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62-795: In 1978, workers at an electric company accidentally discovered a large stone relief depicting Coyolxāuhqui in Mexico City. The discovery of the Coyolxāuhqui stone led to large-scale excavation, directed by Eduardo Matos Moctezuma , to unearth the Huēyi Teōcalli (Templo Mayor in Spanish). The prominent position of the Coyolxāuhqui stone suggests the importance of her defeat by the Centzonhuītznāhua in Aztec religion and national identity. On

124-463: A "frame" at the original level around the edge of the relief, or place a head in a hemispherical recess in the block (see Roman example in gallery). Though essentially very similar to Egyptian sunk relief, but with a background space at the lower level around the figure, the term would not normally be used of such works. It is also used for carving letters (typically om mani padme hum ) in the mani stones of Tibetan Buddhism . Sunk relief technique

186-676: A drill rather than chisels , enabling and encouraging compositions extremely crowded with figures, like the Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus (250–260 CE). These are also seen in the enormous strips of reliefs that wound around Roman triumphal columns . The sarcophagi in particular exerted a huge influence on later Western sculpture. The European Middle Ages tended to use high relief for all purposes in stone, though like Ancient Roman sculpture , their reliefs were typically not as high as in Ancient Greece. Very high relief re-emerged in

248-647: A few larger caskets like the Casket with Scenes of Romances (Walters 71264) in Baltimore , Maryland , in the United States. Originally they were very often painted in bright colours. Reliefs can be impressed by stamps onto clay, or the clay pressed into a mould bearing the design, as was usual with the mass-produced terra sigillata of Ancient Roman pottery . Decorative reliefs in plaster or stucco may be much larger; this form of architectural decoration

310-547: A gem seal, perhaps as sculptors trained in the Greek tradition attempted to use traditional Egyptian conventions. Small-scale reliefs have been carved in various materials, notably ivory , wood, and wax. Reliefs are often found in decorative arts such as ceramics and metalwork ; these are less often described as "reliefs" than as "in relief". Small bronze reliefs are often in the form of "plaques" or plaquettes , which may be set in furniture or framed, or just kept as they are,

372-464: A group of workers for the Mexico City electric power company came across a large shield-shaped stone covered in reliefs while digging. The stone they uncovered depicts the narrative of Coyolxāuhqui's defeat at Coatepec, shown at left. The discovery renewed the interest in excavating the ancient city of Tenochtitlán underneath Mexico City . This led to the excavation of the Huēyi Teōcalli ( Templo Mayor ), directed by Eduardo Matos Moctezuma . This relief

434-640: A large proportion of the survivals of portable secular art from Late Antiquity . In the Gothic period the carving of ivory reliefs became a considerable luxury industry in Paris and other centres. As well as small diptychs and triptychs with densely packed religious scenes, usually from the New Testament , secular objects, usually in a lower relief, were also produced. These were often round mirror-cases, combs, handles, and other small items, but included

496-492: A popular form for European collectors, especially in the Renaissance. Various modelling techniques are used, such repoussé ("pushed-back") in metalwork, where a thin metal plate is shaped from behind using various metal or wood punches, producing a relief image. Casting has also been widely used in bronze and other metals. Casting and repoussé are often used in concert in to speed up production and add greater detail to

558-527: A revival in the 20th century, being popular on buildings in Art Deco and related styles, which borrowed from the ancient low reliefs now available in museums. Some sculptors, including Eric Gill , have adopted the "squashed" depth of low relief in works that are actually free-standing. Mid-relief, "half-relief" or mezzo-rilievo is somewhat imprecisely defined, and the term is not often used in English,

620-453: A single figure; accordingly some writers prefer to avoid all distinctions. The opposite of relief sculpture is counter-relief , intaglio , or cavo-rilievo , where the form is cut into the field or background rather than rising from it; this is very rare in monumental sculpture . Hyphens may or may not be used in all these terms, though they are rarely seen in "sunk relief" and are usual in " bas-relief " and "counter-relief". Works in

682-594: A single large stone, 3.25 meters in diameter. Aztec historian Richard Townsend describes it as one of Mesoamerican art's most powerfully expressive sculptures, using "an assurance of design and a technical virtuosity not previously seen at the pyramids." The stone was likely created under the rule of Axayacatl (1469–1481). On the disk, Coyolxāuhqui lies on her back, with her head, arms, and legs severed from her body. Her head faces upwards, away from her torso and in profile view, with her mouth open. Her dismembered torso lies flat on her back. Her breasts sag downward. Her body

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744-617: A skull tied to a belt of snakes around her waist and an ear tab showing the Mexica year sign. Snake, skull, and earth monster imagery surround her. In the image to the right, which represents the original colors of the stone, Coyolxāuhqui's yellow body lies before a red background. Bright blue colors her headdress and various details in the carving. White bones emerge from the scalloped, dismembered body parts. The double-headed serpent , also known as Maquizcoatl, were negative omens that could indicate death. Associated with Huītzilōpōchtli, as it

806-630: Is a Mexican archaeologist . From 1978 to 1982 he directed excavations at the Templo Mayor , the remains of a major Aztec pyramid in central Mexico City . Matos Moctezuma graduated with a master's degree in archaeology from the National School of Anthropology and History and a master's degree in anthropology from the National Autonomous University of Mexico . He has excavated at archaeological sites in both

868-525: Is found in many styles of interiors in the post-Renaissance West, and in Islamic architecture . Many modern and contemporary artists such as Paul Gauguin , Ernst Barlach , Ernst Ludwig Kirchner , Pablo Picasso , Eric Gill , Jacob Epstein , Henry Moore , Claudia Cobizev , up to Ewald Matare have created reliefs. In particular low reliefs were often used in the 20th century on the outsides of buildings, where they are relatively easy to incorporate into

930-477: Is from the Latin verb relevare , to raise (lit. to lift back). To create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that the sculpted material has been raised above the background plane . When a relief is carved into a flat surface of stone (relief sculpture) or wood ( relief carving ), the field is actually lowered, leaving the unsculpted areas seeming higher. The approach requires a lot of chiselling away of

992-431: Is neatly yet dynamically organized within the circular composition. Scallop-shaped carvings line the points of decapitation and dismemberment at her neck, shoulders, and hip joints. In this representation, Coyolxāuhqui is nearly naked, barring her serpent loincloth. She wears only the ritual attire of bells in her hair, a bell symbol on her cheek, and a feathered headdress. These objects identify her as Coyolxauhqui. She wears

1054-475: Is not to be confused with "counter-relief" or intaglio as seen on engraved gem seals – where an image is fully modeled in a "negative" manner. The image goes into the surface, so that when impressed on wax it gives an impression in normal relief. However many engraved gems were carved in cameo or normal relief. A few very late Hellenistic monumental carvings in Egypt use full "negative" modelling as though on

1116-487: Is often used for the background areas of compositions with the main elements in low-relief, but its use over a whole (usually rather small) piece was effectively invented and perfected by the Italian Renaissance sculptor Donatello . In later Western art, until a 20th-century revival, low relief was used mostly for smaller works or combined with higher relief to convey a sense of distance, or to give depth to

1178-536: Is one of the best known Aztec monuments and one of the few great Aztec monuments to have been found fully in situ . The Coyolxāuhqui stone sat at the base of the stairs of the Huēyi Teōcalli, the primary temple of the Mexica in Tenochtitlan, on the side dedicated to Huitzilopochtli. The stone laid in the center of a platform that extended from the foot of the stairway. The temple is dedicated to Huītzilōpōchtli and

1240-424: Is therefore cheaper to produce, as less of the background needs to be removed in a carving, or less modelling is required. In the art of Ancient Egypt , Assyrian palace reliefs , and other ancient Near Eastern and Asian cultures, a consistent very low relief was commonly used for the whole composition. These images would usually be painted after carving, which helped define the forms; today the paint has worn off in

1302-520: The Alhambra ), Rome, and Europe from at least the Renaissance, as well as probably elsewhere. However, it needs very good conditions to survive long in unmaintained buildings – Roman decorative plasterwork is mainly known from Pompeii and other sites buried by ash from Mount Vesuvius . Low relief was relatively rare in Western medieval art , but may be found, for example in wooden figures or scenes on

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1364-480: The Khmer Empire . High relief (or altorilievo , from Italian ) is where in general more than half the mass of the sculpted figure projects from the background. Indeed, the most prominent elements of the composition, especially heads and limbs, are often completely undercut, detaching them from the field. The parts of the subject that are seen are normally depicted at their full depth, unlike low relief where

1426-611: The Maya area and in central Mexico . In addition to the Templo Mayor project, Matos has directed major fieldwork projects at the sites of Tula and Teotihuacan . He has also made important contributions to the study of the history of archaeology in Mexico. Matos Moctezuma was director of the Templo Mayor project from 1978 to 1982, one of the most important archaeological projects in the world. Several seasons of excavations uncovered

1488-1044: The 1,460 panels of the 9th-century Borobudur temple in Central Java , Indonesia , narrating the Jataka tales or lives of the Buddha . Other examples are low reliefs narrating the Ramayana Hindu epic in Prambanan temple, also in Java, in Cambodia , the temples of Angkor , with scenes including the Samudra manthan or "Churning the Ocean of Milk" at the 12th-century Angkor Wat , and reliefs of apsaras . At Bayon temple in Angkor Thom there are scenes of daily life in

1550-602: The 16th century it was used for large figures (many also using high relief) at the Chateau of Fontainebleau , which were imitated more crudely elsewhere, for example in the Elizabethan Hardwick Hall . Shallow-relief, in Italian rilievo stiacciato or rilievo schicciato ("squashed relief"), is a very shallow relief, which merges into engraving in places, and can be hard to read in photographs. It

1612-561: The Centzonhuītznāhua, led by Coyolxāuhqui, decided to kill Coatlicue. As they prepared for battle and gathered at the base of Coatepec, one of the Centzonhuītznāhua, Quauitlicac, warned Huītzilōpōchtli of the attack while he was in utero. Hearing of the attack, the pregnant Cōātlīcue miraculously gave birth to a fully grown and armed Huītzilōpōchtli who sprang from her womb, wielding "his shield, teueuelli , and his darts and his blue dart thrower, called xinatlatl ." Huītzilōpōchtli killed Coyolxāuhqui , beheading her and throwing her body down

1674-841: The Government of France . He has also received Venezuela 's Andrés Bello Award, Harvard University 's Henry B. Nicholson Medal and an honorary doctorate in science by the University of Colorado . He is also a member of the German Archaeological Institute, the Archaeological Institute of America , the Mexican Society of Geography and Statistics, the Mexican Academy of History and many other professional organizations. He

1736-525: The Renaissance, and was especially used in wall-mounted funerary art and later on Neoclassical pediments and public monuments. In the Buddhist and Hindu art of India and Southeast Asia, high relief can also be found, although it is not as common as low to mid-reliefs. Famous examples of Indian high reliefs can be found at the Khajuraho temples, with voluptuous, twisting figures that often illustrate

1798-420: The background, which takes a long time. On the other hand, a relief saves forming the rear of a subject, and is less fragile and more securely fixed than a sculpture in the round, especially one of a standing figure where the ankles are a potential weak point, particularly in stone. In other materials such as metal, clay, plaster stucco , ceramics or papier-mâché the form can be simply added to or raised up from

1860-579: The background. From the Parthenon Frieze onwards, many single figures in large monumental sculpture have heads in high relief, but their lower legs are in low relief. The slightly projecting figures created in this way work well in reliefs that are seen from below, and reflect that the heads of figures are usually of more interest to both artist and viewer than the legs or feet. As unfinished examples from various periods show, raised reliefs, whether high or low, were normally "blocked out" by marking

1922-599: The background. Monumental bronze reliefs are made by casting . There are different degrees of relief depending on the degree of projection of the sculpted form from the field, for which the Italian and French terms are still sometimes used in English. The full range includes high relief (Italian alto-rilievo , French haut-relief ), where more than 50% of the depth is shown and there may be undercut areas, mid-relief (Italian mezzo-rilievo ), low relief (Italian basso-rilievo , French: bas-relief ), and shallow-relief (Italian rilievo schiacciato ), where

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1984-465: The battle on Mount Coatepetel. Matos Moctezuma has argued that the section of the Huēyi Teōcalli dedicated to Huītzilōpōchtli represents the sacred mountain of Coatepec where Huītzilōpōchtli was born and Coyolxāuhqui died. The Coyolxāuhqui stone was located in what was named Phase IV of the Templo Mayor during its excavation. The artist of the Coyolxāuhqui stone carved this disk in high relief out of

2046-447: The composition, especially for scenes with many figures and a landscape or architectural background, in the same way that lighter colours are used for the same purpose in painting. Thus figures in the foreground are sculpted in high-relief, those in the background in low-relief. Low relief may use any medium or technique of sculpture, stone carving and metal casting being most common. Large architectural compositions all in low relief saw

2108-750: The construction history of this central temple of the Aztec Empire , where numerous artefacts were unearthed, overturning scholarly understanding of Aztec religion , empire, and ideology. Matos Moctezuma oversaw the creation of the Templo Mayor Museum in which these spectacular finds are displayed, and he directed the Museum for many years. 1987 saw the creation of the Urban Archaeology Program (directed by Matos) in which excavations in downtown Mexico City were expanded beyond

2170-411: The elements seen are "squashed" flatter. High relief thus uses essentially the same style and techniques as free-standing sculpture, and in the case of a single figure gives largely the same view as a person standing directly in front of a free-standing statue would have. All cultures and periods in which large sculptures were created used this technique in monumental sculpture and architecture. Most of

2232-522: The erotic Kamasutra positions. In the 9th-century Prambanan temple, Central Java , high reliefs of Lokapala devatas , the guardians of deities of the directions, are found. The largest high relief sculpture in the world is the Stone Mountain Confederate Memorial in the U.S. state of Georgia , which was cut 42 feet deep into the mountain, and measures 90 feet in height, 190 feet in width, and lies 400 feet above

2294-546: The feast of Panquetzaliztli (Banner Raising). The feast takes place in the 15th month of the Aztec calendar and is dedicated to Huītzilōpōchtli. During the ceremony, captives’ hearts were cut out and their bodies were thrown down the temple stairs to the Coyolxāuhqui stone. There, they were decapitated and dismembered, just as Coyolxāuhqui was by Huītzilōpōchtli on Coatepec. [REDACTED] Media related to Coyolxauhqui at Wikimedia Commons Eduardo Matos Moctezuma Eduardo Matos Moctezuma (born December 11, 1940) 

2356-742: The field of Mexican archaeology . For the National Institute of Anthropology and History, he has directed the Department of Pre-Hispanic Monuments, the Archaeology Council, and the National Museum of Anthropology and History. He has also worked to explain archaeology and Aztec civilization to the public through lectures, writings, and museum exhibits, and was an interviewee for the Harvard Gazette in 2018 on

2418-524: The final relief. In stone, as well as engraved gems, larger hardstone carvings in semi-precious stones have been highly prestigious since ancient times in many Eurasian cultures. Reliefs in wax were produced at least from the Renaissance . Carved ivory reliefs have been used since ancient times, and because the material, though expensive, cannot usually be reused, they have a relatively high survival rate, and for example consular diptychs represent

2480-539: The front the small variations in depth register as a three-dimensional image. Other versions distort depth much less. The term comes from the Italian basso rilievo via the French bas-relief ( French pronunciation: [baʁəljɛf] ), both meaning "low relief". The former is now a very old-fashioned term in English, and the latter term is becoming so. Low relief is a technique which requires less work, and

2542-538: The great majority of surviving examples, but minute, invisible remains of paint can usually be discovered through chemical means. The Ishtar Gate of Babylon , now in Berlin, has low reliefs of large animals formed from moulded bricks, glazed in colour. Plaster, which made the technique far easier, was widely used in Egypt and the Near East from antiquity into Islamic times (latterly for architectural decoration, as at

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2604-467: The ground. Sunk or sunken relief is largely restricted to the art of Ancient Egypt where it is very common, becoming after the Amarna period of Ahkenaten the dominant type used, as opposed to low relief. It had been used earlier, but mainly for large reliefs on external walls, and for hieroglyphs and cartouches . The image is made by cutting the relief sculpture itself into a flat surface to enhance

2666-450: The immediate site of the Templo Mayor. This research continues today. Eduardo Matos Moctezuma has published nearly 500 works during his career. His books include technical archaeological reports, interpretive works on archaeological finds, scholarly studies in the history of archaeology, exhibition catalogs, and collections of chapters. In addition to his work at the Templo Mayor and its museum, Matos Moctezuma has held many important posts in

2728-472: The impression of three-dimensionality. In a simpler form, the images are usually mostly linear in nature, like hieroglyphs, but in most cases the figure itself is in low relief, but set within a sunken area shaped round the image, so that the relief never rises beyond the original flat surface. In some cases the figures and other elements are in a very low relief that does not rise to the original surface, but others are modeled more fully, with some areas rising to

2790-605: The insides of the folding wings of multi-panel altarpieces . The revival of low relief, which was seen as a classical style, begins early in the Renaissance; the Tempio Malatestiano in Rimini , a pioneering classicist building, designed by Leon Battista Alberti around 1450, uses low reliefs by Agostino di Duccio inside and on the external walls. Since the Renaissance plaster has been very widely used for indoor ornamental work such as cornices and ceilings, but in

2852-881: The many grand figure reliefs in Ancient Greek sculpture used a very "high" version of high relief, with elements often fully free of the background, and parts of figures crossing over each other to indicate depth. The metopes of the Parthenon have largely lost their fully rounded elements, except for heads, showing the advantages of relief in terms of durability. High relief has remained the dominant form for reliefs with figures in Western sculpture, also being common in Indian temple sculpture. Smaller Greek sculptures such as private tombs, and smaller decorative areas such as friezes on large buildings, more often used low relief. Hellenistic and Roman sarcophagus reliefs were cut with

2914-559: The open air (if inside caves, whether natural or human-made, they are more likely to be called "rock-cut"). This type is found in many cultures, in particular those of the Ancient Near East and Buddhist countries. A stele is a single standing stone; many of these carry reliefs. The distinction between high and low relief is somewhat subjective, and the two are very often combined in a single work. In particular, most later "high reliefs" contain sections in low relief, usually in

2976-453: The original surface. This method minimizes the work removing the background, while allowing normal relief modelling. The technique is most successful with strong sunlight to emphasise the outlines and forms by shadow, as no attempt was made to soften the edge of the sunk area, leaving a face at a right-angle to the surface all around it. Some reliefs, especially funerary monuments with heads or busts from ancient Rome and later Western art, leave

3038-428: The outline of the figure and reducing the background areas to the new background level, work no doubt performed by apprentices (see gallery). A low relief is a projecting image with a shallow overall depth, for example used on coins, on which all images are in low relief. In the lowest reliefs the relative depth of the elements shown is completely distorted, and if seen from the side the image makes no sense, but from

3100-463: The plane is only very slightly lower than the sculpted elements. There is also sunk relief , which was mainly restricted to Ancient Egypt ( see below ). However, the distinction between high relief and low relief is the clearest and most important, and these two are generally the only terms used to discuss most work. The definition of these terms is somewhat variable, and many works combine areas in more than one of them, rarely sliding between them in

3162-473: The rain deity Tlāloc . Scholars believe that Mexica artists and builders incorporated images of the Coatepec narrative into the Huēyi Teōcalli during a major renovation from the years 4 Reed to 8 Reed (1483–1487) under the rule of Ahuitzotl. Eduardo Matos Moctezuma first noted that the monument's placement at the bottom of the Templo Mayor commemorated the history of Huītzilōpōchtli defeating Coyolxāuhqui in

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3224-417: The round". Most ancient architectural reliefs were originally painted, which helped to define forms in low relief. The subject of reliefs is for convenient reference assumed in this article to be usually figures, but sculpture in relief often depicts decorative geometrical or foliage patterns, as in the arabesques of Islamic art , and may be of any subject. Rock reliefs are those carved into solid rock in

3286-499: The side of Coatepec: "He pierced Coyolxauhqui, and then quickly struck off her head. It stopped there at the edge of Coatepetl. And her body came falling below; it fell breaking to pieces; in various places her arms, her legs, her body each fell." As for his brothers, the Centzonhuītznāhua, he scattered them in all directions from the top of Coatepec. He pursued them relentlessly, and those who escaped went south. Some authors have written that Huītzilōpōchtli tossed Coyolxāuhqui's head into

3348-633: The sky, where it became the Moon , so that his mother would be comforted in seeing her daughter in the sky every night, and that her scattered brothers became the Southern Star deities. It is difficult to verify these variations of the narrative with 16th century sources. The Templo Mayor stone disk served as a cautionary sign to foes of Tenochtitlán. This is exemplified by the dismemberment of her body and its restraints. The display of Coyolxāuhqui's severed head served this same purpose differently, as it

3410-433: The summit of Coatepec ("Serpent Mountain") sat a shrine for Coatlicue, the maternal Earth deity. One day, as she swept her shrine, a ball of hummingbird feathers fell from the sky. She "snatched them up; she placed them at her waist." Thus, she became pregnant with the deity Huītzilōpōchtli. Her miraculous pregnancy embarrassed Coatlicue's other children, including her eldest daughter, Coyolxāuhqui. Hearing of her pregnancy,

3472-463: The technique are described as "in relief", and, especially in monumental sculpture , the work itself is "a relief". Reliefs are common throughout the world on the walls of buildings and a variety of smaller settings, and a sequence of several panels or sections of relief may represent an extended narrative. Relief is more suitable for depicting complicated subjects with many figures and very active poses, such as battles, than free-standing "sculpture in

3534-542: The topic of ancient Aztec religion. Professor Matos has received many honors and awards, both in Mexico and in other countries. The most notable is election to the Colegio Nacional , a prestigious group of the top scholars and artists in Mexico. He has been distinguished as a Chevalier dans l'Ordre des Palmes Académiques , Chevalier de l'Ordre National du Mérite and given the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by

3596-725: The works usually being described as low relief instead. The typical traditional definition is that only up to half of the subject projects, and no elements are undercut or fully disengaged from the background field. The depth of the elements shown is normally somewhat distorted. Mid-relief is probably the most common type of relief found in the Hindu and Buddhist art of India and Southeast Asia . The low to mid-reliefs of 2nd-century BCE to 6th-century CE Ajanta Caves and 5th- to 10th-century Ellora Caves in India are rock reliefs. Most of these reliefs are used to narrate sacred scriptures, such as

3658-501: Was a warning for the fate of those who crossed the Mexica people. Richard Townsend notes that the disk represented the defeat of the Aztecs' enemies. Sacrificial victims crossed this stone before walking up the stairs of the temple to the block in front of Huītzilōpōchtli's shrine. Scholars also believe that the decapitation and destruction of Coyolxāuhqui are reflected in the pattern of the warrior ritual sacrifice , particularly during

3720-625: Was awarded the National Science and Arts Prize in 2007. In 2017, the Eduardo Matos Moctezuma Lecture Series at Harvard University were announced. In 2022 he was awarded the Princess of Asturias Award in the category "Social Sciences". Relief Relief is a sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces remain attached to a solid background of the same material. The term relief

3782-406: Was different than the typical full-body sculptures and art created by the Mexica. Gold ornaments adorn the face of Coyolxāuhqui in the form of earrings and bell pendants. The ear ornaments have trapeze-ray signs symbolic of the tail of Xiuhcoatl , the fire serpent. This makes them identifiers as they create a direct tie to Huītzilōpōchtli, who used Xiuhcoatl as his weapon. On February 21, 1978,

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3844-469: Was one of his names, creates a tie between the siblings. Coyolxāuhqui's joints being restrained by Maquizcoatl is both symbolic of her duty to serve a warning as well as identifying. The Coyolxāuhqui stone would have served as a cautionary sign to the enemies of Tenochtitlán. According to Aztec history, female deities such as Coyolxāuhqui were the first Aztec enemies to die in war. In this, Coyolxāuhqui came to represent all conquered enemies. Her violent death

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