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76-515: The Commission examined Executive Order 9066 (1942), related orders during World War II, and their effects on Japanese Americans in the West and Alaska Natives in the Pribilof Islands . It was directed to look at the circumstances and facts involving the impact of Executive Order 9066 on American citizens and on permanent resident aliens. It was also directed to look at the directives of

152-498: A casta . In some areas, these new populations caused conflict. In Northern Mexico, tensions became inevitable when the United States began to shut off Chinese immigration in the early 1880s. Many who were originally bound for the United States were re-routed to Mexico. The rapid increase in population and rise to middle/upper class standing generated strong resentment among existing residents. These tensions lead to riots. In

228-606: A centuries-long history in the region, starting with Filipinos in the 16th century. The peak of Asian immigration occurred in the 19th and 20th centuries. There are currently more than four million Asian Latin Americans, nearly 1% of Latin America 's population. Chinese , Japanese , and Lebanese are the largest Asian ancestries; other major ethnic groups include Filipinos , Syrians , Koreans and Indians , many of whom are Indo-Caribbean and came from neighboring countries in

304-561: A considerable economic position in Peru. Many past and present Peruvian Cabinet members are ethnic Asians, but most particularly Japanese Peruvians have made up large portions of Peru's cabinet members and former president Alberto Fujimori was of Japanese ancestry who was the only Asian Latin American to have ever served as the head of any Latin American nation (or the second, if taking into account Arthur Chung ), Fujimori died in 2024. Brazil

380-420: A designated area. (The lack of a specific mention of Japanese or Japanese Americans also characterized Public Law 77-503, which Roosevelt signed on March 21, 1942, to enforce the order. ) Nevertheless, EO 9066 was intended to be applied almost solely to persons of Japanese descent. Notably, in a 1943 letter, Attorney General Francis Biddle reminded Roosevelt that "You signed the original Executive Order permitting

456-539: A minimizing of the trauma that the Japanese community endured during the WWII incarceration. Managing the wrongs committed to their community, Japanese Americans slowly managed to overcome their community's criminalization and incarceration and came to recognize February 19, the day President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, as a National Day of Remembrance for Americans to reflect on the events that took place. After

532-481: A much lower percentage. There has been notable emigration from these communities in recent decades, so that there are now hundreds of thousands of people of Asian Latin American origin in both Japan and the United States . The first Asian Latin Americans were Filipinos who made their way to Latin America (primarily to Cuba and Mexico and secondarily to Argentina , Colombia , Panama and Peru ) in

608-618: A one-year prison sentence. Yasui appealed his case up to the Supreme Court, where it was held that the curfew was constitutional based on military necessity . In 1983, Peter Irons and Aiko Herzig-Yoshinaga discovered crucial evidence that allowed for them to petition to reopen the Korematsu case. The evidence was a copy of Lieutenant Commander K.D. Ringle's original report by the US Navy, which had not been destroyed. The report

684-598: A potentially close election. In December 1944, Roosevelt suspended the Executive Order after the Supreme Court decision Ex parte Endo . Detainees were released, often to resettlement facilities and temporary housing, and the camps were shut down by 1946. On February 19, 1976, President Gerald Ford signed a proclamation formally terminating Executive Order 9066 and apologizing for the internment, stated: "We now know what we should have known then—not only

760-502: A related one in 1992, the US government paid reparations to more than 82,200 Japanese Americans. Reparations were not granted for Japanese Latin Americans who were also incarcerated by the US government. Executive Order 9066 Executive Order 9066 was a United States presidential executive order signed and issued during World War II by United States president Franklin D. Roosevelt on February 19, 1942. "This order authorized

836-515: A result, approximately 112,000 men, women, and children of Japanese ancestry were evicted from the West Coast of the continental United States and held in American relocation camps and other confinement sites across the country. Roosevelt hoped to establish concentration camps for Japanese Americans in Hawaii even after he signed Executive Order 9066. On February 26, 1942, he informed Secretary of

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912-550: Is home to the largest Japanese community outside Japan , numbering about 1.7 million with ancestry alone. Brazil is also home to 10,000 Indians, 5,000 Vietnamese, 4,500 Afghans, 2,900 Indonesians, 2,608 Malaysians, and 1,000 Filipinos. Korean people are the third largest group of Asian Latin Americans. The largest community of this group is in Brazil (specially in Southeast region) with a population of 51,550. The second largest

988-732: Is in Argentina, with a population of 23,603 and with active Koreatowns in Buenos Aires . More 10,000 in Guatemala, and Mexico, This last with active communities in Monterrey , Guadalajara , Coatzacoalcos , Yucatan and Mexico City . More than 1,000 in Chile, Paraguay, Venezuela, Honduras and Peru where Jung Heung-won, a Korean Peruvian, was elected mayor in City of Chanchamayo . He is

1064-555: The Caribbean and the Guianas . Brazil is home to the largest population of East Asian descent, estimated at 2.08 million. The country is also home to a large percentage of West Asian descendants. With as much as 5% of their population having some degree of Chinese ancestry, Peru and Mexico have the highest ratio of any country for East Asian descent. Though the most recent official census, which relied on self-identification, gave

1140-594: The Civil Liberties Act of 1988 , based on the CWRIC recommendations, was signed into law by Ronald Reagan . On November 21, 1989, George H. W. Bush signed an appropriation bill authorizing payments to be paid out between 1990 and 1998. In 1990, surviving internees began to receive individual redress payments and a letter of apology. This bill applied to the Japanese Americans and to members of

1216-541: The FBI , Office of Naval Intelligence and Military Intelligence Division had been conducting surveillance on Japanese-American communities in Hawaii and the continental U.S. from the early 1930s. In early 1941, President Roosevelt secretly commissioned a study to assess the possibility that Japanese Americans would pose a threat to U.S. security. The report, submitted one month before the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, found that, "There will be no armed uprising of Japanese" in

1292-683: The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 , which canceled the Immigration Act of 1924 and reinstated the legality of immigration from Japan into the US. Many Japanese Americans hoped they would be going back to their homes, but soon realized that all of their possessions that they could carry with them were seized by the government. In place of their homes, the Federal government provided trailers in some areas for returning Japanese Americans. The populous Asian American community prior to

1368-588: The Philippines and many of their descendants can be found in small communities around Baja California , Sonora , Mexico City , Peru and others, thus making Filipinos the oldest Asian ethnic group in Latin America. While South Asians had been present in various forms in Latin America for centuries by the 1800s, it was in this century that the flow into the region spiked dramatically. This rapid influx of hundreds of thousands of mainly male South Asians

1444-773: The 16th century, as slaves, crew members, and prisoners during the Spanish colonial rule of the Philippines through the Viceroyalty of New Spain , with its capital in Mexico City. For two and a half centuries (between 1565 and 1815) many Filipinos and Chinese sailed on the Manila-Acapulco Galleons , assisting in the Spanish Empire 's monopoly in trade. Some of these sailors never returned to

1520-596: The 1830s, the British and Dutch colonial governments also imported South Asians to work as indentured servants to places such as Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname, Curaçao and British Guiana (later renamed Guayana). At the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Japanese immigrants reached Brazil and Peru. Much like the Chinese, the Japanese often worked as indentured servants and low wage workers for planters. Japanese work contracts were notably more short term than those of

1596-811: The Act of November 30, 1940, 54 Stat. 1220, and the Act of August 21, 1941, 55 Stat. 655 (U.S.C., Title 50, Sec. 104); Now, therefore, by virtue of the authority vested in me as President of the United States, and Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy, I hereby authorize and direct the Secretary of War, and the Military Commanders whom he may from time to time designate, whenever he or any designated Commander deems such action necessary or desirable, to prescribe military areas in such places and of such extent as he or

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1672-658: The Aleut people inhabiting the strategic Aleutian islands in Alaska who had also been relocated. In the years after the war, the interned Japanese Americans had to rebuild their lives after having suffered heavy personal losses. United States citizens and long-time residents who had been incarcerated lost their personal liberties. Many also lost their homes, businesses, property, and savings. Individuals born in Japan were not allowed to become naturalized US citizens until after passage of

1748-547: The Asian migrants. Four and a half million Latin Americans (almost 1% of the total population of Latin America) are of Asian descent. The number may be millions higher, even more so if all who have partial ancestry are included. For example, Asian Peruvians are estimated at 5% of the population there, but one source places the number of all Peruvians with at least some Chinese ancestry at 5 million, which equates to 20% of

1824-480: The Attorney General under the said Proclamations in respect of such prohibited and restricted areas. I hereby further authorize and direct the Secretary of War and the said Military Commanders to take such other steps as he or the appropriate Military Commander may deem advisable to enforce compliance with the restrictions applicable to each Military area here in above authorized to be designated, including

1900-473: The Chinese and the process was closely monitored by the Japanese government to dissuade abuse and foul play. In both cases, the influx of Asian migrant workers was to fill the void left in the Latin American work forces after the abolition of slavery. Employers of all kinds were desperate for a low cost replacement for their slaves so those who did not participate in any illegal slave operations turned to

1976-431: The Chinese men who labored in agricultural work became known as " coolies ". While these imported Asian laborers were initially just replacement for agricultural slave labor, they gradually began to enter other sectors as the economy evolved. Before long, they had entered more urban work and the service sector. In certain areas, these populations assimilated into the minority populations, adding yet another definition to go on

2052-617: The Commission found, did much psychological and physical damage to the civilians in them. In 1983, the CWRIC issued its findings in Personal Justice Denied , concluding that the incarceration of Japanese Americans had not been justified by military necessity. The Commission even stated: "A grave injustice was done to American citizens and resident aliens of Japanese ancestry who, without individual review or any probative evidence against them..." The report determined that

2128-561: The Navy Knox that he had "long felt most of the Japanese should be removed from Oahu to one of the other islands." Nevertheless, the tremendous cost, including the diversion of ships from the front lines, as well as the quiet resistance of the local military commander General Delos Emmons , made this proposal impractical and Japanese Americans in Hawaii were never incarcerated. Although the Japanese-American population in Hawaii

2204-564: The U.S. military and their detention in internment camps and relocation of these people. In July 1981, the Commission held public hearings in Washington, D.C. to hear testimony from Japanese-American and Alaska Native witnesses. Public hearings followed in other American cities, including Seattle, San Francisco, Cambridge, New York City, Anchorage , the Aleutian Islands , Pribilof Islands (St. Paul), Chicago, and Los Angeles, where

2280-582: The US Army but was denied. He was arrested in December 1941 for violating the military curfew, leading to his arrest and freezing of his assets. Looking to test the constitutionality of the curfew, Yasui turned himself into the police station as 11pm, five hours past the curfew. Yasui was found guilty of violating this curfew and was fined $ 5000 for not being a US citizen, despite being born in Oregon. He served

2356-629: The United States. "For the most part," the Munson Report said, "the local Japanese are loyal to the United States or, at worst, hope that by remaining quiet they can avoid concentration camps or irresponsible mobs." A second investigation started in 1940, written by Naval Intelligence officer Kenneth Ringle and submitted in January 1942, likewise found no evidence of fifth column activity and urged against mass incarceration. Both were ignored by military and political leaders. Over two-thirds of

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2432-506: The actions of Japanese Americans in the United States. At this point, Japanese Americans were not allowed to apply for citizenship in the United States, despite having lived in the United States for generations. This proclamation declared all Japanese American adults as the "alien enemy," resulting in strict travel bans and mass xenophobia toward Asian Americans. Tensions rose in the United States, ultimately causing President Roosevelt to sign Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942. The Order

2508-505: The appropriate Military Commander may determine, from which any or all persons may be excluded, and with respect to which, the right of any person to enter, remain in, or leave shall be subject to whatever restrictions the Secretary of War or the appropriate Military Commander may impose in his discretion. The Secretary of War is hereby authorized to provide for residents of any such area who are excluded therefrom, such transportation, food, shelter, and other accommodations as may be necessary, in

2584-620: The authority heretofore granted under Executive Order No. 8972, dated December 12, 1941, nor shall it be construed as limiting or modifying the duty and responsibility of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, with respect to the investigation of alleged acts of sabotage or the duty and responsibility of the Attorney General and the Department of Justice under the Proclamations of December 7 and 8, 1941, prescribing regulations for

2660-409: The basis of government misconduct on November 10, 1983. In 2010, the state of California passed a bill that would name January 30 Fred Korematsu Day , making this the first day to be named after an Asian American. Korematsu v. United States was officially overturned in 2018, with Justice Sonia Sotomayor , describing the case as "gravely wrong the day it was decided." February 19, the anniversary of

2736-534: The conduct and control of alien enemies, except as such duty and responsibility is superseded by the designation of military areas hereunder. Franklin D. Roosevelt The White House, February 19, 1942. Originating from a proclamation that was signed on the day of the Pearl Harbor attack, December 7, 1941, Executive Order 9066 was enacted by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt to strictly regulate

2812-788: The country called “relocation centers”. There were two in Arkansas, two in Arizona, two in California, one in Idaho, one in Utah, one in Wyoming, and one in Colorado. Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson was responsible for assisting relocated people with transport, food, shelter, and other accommodations and delegated Colonel Karl Bendetsen to administer the removal of West Coast Japanese. Over

2888-475: The country's total population. The Chinese are the most populous Asian Latin Americans. Significant populations of Chinese ancestry are found in Peru , Venezuela , Brazil , Colombia , Argentina , Cuba , Dominican Republic , Panama , Nicaragua , Puerto Rico , Mexico and Costa Rica (where they make up about 1% of the total population; or about 9,000 residents). Nicaragua is home to 14,000 ethnic Chinese;

2964-401: The decision to incarcerate was based on "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership". The Commission recommended legislative remedies consisting of an official Government apology and redress payments of $ 20,000 to each of the survivors; a public education fund was set up to help ensure that this would not happen again ( Pub. L.   100–383 ). On August 10, 1988,

3040-504: The decision to incarcerate was based on "racial prejudice, wartime hysteria, and a failure of political leadership." The Commission concluded that the incarceration of Japanese Americans during World War II was a "grave injustice". Lastly, the Commission recommended legislative remedies: an official Government apology and redress payments to survivors. In 1988, Congress passed the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 and later signed into law by President Ronald Reagan . The Act's purposes included

3116-678: The exception of Japanese settlement in the Dominican Republic ), while Korean migration mostly came to an end by the 1980s and Chinese migration remains ongoing in a number of countries. Settlement of war refugees has been extremely minor: a few dozen ex-North Korean soldiers went to Argentina after the Korean War and some Hmong went to French Guiana after the Vietnam War . Asian Latin Americans served various roles during their time as low wage workers in Latin America. In

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3192-690: The exclusions so the Army could handle the Japs. It was never intended to apply to Italians and Germans." Public Law 77-50 was approved (after only an hour of discussion in the Senate and thirty minutes in the House) in order to provide for the enforcement of the executive order. Authored by War Department official Karl Bendetsen —who would later be promoted to Director of the Wartime Civilian Control Administration and oversee

3268-583: The first Mayor of Korean origin in Peru and all of Latin America. There are small and important communities (less 1,000 peoples) in Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, Bolivia, Costa Rica, Panama, Dominican Republic, Uruguay, Puerto Rico and Haiti. Japanese Brazilian immigrants to Japan numbered 250,000 in 2004, constituting Japan's second-largest immigrant population. Their experiences bear similarities to those of Japanese Peruvian immigrants, who are often relegated to low income jobs typically occupied by foreigners. In

3344-547: The forced removal of all persons deemed a threat to national security from the West Coast to "relocation centers" further inland—resulting in the incarceration of Japanese Americans ." Two-thirds of the 125,000 people displaced were U.S. citizens. Notably, far more Americans of Asian descent were forcibly interned than Americans of European descent, both in total and as a share of their relative populations. German and Italian Americans who were sent to internment camps during

3420-400: The government's acknowledging and apologizing for the injustice of the evacuation and internment of U.S. citizens and long-term residents of Japanese ancestry; creating a public education fund to inform the public; making restitution to parties affected; discouraging a similar event from happening in the future; and demonstrating the U.S.' consideration of human rights violations. By this act and

3496-442: The government. Adults were offered "camp jobs" with wages of $ 12 to $ 19 per month, and many camp services such as medical care and education were provided by the camp inmates themselves. In 1943 and 1944, Roosevelt did not release those incarcerated in the camps despite the urgings of Attorney General Francis Biddle , Secretary of Interior Harold L. Ickes . Ickes blamed the president's failure to act on his need to win California in

3572-507: The incarceration drastically decreased as many felt there was no life to go back to, choosing to start over somewhere else. With the residual effects of being incarcerated without committing a crime, the Japanese American community experienced strong trauma and continuing racism from their fellow Americans. Though they did receive redress of $ 20,000 per surviving incarcerate, many Japanese Americans feared increased Xenophobia and

3648-451: The incarceration of Japanese Americans —the law made violations of military orders a misdemeanor punishable by up to $ 5,000 in fines and one year in prison. Using a broad interpretation of EO 9066, Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt issued orders declaring certain areas of the western United States as zones of exclusion under the Executive Order. In contrast to EO 9066, the text of these orders specified "all people of Japanese ancestry." As

3724-403: The judgment of the Secretary of War or the said Military Commander, and until other arrangements are made, to accomplish the purpose of this order. The designation of military areas in any region or locality shall supersede designations of prohibited and restricted areas by the Attorney General under the Proclamations of December 7 and 8, 1941, and shall supersede the responsibility and authority of

3800-472: The local Japanese American population in the event of war, “every Japanese citizen or non-citizen on the Island of Oahu who meets these Japanese ships or has any connection with their officers or men should be secretly but definitely identified and his or her name placed on a special list of those who would be the first to be placed in a concentration camp." In addition, during the crucial period after Pearl Harbor

3876-526: The majority reside in Managua and on the Caribbean coast. Smaller communities of Chinese, numbering just in the hundreds or thousands, are also found in Ecuador and various other Latin American countries. Many Latin American countries are home to barrios chinos (Chinatowns). Most who are of Japanese descent reside in Brazil, Peru, Argentina, Mexico, Bolivia, Colombia and Paraguay. Japanese Peruvians have

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3952-418: The man who recommended this action, was found to be unreasonable and racist. He claimed that the Japanese demonstrated a military danger; however, the majority of the Japanese population were law-abiding civilians so this clearly was not the case. The General's next justification was that the Japanese were not loyal. The Commission found this "disloyalty" to be based on the different culture the Japanese had. This

4028-673: The order, supporters lobbied to pass the Amache National Historic Site Act historical designation for the Granada War Relocation Center in Colorado. Japanese Latin American Asian Latin Americans (sometimes Asian-Latinos ) are Latin Americans of Asian descent . Asian immigrants to Latin America have largely been from East Asia or West Asia . Historically, Asians in Latin America have

4104-532: The people of Japanese ethnicity who were incarcerated were American citizens. Many of the rest had lived in the country between 20 and 40 years. Most Japanese Americans, particularly the first generation born in the United States (the Nisei ), identified as loyal to the United States of America. No Japanese-American citizen or Japanese national residing in the United States was ever found guilty of sabotage or espionage . There were 10 of these internment camps across

4180-533: The president had failed to speak out for the rights of Japanese Americans despite the urgings of advisors such as John Franklin Carter . During the same period, Roosevelt rejected the recommendations of Attorney General Francis Biddle and other top advisors, who opposed the incarceration of Japanese Americans. The text of Roosevelt's order did not use the terms "Japanese" or "Japanese Americans," instead giving officials broad power to exclude "any or all persons" from

4256-786: The second half of the nineteenth century, nearly a quarter of a million Chinese migrants in Cuba worked primarily on sugar plantations. The Chinese "coolies" who migrated to Peru took up work on the Andean Railroad or the Guano Fields. Over time the Chinese progressed to acquiring work in urban centers as tradesmen, restaurateurs and in the service industry. By the second decade of the nineteenth century, approximately 25,000 Chinese migrants in Mexico found relative success with small businesses, government bureaucracy, and intellectual circles. In

4332-517: The signing of Executive Order 9066 in February 1942, all Japanese Americans were required to be removed from their homes and moved into military camps as a matter of national security. Fred Korematsu , 23 at the time, was someone who elected not to comply, unlike his parents who left their home and flower nursery behind. Instead, Korematsu had plastic surgery to alter the appearance of his eyes and changed his name to Clyde Sarah, claiming Spanish and Hawaiian heritage. Six months later, on May 30, Korematsu

4408-413: The signing of Executive Order 9066, is now the Day of Remembrance , an annual commemoration of the unjust incarceration of the Japanese-American community. In 2017, the Smithsonian launched an exhibit about these events with artwork by Roger Shimomura . It provides context and interprets the treatment of Japanese Americans during World War II. In February 2022, for the 80th anniversary of the signing of

4484-400: The spring of 1942, General John L. DeWitt issued Western Defense Command orders for Japanese Americans to present themselves for removal. The "evacuees" were taken first to temporary assembly centers , requisitioned fairgrounds and horse racing tracks where living quarters were often converted livestock stalls. As construction on the more permanent and isolated War Relocation Authority camps

4560-419: The state of Sonora, the entire Chinese population was expelled in 1929. Today, the overwhelming majority of Asian Latin Americans are either of East Asian (namely Chinese , Japanese or Korean ), or West Asian descent (mostly the Lebanese or Syrians ). Many of whom arrived during the second half of the 1800s and the first half of the 1900s. Japanese migration mostly came to a halt after World War II (with

4636-440: The testimonies were recorded. More than 750 people testified. The Commission then wrote up a report presenting it to Congress. First, the Commission looked at the decision of the exclusion, the justification for this, and the conditions that permitted the decision. The decision they found was mostly based on fear and racism . There was a lot of public fear at the time due to racial stereotypes. The justification by General DeWitt ,

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4712-416: The time, Franklin D. Roosevelt , wanted to calm the public and get rid of any rumors surrounding the attack on Pearl Harbor . The Commission then examined the detention of these ethnic Japanese civilians and the effects of this exclusion and detention. The decision to detain was found by the commission to be due to the believed threat the Japanese were potential spies and saboteurs; but as found before, this

4788-593: The use of Federal troops and other Federal Agencies, with authority to accept assistance of state and local agencies. I hereby further authorize and direct all Executive Departments, independent establishments and other Federal Agencies, to assist the Secretary of War or the said Military Commanders in carrying out this Executive Order, including the furnishing of medical aid, hospitalization, food, clothing, transportation, use of land, shelter, and other supplies, equipment, utilities, facilities, and services. This order shall not be construed as modifying or limiting in any way

4864-591: The war were sent under the provisions of Presidential Proclamation 2526 and the Alien Enemy Act, part of the Alien and Sedition Act of 1798 . The text of Executive Order 9066 was as follows: Executive Order No. 9066 Executive Order Authorizing the Secretary of War to Prescribe Military Areas Whereas the successful prosecution of the war requires every possible protection against espionage and against sabotage to national-defense material, national-defense premises, and national-defense utilities as defined in Section 4, Act of April 20, 1918, 40 Stat. 533, as amended by

4940-432: Was a curfew starting at 8pm and ended at 6 am for all those of Japanese descent. University of Washington student, Gordon Hirabayashi , refused to abide by the order in an act of civil disobedience, resulting in his arrest. Similar to Korematsu's case, it was appealed and up to the Supreme Court. It was held by the Supreme Court in a unanimous decision that his arrest was constitutional on the basis of military necessity. He

5016-413: Was appointed to conduct an official governmental study of Executive Order 9066, related wartime orders, and their effects on Japanese Americans in the West and Alaska Natives in the Pribilof Islands . In December 1982, the CWRIC issued its findings in Personal Justice Denied , concluding that the incarceration of Japanese Americans had not been justified by military necessity. The report determined that

5092-423: Was arrested for violating the order, leading to a trial in a San Francisco Federal Court. His case was presented by the American Civil Liberties Union, which attempted to challenge whether this order was constitutional or not. After losing the case, Korematsu appealed the decision all the way to the Supreme Court, where in a 6–3 decision, the order remained for reason of "military necessity." Included in FDR's order

5168-410: Was clearly not disloyalty, but a mere difference in culture and posed no threat to military security. The Commission then wondered how such a decision could have allowed this decision to be permitted when the justification had no clear basis. They found out that it was allowed because many people really did believe in this ethnicity determined loyalty and were afraid of the Japanese. Also, the President at

5244-442: Was completed, the population was transferred by truck or train. These accommodations consisted of tar paper-walled frame buildings in parts of the country with bitter winters and often hot summers. The camps were guarded by armed soldiers and fenced with barbed wire (security measures not shown in published photographs of the camps). Camps held up to 18,000 people, and were small cities, with medical care, food, and education provided by

5320-462: Was consistent with Roosevelt's long-time racial views toward Japanese Americans. During the 1920s, for example, he had written articles in the Macon Telegraph opposing white-Japanese intermarriage for fostering "the mingling of Asiatic blood with European or American blood" and praising California's ban on land ownership by the first-generation Japanese. In 1936, while president he privately wrote that, in regard to contacts between Japanese sailors and

5396-428: Was due to the need for indentured servants. This is largely tied to the abolition of black slavery in the Caribbean colonies in 1834 . Without the promise of free labor and a hostile working class on their hands, the Dutch colonial authorities had to find a solution – cheap Asian labor. Many of these immigrant populations became such fixtures in their adopted countries that they acquired names of their own. For example,

5472-495: Was extremely unlikely. These camps were cruel and inhumane. People were housed in rooms of twenty by twenty-four feet. These "houses" were for a full family no matter the size. The children, in an attempt to Americanize them, were forced to salute the flag and sing " My Country, 'Tis of Thee ". This song was about liberty and freedom, whereas here these children were forced to live in these cruel camps. Many adults were also forced to do very hard and physically intense labor. These camps,

5548-582: Was in response to the question of Japanese loyalty to the US. It was stated in the report that Japanese Americans did not truly pose a threat to the US government, showing that the passage of Executive Order 9066 was entirely based on the false pretense that Japanese Americans were "enemy aliens." This new found evidence was a document that failed to be destroyed by the US government in which included government intelligence agencies citing that Japanese Americans posed no military threat. The cases of Korematsu , Hirabayashi , and Yasui were reopened and overturned on

5624-626: Was nearly 40% of the population of the territory and Hawaii would have been first in line for a Japanese attack, only a few thousand people were detained there. This fact supported the government's eventual conclusion that the mass removal of ethnic Japanese from the West Coast was motivated by reasons other than "military necessity." Japanese Americans and other Asians in the U.S. had suffered for decades from prejudice and racially motivated fears . Racially discriminatory laws prevented Asian Americans from owning land , voting, testifying against whites in court , and set up other restrictions. Additionally,

5700-523: Was sentenced six months in prison as a result of his civil disobedience. Earning his JD in 1939 from the University of Oregon, Minoru Yasui was the first Japanese American attorney admitted to the state of Oregon's bar. He began working as a consulate in Chicago for the Japanese government, but resigned shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Returning to Oregon, where he was born, he tried to join

5776-523: Was that evacuation wrong but Japanese Americans were and are loyal Americans. On the battlefield and at home the names of Japanese Americans have been and continue to be written in history for the sacrifices and the contributions they have made to the well-being and to the security of this, our common Nation." In 1980, President Jimmy Carter signed legislation to create the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CWRIC). The CWRIC

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