newman published an update to his earlier CPTED works, titled, Creating Defensible Space , Institute for Community Design Analysis, Office of Planning and Development Research (PDR), US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). In 1997, Greg Saville and Gerry Cleveland, 2nd Generation CPTED, wrote an article exhorting CPTED practitioners to consider
10600-458: Was developed concurrently by architect Oscar Newman. Both men built on the previous work of Elizabeth Wood , Jane Jacobs and Schlomo Angel. Jeffery's book, "Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design" came out in 1971, but his work was ignored throughout the 1970s. Newman's book, "Defensible Space: – Crime Prevention through Urban Design " came out in 1972. His principles were widely adopted but with mixed success. The defensible space approach
10706-407: Was first used by C. Ray Jeffery, a criminologist from Florida State University . The phrase began to gain acceptance after publishing his 1971 book of the same name. An often overlooked contribution of Jeffery in his 1971 book is outlining four critical factors in crime prevention that have stood the test of time. These are the degrees to which one can manipulate the opportunity for a crime to occur,
10812-582: Was limited and crime was defined locally. Towns established their own criminal justice systems, while crime in the countryside was defined by the social hierarchies of feudalism . In some places, such as the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Italy , feudal justice survived into the 19th century. Common law first developed in England under the rule of Henry II in the 12th century. He established
10918-663: Was now being used to reduce crime in those same types of facilities. Woodbridge showed how prison design allowed offending to continue and introduced changes to reduce crime. CPTED techniques are increasingly benefiting from integration with design technologies. For instance, models of proposed buildings developed in Building Information Modeling may be imported into video game engines to assess their resilience to different forms of crime. CPTED strategies rely on influencing offender decisions that precede criminal acts. Research into criminal behavior shows that
11024-630: Was popularized in the 1980s, establishing DNA profiling as a new method to prevent and analyze crime. White-collar crime refers to financially motivated, nonviolent or non-directly violent crime committed by individuals, businesses and government professionals. The crimes are believed to be committed by middle- or upper-class individuals for financial gains. Typical white-collar crimes could include wage theft , fraud , bribery , Ponzi schemes , insider trading , labor racketeering , embezzlement , cybercrime , copyright infringement , money laundering , identity theft , and forgery . Blue-collar crime
11130-418: Was subsequently revised with additional built environment approaches supported by CPTED. Newman represented this as CPTED and credited Jeffery as the originator of the CPTED term. Newman's CPTED-improved defensible space approach enjoyed broader success and resulted in a reexamination of Jeffery's work. Jeffery continued to expand the multi-disciplinary aspects of the approach, advances which he published, with
11236-530: Was the Code of Ur-Nammu ( c. 2100 – c. 2050 BC ), and the first known criminal code that incorporated retaliatory justice was the Code of Hammurabi . The latter influenced the conception of crime across several civilizations over the following millennia. The Romans systematized law and applied their system across the Roman Empire . The initial rules of Roman law regarded assaults as
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