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103-508: In Wicca and other similar forms of modern pagan witchcraft , such as Stregheria and Feri , a coven is a gathering or community of witches , like an affinity group, engagement group, or small covenant group. It is composed of a group of practitioners who gather together for rituals such as Drawing Down the Moon , or celebrating the Sabbats . The place at which they generally meet is called

206-541: A High Priestess and a High Priest , although some are led by only one or the other, and some by a same-sex couple. In more recent forms of modern pagan witchcraft, covens are sometimes run as democracies with a rotating leadership. With the rise of the Internet as a platform for collaborative discussion and media dissemination, it became popular for adherents and practitioners of Wicca to establish "online covens" which remotely teach tradition-specific crafts to students in

309-525: A Triple Goddess , thereby being a triadic deity comprising a Maiden goddess, a Mother goddess , and a Crone goddess, each of whom has different associations, namely virginity, fertility, and wisdom. Other Wiccan conceptualisations have portrayed her as a Moon Goddess and as a Menstruating Goddess. According to the anthropologist Susan Greenwood, in Wicca the Goddess is "a symbol of self-transformation - she

412-660: A Vault of Adepts became the controlling force behind the Outer Order. Later in 1916, Westcott claimed that Mathers also constructed these rituals from materials he received from Frater Lux ex Tenebris, a purported Continental Adept . Some followers of the Golden Dawn tradition believe that the Secret Chiefs were not human or supernatural beings, but rather symbolic representations of actual or legendary sources of spiritual esotericism . The term came to stand for

515-481: A covenstead . The number of people involved may vary. Although some consider thirteen to be ideal (probably in deference to Murray 's theories), any group of at least three can be a coven. A group of two is usually called a "working couple" (regardless of their gender). It can also unofficially be called an "Obaven" by some members of the community, derived from the Scottish Gaelic word "obair" meaning work,

618-540: A deist entity who had created the "Under-Gods", among them the God and Goddess, but who was not otherwise involved in the world; alternately, other Wiccans have interpreted such an entity as a pantheistic being, of whom the God and Goddess are facets. Although Gardner criticised monotheism, citing the Problem of Evil , explicitly monotheistic forms of Wicca developed in the 1960s, when the U.S.-based Church of Wicca developed

721-626: A magic circle . The five elements are air , fire , water , earth , and aether (or spirit), where aether unites the other four elements. Various analogies have been devised to explain the concept of the five elements; for instance, the Wiccan Ann-Marie Gallagher used that of a tree, which is composed of earth (with the soil and plant matter), water (sap and moisture), fire (through photosynthesis ) and air (the formation of oxygen from carbon dioxide ), all of which are believed to be united through spirit. Traditionally in

824-800: A religion by academics, some evangelical Christians have attempted to deny it legal recognition as such, while some Wiccan practitioners themselves eschew the term "religion" – associating the latter purely with organised religion – instead favouring " spirituality " or "way of life". Although Wicca as a religion is distinct from other forms of contemporary paganism, there has been much "cross-fertilization" between these different pagan faiths; accordingly, Wicca has both influenced and been influenced by other pagan religions, thus making clear-cut distinctions between them more difficult for religious studies scholars to make. The terms wizard and warlock are sometimes discouraged altogether. Wizard can represent an emphasis on wisdom and insight-based practices, and it

927-462: A sacred circle , Wiccans cast spells or "workings" intended to bring about real changes in the physical world. Common Wiccan spells include those used for healing , for protection, fertility, or to banish negative influences. Many early Wiccans, such as Alex Sanders , Sybil Leek and Alex Winfield, referred to their own magic as " white magic ", which contrasted with " black magic ", which they associated with evil and Satanism . Sanders also used

1030-455: A "realistic view of living in the real world" replete with its many problems and do not claim that the gods "have all the answers" to these. She suggested that Wiccans do not claim to seek perfection but instead "wholeness" or "completeness", which includes an acceptance of traits like anger, weakness, and pain. She contrasted the Wiccan acceptance of an "interplay between light and dark" against

1133-500: A German countess and prominent Rosicrucian named Anna Sprengel , whose address was said to have been found in the decoded Cipher Manuscripts. According to Westcott, Sprengel claimed the ability to contact certain supernatural entities, known as the Secret Chiefs , that were considered the authorities over any magical order or esoteric organization. Westcott purportedly received a reply from Sprengel granting permission to establish

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1236-574: A Golden Dawn temple and conferring honorary grades of Adeptus Exemptus on Westcott, Mathers, and Woodman. The temple was to consist of the five grades outlined in the manuscripts. In 1888, the Isis-Urania Temple was founded in London . In contrast to the S.R.I.A. and Masonry, women were allowed and welcome to participate in the Order in "perfect equality" with men. The Order was more of

1339-786: A Wiccan may regard the Germanic Ēostre , Hindu Kali , and Catholic Virgin Mary each as manifestations of one supreme Goddess and likewise, the Celtic Cernunnos , the ancient Greek Dionysus and the Judeo-Christian Yahweh as aspects of a single, archetypal god. A more strictly polytheistic approach holds the various goddesses and gods to be separate and distinct entities in their own right. The Wiccan writers Janet Farrar and Gavin Bone have postulated that Wicca

1442-585: A belief from the Theosophy-inspired Huna movement , Kabbalah , and other sources, that the human being has three souls. Although not accepted by all Wiccans, a belief in reincarnation is the dominant afterlife belief within Wicca, having been originally espoused by Gardner. Understandings of how the cycle of reincarnation operates differ among practitioners; Wiccan Raymond Buckland for instance insisted that human souls would only incarnate into human bodies, whereas other Wiccans believe that

1545-514: A broomstick known as a besom , a cauldron , candles , incense and a curved blade known as a boline . An altar is usually present in the circle, on which ritual tools are placed and representations of the God and the Goddess may be displayed. Before entering the circle, some traditions fast for the day, and/or ritually bathe. After a ritual has finished, the God, Goddess, and Guardians are thanked,

1648-477: A committee of seven Adepts was elected in London and requested a full investigation of the matter. Mathers sent an immediate reply, declining to provide proof, refusing to acknowledge the London temple, and dismissing Farr as his representative on 23 March. In response, a general meeting was called on 29 March in London to remove Mathers as chief and expel him from the Order. In 1901, W. B. Yeats privately published

1751-501: A different deity who were seen as children of the primary Horned God and Goddess. The five elements are symbolised by the five points of the pentagram , the most-used symbol of Wicca. The Wiccan high priestess and journalist Margot Adler stated that Wiccan rituals were not "dry, formalised, repetitive experiences", but performed with the intent of inducing a religious experience in the participants, thereby altering their consciousness. She noted that many Wiccans remain skeptical about

1854-501: A flourishing Second Order under Berridge-Mathers in 1913." J.W. Brodie-Innes continued leading the Amen-Ra temple, deciding that the revolt was unjustified. By 1908, Mathers and Brodie-Innes were in complete accord. According to sources that differ regarding the actual date, sometime between 1901 and 1913 Mathers renamed the branch of the Golden Dawn remaining loyal to his leadership to Alpha et Omega . Brodie-Innes assumed command of

1957-534: A great leader or teacher of a spiritual path or practice that found its way into the teachings of the Order. By the mid-1890s, the Golden Dawn was well established in Great Britain, with over one hundred members from every class of Victorian society. Many celebrities belonged to the Golden Dawn, such as the actress Florence Farr , the Irish revolutionary Maud Gonne , the Irish poet William Butler Yeats ,

2060-441: A headlong plunge back into magic" and that it was a reactionary religion which would soon die out. This view was heavily criticised in 1999 by the historian Ronald Hutton who claimed that the evidence displayed the very opposite: that "a large number [of Wiccans] were in jobs at the cutting edge [of scientific culture], such as computer technology". Identification as a witch can[…] provide a link to those persecuted and executed in

2163-472: A human soul can incarnate into any life form. There is also a common Wiccan belief that any Wiccans will come to be reincarnated as future Wiccans, an idea originally expressed by Gardner. Gardner also articulated the view that the human soul rested for a period between bodily death and its incarnation, with this resting place commonly being referred to as " The Summerland " among the Wiccan community. This allows many Wiccans to believe that mediums can contact

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2266-543: A majority follow a code known as the Wiccan Rede , which states, "an it harm none, do what ye will". This is usually interpreted as a declaration of the freedom to act, along with the necessity of taking responsibility for what follows from one's actions and minimising harm to oneself and others. Another common element of Wiccan morality is the Law of Threefold Return which holds that whatever benevolent or malevolent actions

2369-459: A necessary presence to balance each other out. This may have derived from Gardner's interpretation of Murray's claim that the ancient witch-cult was a fertility religion. Thus, many practitioners of British Traditional Wicca have argued that gay men and women are not capable of correctly working magic without mixed-sex pairings. Although Gerald Gardner initially demonstrated an aversion to homosexuality , claiming that it brought down "the curse of

2472-516: A pamphlet titled Is the Order of R. R. & A. C. to Remain a Magical Order? After the Isis-Urania temple claimed its independence, there were even more disputes, leading to Yeats resigning. A committee of three was to temporarily govern, which included P. W. Bullock, M. W. Blackden and J. W. Brodie-Innes . After a short time, Bullock resigned, and Dr. Robert Felkin took his place. In 1903, A. E. Waite and Blackden joined forces to retain

2575-529: A person performs will return to that person with triple force, or with equal force on each of the three levels of body, mind, and spirit, similar to the eastern idea of karma . The Wiccan Rede was most likely introduced into Wicca by Gerald Gardner and formalised publicly by Doreen Valiente , one of his High Priestesses. The Threefold Law was an interpretation of Wiccan ideas and ritual, made by Monique Wilson and further popularized by Raymond Buckland , in his books on Wicca. Many Wiccans also seek to cultivate

2678-558: A philosophical and metaphysical teaching order in its early years. Other than certain rituals and meditations found in the Cipher manuscripts and developed further, "magical practices" were generally not taught at the first temple. For the first four years, the Golden Dawn was one cohesive group later known as the "First Order" or "Outer Order". A "Second Order" or "Inner Order" was established and became active in 1892. The Second Order consisted of members known as "adepts", who had completed

2781-563: A set of eight virtues mentioned in Doreen Valiente 's Charge of the Goddess , these being mirth, reverence, honour, humility, strength, beauty, power, and compassion. In Valiente's poem, they are ordered in pairs of complementary opposites, reflecting a dualism that is common throughout Wiccan philosophy. Some lineaged Wiccans also observe a set of Wiccan Laws , commonly called the Craft Laws or Ardanes , 30 of which exist in

2884-633: A similar method of education as non-religious virtual online schools . One of the first online covens to take this route is the Coven of the Far Flung Net (CFFN), which was established in 1997 as the online arm of the Church of Universal Eclectic Wicca . However, because of potentially-unwieldy membership sizes, many online covens limit their memberships to anywhere between 10 and 100 students. The CFFN, in particular, tried to devolve its structure into

2987-444: A synonym for "Wicca" is "Pagan witchcraft", although there are also other forms of modern paganism—such as types of Heathenry —which also use the term "Pagan witchcraft". From the 1990s onward, various Wiccans began describing themselves as " Traditional Witches ", although this term was also employed by practitioners of other magico-religious traditions like Luciferianism. In some popular culture, such as television programs Buffy

3090-637: A system of sub-coven clans (which governed their own application processes), a system which ended in 2003 due to fears by the CFFN leadership that the clans were becoming communities in their own right. The Urban Coven is a group founded on Facebook by Becca Gordon for women in Los Angeles to gather, hike, and howl at the Moon . It meets monthly and is estimated to have almost 3,500 members. A January 2016 gathering at Griffith Park drew nearly 1,000 women, and

3193-432: A theology rooted in the worship of what they described as "one deity, without gender". In the 1970s, Dianic Wiccan groups developed which were devoted to a singular, monotheistic Goddess; this approach was often criticised by members of British Traditional Wiccan groups, who lambasted such Goddess monotheism as an inverted imitation of Christian theology. As in other forms of Wicca, some Goddess monotheists have expressed

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3296-552: A tribute to the more official term "working couple", a portmanteau with the word "coven". Thus creating the word, "Obaven". Within the community, many believe that a coven larger than thirteen is unwieldy, citing unwieldy group dynamics and an unfair burden on the leadership. When a coven has grown too large to be manageable, it may split, or "hive". In Wicca, this may also occur when a newly made High Priest or High Priestess , also called 3rd Degree initiation, leaves to start their own coven. Wiccan covens are usually jointly led by

3399-525: Is becoming more polytheistic as it matures, tending to embrace a more traditionally pagan worldview. Some Wiccans conceive of deities not as literal personalities but as metaphorical archetypes or thoughtforms , thereby technically allowing them to be atheists . Such a view is held by the High Priestess Vivianne Crowley , herself a psychologist , who considered the Wiccan deities to be Jungian archetypes that existed within

3502-496: Is seen to be constantly changing and a force for change for those who open themselves up to her". Gardner stated that beyond Wicca's two deities was the "Supreme Deity" or " Prime Mover ", an entity that was too complex for humans to understand. This belief has been endorsed by other practitioners, who have referred to it as "the Cosmic Logos ", "Supreme Cosmic Power", or " Godhead ". Gardner envisioned this Supreme Deity as

3605-466: Is that Wicca's deities are viewed as forms of ancient, pre-Christian divinities by its practitioners. Most early Wiccan groups adhered to the duotheistic worship of a Horned God and a Mother Goddess , with practitioners typically believing that these had been the ancient deities worshipped by the hunter-gatherers of the Old Stone Age , whose veneration had been passed down in secret right to

3708-418: Is the number of steps down from the top (Kether). The First Order Grades were related to the four elements of Earth, Air, Water, and Fire, respectively. The Aspirant to a Grade received instruction on the metaphysical meaning of each of these Elements and had to pass a written examination and demonstrate certain skills to receive admission to that Grade. While no temples in the original chartered lineage of

3811-543: Is the rescension of Doreen Valiente , who developed it from Gardner's version. Gardner's wording of the original "Charge" added extracts from Aleister Crowley's work, including The Book of the Law , (especially from Ch 1, spoken by Nuit, the Star Goddess) thus linking modern Wicca irrevocably to the principles of Thelema . Valiente rewrote Gardner's version in verse, keeping the material derived from Aradia , but removing

3914-503: Is used by modern feminist witches as an aid in their struggle for freedom from patriarchal oppression. — Religious studies scholar Joanne Pearson Historian Wouter Hanegraaff noted that the Wiccan view of witchcraft was "an outgrowth of Romantic (semi)scholarship", especially the 'witch cult' theory . It proposed that historical alleged witches were actually followers of a surviving pagan religion, and that accusations of infanticide, cannibalism, Satanism, etc., were either made up by

4017-414: Is used by some interchangeably with the term witch for their common roots in the meaning of gaining wisdom and being wise . In Wicca, denominations are referred to as traditions , while non-Wiccans are often termed cowans . When the religion first came to public attention, its followers commonly called it "Witchcraft". Gerald Gardner —the man regarded as the "Father of Wicca"—referred to it as

4120-534: The Inquisition or were misunderstandings of pagan rites. This theory that accused witches were actually pagans has now been disproven using archive records of witch trials. Nevertheless, Gardner and other founders of Wicca believed the theory was true, and saw the witch as a " positive antitype which derives much of its symbolic force from its implicit criticism of dominant Judaeo-Christian and Enlightenment values". Pearson suggested that Wiccans "identify with

4223-880: The Modern English term "Wicca" is borrowed from the Old English wicca [ˈwittʃɑ] and wicce [ˈwittʃe] , the masculine and feminine term for witch , respectively, that was used in Anglo-Saxon England . By adopting it for modern usage, Wiccans were both symbolically linking themselves to the ancient, pre-Christian past, and adopting a self-designation that would be less controversial than "Witchcraft". The scholar of religion and Wiccan priestess Joanne Pearson noted that while "the words 'witch' and 'wicca' are therefore linked etymologically, […] they are used to emphasize different things today". In early sources, "Wicca" referred to

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4326-575: The Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia . Westcott appears to have been the initial driving force behind the establishment of the Golden Dawn. The Golden Dawn system was based on hierarchy and initiation (similar to Masonic lodges ) and the grade structure was based on the S.R.I.A , however, women were admitted on an equal basis with men. The "Golden Dawn" was the first of three Orders, although all three are often collectively referred to as

4429-593: The Triple Goddess and the Horned God , respectively. These deities may be regarded in a henotheistic way, as having many different divine aspects which can be identified with various pagan deities from different historical pantheons. For this reason, they are sometimes referred to as the "Great Goddess" and the "Great Horned God", with the honorific "great" connoting a personification containing many other deities within their own nature. Some Wiccans refer to

4532-655: The "Craft of the Wise", "Witchcraft", and "the Witch-cult " during the 1950s. Gardner believed in the theory that persecuted witches had actually been followers of a surviving pagan religion, but this theory has now been proven wrong. There is no evidence that he ever called it "Wicca", although he did refer to its community of followers as "the Wica" (with one c ). As a name for the religion, "Wicca" developed in Britain during

4635-528: The "Golden Dawn". The First Order taught esoteric philosophy based on the Hermetic Qabalah and personal development through study and awareness of the four classical elements , as well as the basics of astrology , tarot divination , and geomancy . The Second or Inner Order, the Rosae Rubeae et Aureae Crucis , taught magic, including scrying , astral travel , and alchemy . The Third Order

4738-488: The 1960s. It is not known who first used this name for the religion, although one possibility is that it might have been Gardner's rival Charles Cardell , who was calling it the "Craft of the Wiccens" by 1958. The first recorded use of the name "Wicca" was in 1962, and it had been popularised to the extent that several British practitioners founded a newsletter called The Wiccan in 1968. Although pronounced differently,

4841-709: The 1980s, there were two competing definitions of the word "Wicca" in use among the pagan and esoteric communities, one broad and inclusive, the other narrow and exclusionary. Among scholars of pagan studies , it is the older, broader, inclusive meaning which is preferred. Alongside "Wicca", some practitioners still call the religion "Witchcraft" or "the Craft". Using the word "Witchcraft" in this context can result in confusion with other, non-religious meanings of "witchcraft" as well as other religions—such as Satanism and Luciferianism —whose practitioners also sometimes describe themselves as "Witches". Another term sometimes used as

4944-666: The Alpha et Omega and Stella Matutina closed or went into abeyance by the end of the 1930s, with the exceptions of two Stella Matutina temples: Hermes Temple in Bristol , which operated sporadically until 1970, and the Smaragdum Thallasses Temple (commonly referred to as Whare Ra ) in Havelock North , New Zealand , which operated regularly until its closure in 1978. Much of the hierarchical structure for

5047-402: The Craft's emphasis on individual expression in one's spiritual/magical path. Many rituals within Wicca are used when celebrating the Sabbats , worshipping the deities, and working magic. Often these take place on a full moon , or in some cases a new moon, which is known as an Esbat . In typical rites, the coven or solitary assembles inside a ritually cast and purified magic circle . Casting

5150-668: The English and Scottish temples, while Mathers concentrated on building up his Ahathoor temple and extending his American connections. According to occultist Israel Regardie , the Golden Dawn had spread to the United States of America before 1900 and a Thoth-Hermes temple had been founded in Chicago . By the beginning of the First World War in 1914, Mathers had established two to three American temples. Most temples of

5253-553: The Gardnerian Craft, each element has been associated with a cardinal point of the compass; air with east, fire with south, water with west, earth with north, and the spirit with centre. However, some Wiccans, such as Frederic Lamond , have claimed that the set cardinal points are only those applicable to the geography of southern England, where Wicca evolved, and that Wiccans should determine which directions best suit each element in their region. For instance, those living on

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5356-571: The Gardnerian tradition and 161 of which are in the Alexandrian tradition. Valiente, one of Gardner's original High Priestesses, argued that the first thirty of these rules were most likely invented by Gerald Gardner himself in mock-archaic language as the by-product of inner conflict within his Bricket Wood coven. In British Traditional Wicca, "sex complementarity is a basic and fundamental working principle", with men and women being seen as

5459-607: The Golden Dawn came from the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia , which was itself derived from the Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross . The paired numbers attached to the Grades relate to positions on the Tree of Life. The Neophyte Grade of "0=0" indicates no position on the Tree. In the other pairs, the first numeral is the number of steps up from the bottom (Malkuth), and the second numeral

5562-467: The Golden Dawn survived past the 1970s, several organizations have since carried on, revived or expanded upon the Order's teachings and rituals, including: The Golden Dawn , by Israel Regardie; was published in 1937. The book is divided into several basic sections. First are the knowledge lectures, which describe the basic teaching of the Qabalah, symbolism, meditation, geomancy, etc. This is followed by

5665-563: The Golden Dawn was active in Great Britain and focused its practices on theurgy and spiritual development. Many present-day concepts of ritual and magic that are at the centre of contemporary traditions, such as Wicca and Thelema , were inspired by the Golden Dawn, which became one of the largest single influences on 20th-century Western occultism . The three founders, William Robert Woodman , William Wynn Westcott , and Samuel Liddell Mathers , were Freemasons and members of

5768-548: The Grade Rituals of the Order and prescribe a curriculum of graduated teachings that encompass the Hermetic Qabalah , astrology , occult tarot , geomancy , and alchemy . According to the records of the Order, the manuscripts passed from Kenneth R. H. Mackenzie , a Masonic scholar, to the Rev. A. F. A. Woodford , whom British occult writer Francis King describes as the fourth founder (although Woodford died shortly after

5871-472: The Great Witch Hunt, which can then be remembered as a holocaust against women, a repackaging of history that implies conscious victimization and the appropriation of 'holocaust' as a badge of honour — 'gendercide rather than genocide'. An elective identification with the image of the witch during the time of the persecutions is commonly regarded as part of the reclamation of female power, a myth that

5974-534: The Horned God, he is most often associated with animals and the natural world, but also with the afterlife, and he is furthermore often viewed as an ideal role model for men. The Mother Goddess has been associated with life, fertility, and the springtime, and has been described as an ideal role model for women. Wicca's duotheism has been compared to the Taoist system of yin and yang . Other Wiccans have adopted

6077-662: The Isis-Urania temple, disputes were arising between Farr's The Sphere , a secret society within the Isis-Urania, and the rest of the Adepti Minores. Crowley was refused initiation into the Adeptus Minor grade by the London officials. Mathers overrode their decision and quickly initiated him at the Ahathoor temple in Paris on 16 January 1900. Upon his return to the London temple, Crowley requested from Miss Cracknell,

6180-526: The New Age focus on "white light". Similarly, the scholar of religion Geoffrey Samuel noted that Wiccans devote "a perhaps surprising amount of attention to darkness and death". Many Wiccans are involved in environmentalist campaigns. Many traditions hold a belief in the five classical elements , although they are seen as symbolic representations of the phases of matter . These five elements are invoked during many magical rituals, notably when consecrating

6283-529: The Order was founded). The documents did not excite Woodford, and in February 1886 he passed them on to Freemason William Wynn Westcott , who managed to decode them in 1887. Westcott, pleased with his discovery, called on fellow Freemason Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers for a second opinion. Westcott asked for Mathers's help to turn the manuscripts into a coherent system for lodge work. Mathers, in turn, asked fellow Freemason William Robert Woodman to assist

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6386-599: The Threefold Law ye should – three times bad and three times good ... Eight words the Wiccan Rede fulfill – an it harm none, do what ye will. Lady Gwen Thompson Wicca has been characterised as a life-affirming religion. Practitioners typically present themselves as "a positive force against the powers of destruction which threaten the world". There exists no dogmatic moral or ethical code followed universally by Wiccans of all traditions. However,

6489-530: The Triple Goddess, alongside the cycles of the Sun, seasonally based festivals known as Sabbats and commonly associated with the Horned God. The Wiccan Rede is a popular expression of Wiccan morality, often with respect to the ritual practice of magic . Scholars of religious studies classify Wicca as a new religious movement , and more specifically as a form of modern paganism. Wicca has been cited as

6592-667: The Vampire Slayer and Charmed , the word "Wicca" has been used as a synonym for witchcraft more generally, including in non-religious and non-pagan forms. Theological views within Wicca are diverse. The religion encompasses theists , atheists , and agnostics , with some viewing the religion's deities as entities with a literal existence and others viewing them as Jungian archetypes or symbols. Even among theistic Wiccans, there are divergent beliefs, and Wicca includes pantheists , monotheists , duotheists , and polytheists . Common to these divergent perspectives, however,

6695-477: The Welsh author Arthur Machen , and the English authors Evelyn Underhill and Aleister Crowley . In 1896 or 1897, Westcott broke all ties to the Golden Dawn, leaving Mathers in control. It has been speculated that his departure was due to his having lost a number of occult-related papers in a hansom cab . Apparently, when the papers were found, Westcott's connection to the Golden Dawn was discovered and brought to

6798-503: The acting secretary, the papers acknowledging his grade, to which he was now entitled. To the London Adepts, this was the final straw. Farr, already of the opinion that the London temple should be closed, wrote to Mathers expressing her wish to resign as his representative, although she was willing to carry on until a successor was found. Mathers believed Westcott was behind this turn of events and replied on 16 February. On 3 March

6901-467: The attention of his employers. He may have been told to either resign from the Order or to give up his occupation as coroner . After Westcott's departure, Mathers appointed Florence Farr to be Chief Adept in Anglia. Dr. Henry B. Pullen Burry succeeded Westcott as Cancellarius—one of the three Chiefs of the Order. Mathers was the only active founding member after Westcott's departure. Due to personality clashes with other members and frequent absences from

7004-403: The beliefs, stating: "it's a religion of ritual rather than theology. The ritual is first; the myth is second". Similarly, Adler stated that Wicca permits "total skepticism about even its own methods, myths and rituals". The anthropologist Susan Greenwood characterised Wiccan rituals as "a form of resistance to mainstream culture". She saw these rituals as "a healing space away from the ills of

7107-425: The body in a manner unimpeded by clothes. Some also note that it removes signs of social rank and differentiation and thus encourages unity among the practitioners. Some Wiccans seek legitimacy for the practice by stating that various ancient societies performed their rituals while nude. One of Wicca's best known liturgical texts is "The Charge of the Goddess ". The most commonly used version used by Wiccans today

7210-586: The center of Lodge activity in Great Britain, however, challenges to Mathers's authority as leader developed among the members of the Second Order. Towards the end of 1899, the Adepts of the Isis-Urania and Amen-Ra temples had become dissatisfied with Mathers's leadership, as well as his growing friendship with Aleister Crowley. They had also become anxious to make contact with the Secret Chiefs themselves, instead of relying on Mathers as an intermediary. Within

7313-435: The circle may involve the invocation of the "Guardians" of the cardinal points, alongside their respective classical elements; air, fire, water, and earth. Once the circle is cast, a seasonal ritual may be performed, prayers to the God and Goddess are said, and spells are sometimes worked; these may include various forms of 'raising energy', including raising a cone of power to send healing or other magic to persons outside of

7416-531: The directions are dismissed and the circle is closed. A central aspect of Wicca (particularly in Gardnerian and Alexandrian Wicca), often sensationalised by the media is the traditional practice of working in the nude, also known as skyclad . Although no longer widely used, this practice seemingly derives from a line in Aradia , Charles Leland 's supposed record of Italian witchcraft. Many Wiccans believe that performing rituals skyclad allows "power" to flow from

7519-478: The east coast of North America should invoke water in the east and not the west because the colossal body of water, the Atlantic Ocean , is to their east. Other Craft groups have associated the elements with different cardinal points, for instance Robert Cochrane 's Clan of Tubal Cain associated earth with south, fire with east, water with west and air with north, and each of which were controlled over by

7622-1058: The entire course of study for the First Order. The Second Order was formally established under the name Ordo Rosae Rubeae et Aureae Crucis (the Order of the Red Rose and the Golden Cross). Eventually, the Osiris temple in Weston-super-Mare , the Horus temple in Bradford (both in 1888), and the Amen-Ra temple in Edinburgh (1893) were founded. In 1893 Mathers founded the Ahathoor temple in Paris . In 1890, Westcott's alleged correspondence with Anna Sprengel suddenly ceased. He claimed to have received word from Germany that she

7725-404: The existence of the supernatural but remain involved in Wicca because of its ritual experiences: she quoted one as saying that "I love myth, dream, visionary art. The Craft is a place where all of these things fit together – beauty, pageantry, music, dance, song, dream". The Wiccan practitioner and historian Aidan Kelly wrote that the practices and experiences within Wicca were more important than

7828-428: The goddess as "Lady" and the god as "Lord" to invoke their divinity . These two deities are sometimes viewed as facets of a universal pantheistic divinity, regarded as an impersonal force rather than a personal deity. Other traditions of Wicca embrace polytheism , pantheism , monism , and Goddess monotheism . Wiccan celebrations encompass both the cycles of the Moon , known as Esbats and commonly associated with

7931-779: The goddess", it is now generally accepted in all traditions of Wicca, with groups such as the Minoan Brotherhood openly basing their philosophy upon it. Nonetheless, a variety of viewpoints exist in Wicca around this point, with some covens adhering to a hetero-normative viewpoint. Carly B. Floyd of Illinois Wesleyan University has published an informative white paper on this subject: Mother Goddesses and Subversive Witches: Competing Narratives of Gender Essentialism, Heteronormativity, Feminism, and Queerness in Wiccan Theology and Ritual . The scholar of religion Joanne Pearson noted that in her experience, most Wiccans take

8034-410: The initiatory lineage of Gardner and consider Wicca specific to similar traditions, excluding newer, eclectic traditions. Other traditions, as well as scholars of religion, apply Wicca as a broad term for a religion with denominations that differ on some key points but share core beliefs and practices. Wicca is typically duotheistic , venerating both a Goddess and a God, traditionally conceived as

8137-440: The largest, best known, most influential, and most academically studied form of modern paganism. Within the movement, it has been identified as sitting on the eclectic end of the eclectic to reconstructionist spectrum . Several academics have also categorised Wicca as a form of nature religion , a term that is also embraced by many of its practitioners, and as a mystery religion . However, given that Wicca also incorporates

8240-622: The material from Crowley. Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn ( Latin : Ordo Hermeticus Aurorae Aureae ), more commonly the Golden Dawn ( Aurora Aurea ), was a secret society devoted to the study and practice of occult Hermeticism and metaphysics during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Known as a magical order , the Hermetic Order of

8343-494: The most of the present life, in all respects, then the next life is more or less certainly going to benefit from the process, and so one may as well concentrate on the present". It is nevertheless a common belief among Wiccans that human beings have a spirit or soul that survives bodily death. Understandings of what this soul constitutes vary among different traditions, with the Feri tradition of witchcraft, for instance, having adopted

8446-752: The name Isis-Urania, while Felkin and other London members formed the Stella Matutina . Yeats remained in the Stella Matutina until 1921, while Brodie-Innes continued his Amen-Ra membership in Edinburgh. Once Mathers realised that reconciliation was impossible, he made efforts to reestablish himself in London. The Bradford and Weston-super-Mare temples remained loyal to him, but their numbers were few. He then appointed Edward Berridge as his representative. According to Francis King, historical evidence shows that there were "twenty three members of

8549-443: The natural world, for instance as genius loci , fairies , and elementals . In other cases, such beliefs are more idiosyncratic and atypical; Wiccan Sybil Leek for instance endorsed a belief in angels . Belief in the afterlife varies among Wiccans and does not occupy a central place within the religion. As the historian Ronald Hutton remarked, "the instinctual position of most [Wiccans] ... seems to be that if one makes

8652-738: The original Gardnerian God/Goddess duotheistic structure but have adopted deity forms other than that of the Horned God and Mother Goddess. For instance, the God has been interpreted as the Oak King and the Holly King , as well as the Sun God, Son/Lover God, and Vegetation God. He has also been seen in the roles of the Leader of the Wild Hunt and the Lord of Death. The Goddess is often portrayed as

8755-565: The path evolved from Western esotericism , developed in England during the first half of the 20th century, and was introduced to the public in 1954 by Gerald Gardner , a retired British civil servant . Wicca draws upon ancient pagan and 20th-century Hermetic motifs for theological and ritual purposes. Doreen Valiente joined Gardner in the 1950s, further building Wicca's liturgical tradition of beliefs, principles, and practices, disseminated through published books. Many variations of

8858-478: The practice of magic , several scholars have referred to it as a "magico-religion". Wicca is also a form of Western esotericism , and more specifically a part of the esoteric current known as occultism . Academics like Wouter Hanegraaff and Tanya Luhrmann have categorised Wicca as part of the New Age , although other academics, and many Wiccans themselves, dispute this categorisation. Although recognised as

8961-536: The present. This theology derived from Egyptologist Margaret Murray's claims about the witch-cult in her book The Witch-Cult in Western Europe published by Oxford University Press in 1921; she claimed that this cult had venerated a Horned God at the time of the Early Modern witch trials, but centuries before it had also worshipped a Mother Goddess. This duotheistic Horned God/Mother Goddess structure

9064-420: The religion have grown and evolved over time, associated with a number of diverse lineages, sects , and denominations , referred to as traditions , each with its own organisational structure and level of centralisation . Given its broadly decentralised nature, disagreements arise over the boundaries that define Wicca. Some traditions, collectively referred to as British Traditional Wicca (BTW), strictly follow

9167-502: The sacred space. In constructing his ritual system, Gardner drew upon older forms of ceremonial magic, in particular, those found in the writings of Aleister Crowley. The classical ritual scheme in British Traditional Wicca traditions is: These rites often include a special set of magical tools . These usually include a knife called an athame , a wand , a pentacle and a chalice , but other tools include

9270-578: The similar terminology of " left-hand path " to describe malevolent magic, and " right-hand path " to describe magic performed with good intentions; terminology that had originated with the occultist Helena Blavatsky in the 19th century. Some modern Wiccans, however, have stopped using the white/black magic and left/right-hand-path dichotomies, arguing for instance that the colour black should not necessarily have any associations with evil. Scholars of religion Rodney Stark and William Bainbridge claimed in 1985 that Wicca had "reacted to secularisation by

9373-458: The spirits of the deceased, a belief adopted from Spiritualism . Many Wiccans believe in magic , a manipulative force exercised through the practice of " spellcraft ". Many Wiccans agree with the definition of magic offered by ceremonial magicians , such as Aleister Crowley , who declared that magic was "the science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with will", while another ceremonial magician, MacGregor Mathers stated that it

9476-402: The subconscious that could be evoked in ritual. It was for this reason, she said "The Goddess and God manifest to us in dream and vision". Wiccans often believe that the gods are not perfect and can be argued with. Many Wiccans also adopt a more explicitly polytheistic or animistic world-view of the universe as being replete with spirit-beings. In many cases these spirits are associated with

9579-592: The two, and he accepted. Mathers and Westcott have been credited with developing the ritual outlines in the Cipher Manuscripts into a workable format. Mathers, however, is generally credited with the design of the curriculum and rituals of the Second Order, which he called the Rosae Rubae et Aureae Crucis ("Ruby Rose and Golden Cross" or the RR et AC ). In October 1887, Westcott claimed to have written to

9682-507: The view that the Goddess is not an entity with a literal existence, but rather a Jungian archetype. As well as pantheism and duotheism , many Wiccans accept the concept of polytheism , thereby believing that there are many different deities . Some accept the view espoused by the occultist Dion Fortune that "all gods are one god, and all goddesses are one goddess" – that is that the gods and goddesses of all cultures are, respectively, aspects of one supernal God and Goddess. With this mindset,

9785-409: The whole of the religion rather than to a specific tradition. In following decades, members of certain traditions – those known as British Traditional Wicca – began claiming that only they should be called "Wiccan", and that other traditions must not use it. From the late 1980s onwards, various books propagating Wicca were published that again used the former, broader definition of the word. Thus, by

9888-402: The wider culture", one in which female practitioners can "redefine and empower themselves". Wiccan rituals usually take place in private. The Reclaiming tradition has utilised its rituals for political purposes. Practice in Wicca (including, as an example, matters such as the varying attributions of the elements to different directions discussed in the preceding section) varies widely due to

9991-447: The witch because she is imagined as powerful - she can make people sleep for one hundred years, she can see the future, she can curse and kill as well as heal   ... and of course, she can turn people into frogs!" Pearson says that Wicca "provides a framework in which the image of oneself as a witch can be explored and brought into a modern context". Identifying as a witch also enables Wiccans to link themselves with those persecuted in

10094-577: The witch trials of the Early Modern period, often referred to by Wiccans as "the Burning Times". Various practitioners have claimed that as many as nine million people were executed as witches in the Early Modern period, thus drawing comparisons with the killing of six million Jews in the Holocaust and presenting themselves, as modern witches, as "persecuted minorities". Bide the Wiccan laws ye must, in perfect love and perfect trust ... Mind

10197-627: Was "the science of the control of the secret forces of nature". Many Wiccans believe magic to be a law of nature, as yet misunderstood or disregarded by contemporary science, and as such they do not view it as being supernatural , but a part of what Leo Martello calls the "super powers that reside in the natural". Some Wiccans believe that magic is simply making full use of the five senses to achieve surprising results, whilst other Wiccans do not claim to know how magic works, merely believing that it does because they believe they have observed it to be so. During ritual practices, which are often staged in

10300-437: Was dead and that her companions did not approve of the founding of the Order and no further contact was to be made. If the founders were to contact the Secret Chiefs , apparently, it had to be done on their own. In 1892, Mathers professed that a link to the Secret Chiefs had been established. Subsequently, he supplied rituals for the Second Order. The rituals were based on the tradition of the tomb of Christian Rosenkreuz , and

10403-427: Was described as follows: A lot of the women ... were there in groups — mothers and daughters, friends, colleagues. Some arrived solo and struck up conversations with other women or hiked in solitude. Wicca Wicca ( English: / ˈ w ɪ k ə / ), also known as " The Craft ", is a modern pagan , syncretic , earth-centered religion . Considered a new religious movement by scholars of religion ,

10506-429: Was embraced by Gardner – who claimed that it had Stone Age roots – and remains the underlying theological basis to his Gardnerian tradition. Gardner claimed that the names of these deities were to be kept secret within the tradition, although in 1964 they were publicly revealed to be Cernunnos and Aradia; the secret Gardnerian deity names were subsequently changed. Although different Wiccans attribute different traits to

10609-579: Was that of the Secret Chiefs , who were said to be highly skilled; they supposedly directed the activities of the lower two orders by spirit communication with the Chiefs of the Second Order. The foundational documents of the original Order of the Golden Dawn, known as the Cipher Manuscripts , are written in English using the Trithemius cipher . The manuscripts give the specific outlines of

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