75-665: Countess Russell may refer to: Elizabeth von Arnim (1866–1941), wife of Frank Russell, second Earl Russell Dora Russell (1894–1986), second wife of philosopher Bertrand Russell Frances Russell, Countess Russell (1815–1898), second wife of Prime Minister John Russell Patricia Russell (1910–2004), third wife of philosopher Bertrand Russell See also [ edit ] Anne Russell, Countess of Bedford (1615–1684), wife of William Russell, 5th Earl of Bedford Anne Russell, Countess of Warwick (1548/1549–1604), third wife of Ambrose Dudley, 3rd Earl of Warwick Topics referred to by
150-415: A Rasmussen aneurysm , resulting in massive bleeding. Tuberculosis may become a chronic illness and cause extensive scarring in the upper lobes of the lungs. The upper lung lobes are more frequently affected by tuberculosis than the lower ones. The reason for this difference is not clear. It may be due to either better air flow, or poor lymph drainage within the upper lungs. In 15–20% of active cases,
225-462: A Broadway play in 1925, a 1935 American feature film , an Academy Award-nominated feature film in 1992 (starring Josie Lawrence , Jim Broadbent and Joan Plowright among others), a Tony Award-nominated stage play in 2003, a musical play in 2010, and in 2015 a serial on BBC Radio 4 . Terence de Vere White credits The Enchanted April with making the Italian resort of Portofino fashionable. It
300-569: A common ancestor, remains unclear. A comparison of the genes of M. tuberculosis complex (MTBC) in humans to MTBC in animals suggests humans did not acquire MTBC from animals during animal domestication, as researchers previously believed. Both strains of the tuberculosis bacteria share a common ancestor, which could have infected humans even before the Neolithic Revolution . Skeletal remains show some prehistoric humans (4000 BC ) had TB, and researchers have found tubercular decay in
375-474: A dark tragi-comedy drawing on her disastrous marriage to Earl Russell, was her most critically acclaimed work, described by John Middleton Murry as " Wuthering Heights by Jane Austen ". Her 1922 work, The Enchanted April , inspired by a month-long holiday to the Italian Riviera, is perhaps the lightest and most ebullient of her novels. It has regularly been adapted for the stage and screen: as
450-685: A microscope. Since MTB retains certain stains even after being treated with acidic solution, it is classified as an acid-fast bacillus . The most common acid-fast staining techniques are the Ziehl–Neelsen stain and the Kinyoun stain , which dye acid-fast bacilli a bright red that stands out against a blue background. Auramine-rhodamine staining and fluorescence microscopy are also used. The M. tuberculosis complex (MTBC) includes four other TB-causing mycobacteria : M. bovis , M. africanum , M. canettii , and M. microti . M. africanum
525-454: A short memoir of the months he spent there. From April to July 1907 the writer Hugh Walpole was the children's tutor. In 1908, Elizabeth von Arnim moved to London with the children. The couple did not consider this a formal separation, although the marriage had been unhappy, owing to the Count's affairs, and they had slept in separate bedrooms for some time. In 1910, financial problems meant
600-407: A small decrease in case numbers. Some countries have legislation to involuntarily detain or examine those suspected to have tuberculosis, or involuntarily treat them if infected. The only available vaccine as of 2021 is bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG). In children it decreases the risk of getting the infection by 20% and the risk of infection turning into active disease by nearly 60%. It
675-565: A three-year affair with the writer H. G. Wells , then later married Frank Russell , elder brother of the Nobel prize -winner and philosopher Bertrand Russell . She was a cousin of the New Zealand-born writer Katherine Mansfield . Though known in early life as May, her first book introduced her to readers as Elizabeth, which she eventually became to friends and finally to family. Her writings are ascribed to Elizabeth von Arnim. She used
750-401: A tuberculosis infection does become active, it most commonly involves the lungs (in about 90% of cases). Symptoms may include chest pain and a prolonged cough producing sputum. About 25% of people may not have any symptoms (i.e., they remain asymptomatic). Occasionally, people may cough up blood in small amounts, and in very rare cases, the infection may erode into the pulmonary artery or
825-461: A writer with her satirical and semi-autobiographical Elizabeth and Her German Garden (1898). Published anonymously, it chronicled the protagonist Elizabeth's struggles to create a garden on the family estate and her attempts to integrate into German aristocratic Junker society. In it, she fictionalized her husband as "The Man of Wrath". It was reprinted twenty times by May 1899, a year after its publication. A bitter-sweet memoir and companion to it
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#1732765972298900-398: Is Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), a small, aerobic , nonmotile bacillus . The high lipid content of this pathogen accounts for many of its unique clinical characteristics. It divides every 16 to 20 hours, which is an extremely slow rate compared with other bacteria, which usually divide in less than an hour. Mycobacteria have an outer membrane lipid bilayer. If a Gram stain
975-432: Is spread from one person to the next through the air when people who have active TB in their lungs cough, spit, speak, or sneeze . People with latent TB do not spread the disease. Active infection occurs more often in people with HIV/AIDS and in those who smoke . Diagnosis of active TB is based on chest X-rays , as well as microscopic examination and culture of bodily fluids. Diagnosis of latent TB relies on
1050-491: Is a growing problem, with increasing rates of multiple drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). In 2018, one quarter of the world's population was thought to have a latent infection of TB. New infections occur in about 1% of the population each year. In 2022, an estimated 10.6 million people developed active TB, resulting in 1.3 million deaths, making it the second leading cause of death from an infectious disease after COVID-19 . As of 2018, most TB cases occurred in
1125-449: Is able to reproduce inside the macrophage and will eventually kill the immune cell. The primary site of infection in the lungs, known as the Ghon focus , is generally located in either the upper part of the lower lobe, or the lower part of the upper lobe . Tuberculosis of the lungs may also occur via infection from the blood stream. This is known as a Simon focus and is typically found in
1200-653: Is also rare and is seen almost only in immunodeficient people, although its prevalence may be significantly underestimated. Other known pathogenic mycobacteria include M. leprae , M. avium , and M. kansasii . The latter two species are classified as " nontuberculous mycobacteria " (NTM) or atypical mycobacteria. NTM cause neither TB nor leprosy , but they do cause lung diseases that resemble TB. When people with active pulmonary TB cough, sneeze, speak, sing, or spit, they expel infectious aerosol droplets 0.5 to 5.0 μm in diameter. A single sneeze can release up to 40,000 droplets. Each one of these droplets may transmit
1275-456: Is also, probably, the most widely read of all her works, having been a Book-of-the-Month club choice in America upon publication. Her 1940 novel Mr. Skeffington was made into an Academy Award-nominated feature film by Warner Bros. in 1944, starring Bette Davis and Claude Rains , and a 60-minute " Lux Radio Theater " broadcast radio adaptation of the movie on 1 October 1945. Since 1983,
1350-608: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Elizabeth von Arnim Elizabeth von Arnim (31 August 1866 – 9 February 1941), born Mary Annette Beauchamp , was an English novelist. Born in Australia, she married a German aristocrat, and her earliest works are set in Germany. Her first marriage made her Countess von Arnim-Schlagenthin and her second Elizabeth Russell, Countess Russell . After her first husband's death, she had
1425-444: Is difficult, as is diagnosing the disease in those who have a weakened immune system. A diagnosis of TB should, however, be considered in those with signs of lung disease or constitutional symptoms lasting longer than two weeks. A chest X-ray and multiple sputum cultures for acid-fast bacilli are typically part of the initial evaluation. Interferon-γ release assays (IGRA) and tuberculin skin tests are of little use in most of
1500-509: Is not widespread, but it is a significant cause of tuberculosis in parts of Africa. M. bovis was once a common cause of tuberculosis, but the introduction of pasteurized milk has almost eliminated this as a public health problem in developed countries. M. canettii is rare and seems to be limited to the Horn of Africa , although a few cases have been seen in African emigrants. M. microti
1575-489: Is often used to screen people at high risk for TB. Those who have been previously immunized with the Bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccine may have a false-positive test result. The test may be falsely negative in those with sarcoidosis , Hodgkin's lymphoma , malnutrition , and most notably, active tuberculosis. Interferon gamma release assays , on a blood sample, are recommended in those who are positive to
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#17327659722981650-501: Is performed, MTB either stains very weakly "Gram-positive" or does not retain dye as a result of the high lipid and mycolic acid content of its cell wall. MTB can withstand weak disinfectants and survive in a dry state for weeks. In nature, the bacterium can grow only within the cells of a host organism, but M. tuberculosis can be cultured in the laboratory . Using histological stains on expectorated samples from phlegm (also called sputum), scientists can identify MTB under
1725-423: Is poor as of 2019 . The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) stopped recommending yearly testing of health care workers without known exposure in 2019. Tuberculosis prevention and control efforts rely primarily on the vaccination of infants and the detection and appropriate treatment of active cases. The World Health Organization (WHO) has achieved some success with improved treatment regimens, and
1800-464: Is termed caseous necrosis . If TB bacteria gain entry to the blood stream from an area of damaged tissue, they can spread throughout the body and set up many foci of infection, all appearing as tiny, white tubercles in the tissues. This severe form of TB disease, most common in young children and those with HIV, is called miliary tuberculosis. People with this disseminated TB have a high fatality rate even with treatment (about 30%). In many people,
1875-483: Is the most widely used vaccine worldwide, with more than 90% of all children being vaccinated. The immunity it induces decreases after about ten years. As tuberculosis is uncommon in most of Canada, Western Europe, and the United States, BCG is administered to only those people at high risk. Part of the reasoning against the use of the vaccine is that it makes the tuberculin skin test falsely positive, reducing
1950-572: The First World War . In January 1916, Arnim married Frank Russell, 2nd Earl Russell , the elder brother of the philosopher Bertrand Russell . The marriage ended in acrimony, with the couple separating in 1919, although they never divorced. She then went to the United States, where her daughters Liebet and Evi were living. In 1920 she returned to her home in Switzerland, using it as a base for frequent trips to other parts of Europe. In
2025-458: The lymphatic system (in scrofula of the neck), the genitourinary system (in urogenital tuberculosis ), and the bones and joints (in Pott disease of the spine), among others. A potentially more serious, widespread form of TB is called "disseminated tuberculosis"; it is also known as miliary tuberculosis . Miliary TB currently makes up about 10% of extrapulmonary cases. The main cause of TB
2100-420: The tuberculin skin test (TST) or blood tests. Prevention of TB involves screening those at high risk, early detection and treatment of cases, and vaccination with the bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine. Those at high risk include household, workplace, and social contacts of people with active TB. Treatment requires the use of multiple antibiotics over a long period of time. Antibiotic resistance
2175-466: The British publisher Virago has been reprinting her work with new introductions by modern writers, some of which claim her as a feminist. The Reader's Encyclopedia reports that many of her later novels are "tired exercises", but this opinion is not widely held. Perhaps the best example of Arnim's mordant wit and unusual attitude to life is provided in one of her letters: "I'm so glad I didn't die on
2250-698: The Mantoux test. These are not affected by immunization or most environmental mycobacteria , so they generate fewer false-positive results. However, they are affected by M. szulgai , M. marinum , and M. kansasii . IGRAs may increase sensitivity when used in addition to the skin test, but may be less sensitive than the skin test when used alone. The US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) has recommended screening people who are at high risk for latent tuberculosis with either tuberculin skin tests or interferon-gamma release assays . While some have recommend testing health care workers, evidence of benefit for this
2325-550: The Montana region of Switzerland (now Crans-Montana ) from May 1921 until January 1922, renting the Chalet des Sapins with her husband John Middleton Murry from June 1921. The house was only a "1/2 an hour's scramble away" from Arnim's Chalet Soleil at Randogne . Arnim visited her cousin often during this period. They got on well, although Mansfield considered the much wealthier Arnim to be patronizing. Mansfield satirized Arnim as
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2400-896: The Nassenheide estate had to be sold. Later that year, Count von Arnim died in Bad Kissingen , with his wife and three of their daughters by his side. In 1911, Elizabeth moved to Randogne, Switzerland, where she had the Chalet Soleil built, and entertained literary and society friends. From 1910 until 1913, she was a mistress of the novelist H. G. Wells . In 1916, the Arnims' daughter Felicitas, who had been at boarding schools in Switzerland and Germany, died of pneumonia aged sixteen in Bremen . She had been unable to return to England because of travel and financial controls caused by
2475-671: The United States in 1939 at the beginning of the Second World War . She died of influenza at the Riverside Infirmary, Charleston, South Carolina , on 9 February 1941, aged 74, and was cremated at Fort Lincoln Cemetery, Maryland . In 1947 her ashes were mingled with those of her brother, Sir Sydney Beauchamp, in the churchyard of St Margaret's, Tylers Green, Penn, Buckinghamshire . The Latin inscription on her tombstone reads parva sed apta (small but apt), alluding to her short stature. Arnim launched her career as
2550-516: The United States test positive via the tuberculin test. Tuberculosis has been present in humans since ancient times . Tuberculosis has existed since antiquity . The oldest unambiguously detected M. tuberculosis gives evidence of the disease in the remains of bison in Wyoming dated to around 17,000 years ago. However, whether tuberculosis originated in bovines, then transferred to humans, or whether both bovine and human tuberculosis diverged from
2625-617: The WHO regions of South-East Asia (44%), Africa (24%), and the Western Pacific (18%), with more than 50% of cases being diagnosed in seven countries: India (27%), China (9%), Indonesia (8%), the Philippines (6%), Pakistan (6%), Nigeria (4%), and Bangladesh (4%). By 2021, the number of new cases each year was decreasing by around 2% annually. About 80% of people in many Asian and African countries test positive, while 5–10% of people in
2700-688: The active disease. Use of certain medications, such as corticosteroids and infliximab (an anti-αTNF monoclonal antibody), is another important risk factor, especially in the developed world . Other risk factors include: alcoholism , diabetes mellitus (3-fold increased risk), silicosis (30-fold increased risk), tobacco smoking (2-fold increased risk), indoor air pollution , malnutrition, young age, recently acquired TB infection, recreational drug use, severe kidney disease, low body weight, organ transplant, head and neck cancer, and genetic susceptibility (the overall importance of genetic risk factors remains undefined ). Tobacco smoking increases
2775-458: The arrival of streptomycin and other antibiotics, although the disease remained a significant threat. In 1946, the development of the antibiotic streptomycin made effective treatment and cure of TB a reality. Prior to the introduction of this medication, the only treatment was surgical intervention, including the " pneumothorax technique", which involved collapsing an infected lung to "rest" it and to allow tuberculous lesions to heal. Because of
2850-423: The bacterium is enveloped by the macrophage and stored temporarily in a membrane-bound vesicle called a phagosome. The phagosome then combines with a lysosome to create a phagolysosome. In the phagolysosome, the cell attempts to use reactive oxygen species and acid to kill the bacterium. However, M. tuberculosis has a thick, waxy mycolic acid capsule that protects it from these toxic substances. M. tuberculosis
2925-425: The body. Most infections show no symptoms, in which case it is known as latent tuberculosis . Around 10% of latent infections progress to active disease that, if left untreated, kill about half of those affected. Typical symptoms of active TB are chronic cough with blood-containing mucus , fever , night sweats , and weight loss . Infection of other organs can cause a wide range of symptoms. Tuberculosis
3000-425: The cattle and human tuberculosis diseases were similar, which delayed the recognition of infected milk as a source of infection. During the first half of the 1900s, the risk of transmission from this source was dramatically reduced after the application of the pasteurization process. Koch announced a glycerine extract of the tubercle bacilli as a "remedy" for tuberculosis in 1890, calling it "tuberculin". Although it
3075-485: The cause of pulmonary tuberculosis. J. L. Schönlein first published the name "tuberculosis" (German: Tuberkulose ) in 1832. Between 1838 and 1845, John Croghan, the owner of Mammoth Cave in Kentucky from 1839 onwards, brought a number of people with tuberculosis into the cave in the hope of curing the disease with the constant temperature and purity of the cave air; each died within a year. Hermann Brehmer opened
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3150-533: The character Rosemary in a short story, " A Cup of Tea ", which she wrote while in Switzerland. Arnim studied at the Royal College of Music , principally learning the organ. On 21 February 1891, Elizabeth married the widowed German aristocrat Count Henning August von Arnim-Schlagenthin [ de ] (1851–1910) in London, whom she had met on a tour of Italy with her father two years earlier. He
3225-477: The couple's only daughter Elizabeth (later Elizabeth Frere Jones) who was named in her honour. In 1930, Arnim set up a home in Mougins in the south of France, seeking a warmer climate. She created a rose garden there and called the house Mas des Roses . She continued to entertain her social and literary circle there, as she had done in Switzerland. She kept this house to the end of her life, although she moved to
3300-711: The declaration of a global health emergency by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1993. There is a popular misconception that tuberculosis is purely a disease of the lungs that manifests as coughing . Tuberculosis may infect many organs, even though it most commonly occurs in the lungs (known as pulmonary tuberculosis). Extrapulmonary TB occurs when tuberculosis develops outside of the lungs, although extrapulmonary TB may coexist with pulmonary TB. General signs and symptoms include fever, chills , night sweats, loss of appetite , weight loss, and fatigue . Significant nail clubbing may also occur. If
3375-640: The developing world. IGRA have similar limitations in those with HIV. A definitive diagnosis of TB is made by identifying M. tuberculosis in a clinical sample (e.g., sputum, pus , or a tissue biopsy ). However, the difficult culture process for this slow-growing organism can take two to six weeks for blood or sputum culture. Thus, treatment is often begun before cultures are confirmed. Nucleic acid amplification tests and adenosine deaminase testing may allow rapid diagnosis of TB. Blood tests to detect antibodies are not specific or sensitive , so they are not recommended. The Mantoux tuberculin skin test
3450-610: The disease became common among the urban poor. In 1815, one in four deaths in England was due to "consumption". By 1918, TB still caused one in six deaths in France. After TB was determined to be contagious, in the 1880s, it was put on a notifiable-disease list in Britain. Campaigns started to stop people from spitting in public places, and the infected poor were "encouraged" to enter sanatoria that resembled prisons. The sanatoria for
3525-620: The disease, since the infectious dose of tuberculosis is very small (the inhalation of fewer than 10 bacteria may cause an infection). People with prolonged, frequent, or close contact with people with TB are at particularly high risk of becoming infected, with an estimated 22% infection rate. A person with active but untreated tuberculosis may infect 10–15 (or more) other people per year. Transmission should occur from only people with active TB – those with latent infection are not thought to be contagious. The probability of transmission from one person to another depends upon several factors, including
3600-463: The emergence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB), surgery has been re-introduced for certain cases of TB infections. It involves the removal of infected chest cavities ("bullae") in the lungs to reduce the number of bacteria and to increase exposure of the remaining bacteria to antibiotics in the bloodstream. Hopes of eliminating TB ended with the rise of drug-resistant strains in the 1980s. The subsequent resurgence of tuberculosis resulted in
3675-552: The first TB sanatorium in 1859 in Görbersdorf (now Sokołowsko ) in Silesia . In 1865, Jean Antoine Villemin demonstrated that tuberculosis could be transmitted, via inoculation, from humans to animals and among animals. (Villemin's findings were confirmed in 1867 and 1868 by John Burdon-Sanderson . ) Robert Koch identified and described the bacillus causing tuberculosis, M. tuberculosis , on 24 March 1882. In 1905, he
3750-622: The first genuine success in immunization against tuberculosis in 1906, using attenuated bovine-strain tuberculosis. It was called bacille Calmette–Guérin (BCG). The BCG vaccine was first used on humans in 1921 in France, but achieved widespread acceptance in the US, Great Britain, and Germany only after World War II. By the 1950s mortality in Europe had decreased about 90%. Improvements in sanitation, vaccination, and other public-health measures began significantly reducing rates of tuberculosis even before
3825-648: The first, initially as "by the author of Elizabeth and Her German Garden " and later simply as "By Elizabeth". In 1909, The Princess Priscilla's Fortnight was turned into a play called The Cottage in the Air , and in 1929 into the film The Runaway Princess , directed by Anthony Asquith and starring Mady Christians . Although Arnim never wrote a conventional autobiography, All the Dogs of My Life (1936), an account of her love for her pets, contains many glimpses of her glittering social circle. Arnim's 1921 novel Vera ,
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#17327659722983900-431: The host's immune system. Macrophages and dendritic cells in the granulomas are unable to present antigen to lymphocytes; thus the immune response is suppressed. Bacteria inside the granuloma can become dormant, resulting in latent infection. Another feature of the granulomas is the development of abnormal cell death ( necrosis ) in the center of tubercles . To the naked eye, this has the texture of soft, white cheese and
3975-400: The infected macrophages. When other macrophages attack the infected macrophage, they fuse together to form a giant multinucleated cell in the alveolar lumen. The granuloma may prevent dissemination of the mycobacteria and provide a local environment for interaction of cells of the immune system. However, more recent evidence suggests that the bacteria use the granulomas to avoid destruction by
4050-439: The infection spreads outside the lungs, causing other kinds of TB. These are collectively denoted as extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Extrapulmonary TB occurs more commonly in people with a weakened immune system and young children. In those with HIV, this occurs in more than 50% of cases. Notable extrapulmonary infection sites include the pleura (in tuberculous pleurisy), the central nervous system (in tuberculous meningitis ),
4125-613: The infection waxes and wanes. Tissue destruction and necrosis are often balanced by healing and fibrosis . Affected tissue is replaced by scarring and cavities filled with caseous necrotic material. During active disease, some of these cavities are joined to the air passages ( bronchi ) and this material can be coughed up. It contains living bacteria and thus can spread the infection. Treatment with appropriate antibiotics kills bacteria and allows healing to take place. Upon cure, affected areas are eventually replaced by scar tissue. Diagnosing active tuberculosis based only on signs and symptoms
4200-491: The life from the other family members. Although Richard Morton established the pulmonary form associated with tubercles as a pathology in 1689, due to the variety of its symptoms, TB was not identified as a single disease until the 1820s. Benjamin Marten conjectured in 1720 that consumptions were caused by microbes which were spread by people living close to each other. In 1819, René Laennec claimed that tubercles were
4275-484: The middle and upper classes offered excellent care and constant medical attention. What later became known as the Alexandra Hospital for Children with Hip Disease (tuberculous arthritis) was opened in London in 1867. Whatever the benefits of the "fresh air" and labor in the sanatoria, even under the best conditions, 50% of those who entered died within five years ( c. 1916). Robert Koch did not believe
4350-596: The newly infected person becomes infectious enough to transmit the disease to others. A number of factors make individuals more susceptible to TB infection and/or disease. The most important risk factor globally for developing active TB is concurrent HIV infection; 13% of those with TB are also infected with HIV. This is a particular problem in sub-Saharan Africa , where HIV infection rates are high. Of those without HIV infection who are infected with tuberculosis, about 5–10% develop active disease during their lifetimes; in contrast, 30% of those co-infected with HIV develop
4425-599: The number of infectious droplets expelled by the carrier, the effectiveness of ventilation, the duration of exposure, the virulence of the M. tuberculosis strain , the level of immunity in the uninfected person, and others. The cascade of person-to-person spread can be circumvented by segregating those with active ("overt") TB and putting them on anti-TB drug regimens. After about two weeks of effective treatment, subjects with nonresistant active infections generally do not remain contagious to others. If someone does become infected, it typically takes three to four weeks before
4500-478: The pen name Katherine Mansfield . When she was three years old, the family moved to England, where they lived in London but also spent several years in Switzerland. Arnim was the first cousin of Mansfield's father, Harold Beauchamp , making her the first cousin once removed of Mansfield. Although Elizabeth was older by 22 years, she and Mansfield later corresponded, reviewed each other's works, and became close friends. Mansfield, ill with tuberculosis , lived in
4575-594: The pseudonym Alice Cholmondeley for only one novel, Christine , published in 1917. She was born at her family's home on Kirribilli Point in Sydney, Australia, to Henry Herron Beauchamp (1825–1907), a wealthy shipping merchant, and Elizabeth (nicknamed Louey) Weiss Lassetter (1836–1919). She was called May by her family. She had four brothers and a sister. One of her cousins was the New Zealand-born Kathleen Beauchamp, who wrote under
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#17327659722984650-435: The risk of developing active TB increases to nearly 10% a year. If effective treatment is not given, the death rate for active TB cases is up to 66%. TB infection begins when the mycobacteria reach the alveolar air sacs of the lungs, where they invade and replicate within endosomes of alveolar macrophages . Macrophages identify the bacterium as foreign and attempt to eliminate it by phagocytosis . During this process,
4725-414: The risk of infections (in addition to increasing the risk of active disease and death). Additional factors increasing infection susceptibility include young age. About 90% of those infected with M. tuberculosis have asymptomatic , latent TB infections (sometimes called LTBI), with only a 10% lifetime chance that the latent infection will progress to overt, active tuberculous disease. In those with HIV,
4800-472: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Countess Russell . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Countess_Russell&oldid=1224386601 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Title and name disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
4875-408: The same year, she embarked on an affair with Alexander Stuart Frere (1892–1984), who later became chairman of the publishing house Heinemann . Frere, 26 years her junior, initially went to stay at the Chalet Soleil to catalogue her large library, and a romance ensued. The affair lasted several years. In 1933, Frere married the writer and theater critic Patricia Wallace, and Arnim was the godmother of
4950-549: The spines of Egyptian mummies dating from 3000 to 2400 BC. Genetic studies suggest the presence of TB in the Americas from about AD 100. Before the Industrial Revolution , folklore often associated tuberculosis with vampires . When one member of a family died from the disease, the other infected members would lose their health slowly. People believed this was caused by the original person with TB draining
5025-465: The test's usefulness as a screening tool. Several vaccines are being developed. Intradermal MVA85A vaccine in addition to BCG injection is not effective in preventing tuberculosis. Public health campaigns which have focused on overcrowding, public spitting and regular sanitation (including hand washing) during the 1800s helped to either interrupt or slow spread which when combined with contact tracing, isolation and treatment helped to dramatically curb
5100-565: The top of the lung. This hematogenous transmission can also spread infection to more distant sites, such as peripheral lymph nodes, the kidneys, the brain, and the bones. All parts of the body can be affected by the disease, though for unknown reasons it rarely affects the heart , skeletal muscles , pancreas , or thyroid . Tuberculosis is classified as one of the granulomatous inflammatory diseases. Macrophages , epithelioid cells , T lymphocytes , B lymphocytes , and fibroblasts aggregate to form granulomas, with lymphocytes surrounding
5175-467: The transmission of both tuberculosis and other airborne diseases which led to the elimination of tuberculosis as a major public health issue in most developed economies. Other risk factors which worsened TB spread such as malnutrition were also ameliorated, but since the emergence of HIV a new population of immunocompromised individuals was available for TB to infect. During the HIV/AIDS epidemic in
5250-424: The various occasions I have earnestly wished I might, for I would have missed a lot of lovely weather." Sources Tuberculosis Tuberculosis ( TB ), also known colloquially as the " white death ", or historically as consumption , is an infectious disease usually caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) bacteria . Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs , but it can also affect other parts of
5325-672: Was The Solitary Summer (1899). By 1900, Arnim's books had such success that the identity of "Elizabeth" caused newspaper speculation in London, New York and elsewhere. Other works, such as The Benefactress (1902), The Adventures of Elizabeth on Rügen (1904), Vera (1921), and Love (1925), were also semi-autobiographical. Some titles ensued that deal with protest against domineering Junkertum and witty observations of life in provincial Germany, including The Princess Priscilla's Fortnight (1905) and Fräulein Schmidt and Mr Anstruther (1907). She would sign her twenty or so books, after
5400-526: Was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for this discovery. In Europe, rates of tuberculosis began to rise in the early 1600s to a peak level in the 1800s, when it caused nearly 25% of all deaths. In the 18th and 19th century, tuberculosis had become epidemic in Europe , showing a seasonal pattern. Tuberculosis caused widespread public concern in the 19th and early 20th centuries as
5475-470: Was later acquitted. At the time of the 1901 United Kingdom census , on 1 April 1901, Arnim was in England, staying with her uncle Henry Beauchamp at The Retreat, Bexley , without any of her children. Her son Henning Bernd was born in London in October 1902. The children's tutors at Nassenheide included E. M. Forster , who worked there for several months in the spring and summer of 1905. Forster wrote
5550-478: Was not effective, it was later successfully adapted as a screening test for the presence of pre-symptomatic tuberculosis. World Tuberculosis Day is marked on 24 March each year, the anniversary of Koch's original scientific announcement. When the Medical Research Council formed in Britain in 1913, it initially focused on tuberculosis research. Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin achieved
5625-570: Was the eldest son of the late Count Harry von Arnim , the former German Ambassador to France . At first they lived in Berlin, then in 1896 moved to what was then Nassenheide, Pomerania (now Rzędziny in Poland), where the Arnim family had a landed estate. They had four daughters and a son, born between December 1891 and October 1901. In 1899, Henning von Arnim was arrested and imprisoned for fraud but
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