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60-458: The Elementary Education Act 1870 ( 33 & 34 Vict. c. 75) had created local school boards to be responsible for the provision of elementary education. Some school boards also established classes for higher classes. These "higher tops" and even separate schools were provided for older pupils who showed ability and commitment, along with new types of evening school for adults. This competition angered churches who were lobbying for public money for

120-675: A Liberal MP, proposed for religious teaching in the new state schools to be non-denominational and so restricted in practice to learning the Bible and a few hymns. The Cabinet accepted that amendment on 14 June 1870, and Gladstone proposed it to the House of Commons two days later. It became the famous Cowper-Temple clause (Section 14 of the Act). HCG Matthew , the editor of Gladstone's diaries, believes that compromise to have hurt Gladstone more deeply than any other that he had to make. However, on 30 June 1870,

180-519: A Member of Parliament, was a prominent campaigner on the issue. However, like many grassroots Liberals, he opposed the bill because it was open to the possibility of subsidising Church of England schools with local ratepayers ' money. It was one of the Elementary Education Acts 1870 to 1893 . The Act was passed partly in response to political factors, such as the need to educate the citizens who were recently enfranchised by

240-603: A basic outlook on (Christian) religion, singing, reading and writing based on a regulated, state-provided curriculum of text books. The teachers, often former soldiers, were asked to cultivate silk worms to make a living besides contributions from the local citizens and municipalities. In Austria , Hungary and the Lands of the Bohemian Crown (Czech lands), mandatory primary education was introduced by Empress Maria Theresa in 1774. Compulsory school attendance based on

300-588: A bill, as was Henry Bruce ( Home Secretary ). Although Gladstone was sympathetic to the argument that better education had helped the Prussians to their unexpected victory in the Austro-Prussian War (as he remarked, "Undoubtedly, the conduct of the campaign, on the German side, has given a marked triumph to the cause of systematic popular education"), he was a devout Anglican and did not want to see

360-467: A central authority could lead to indoctrination . Some poor people feared that mass education would equip people to defraud or mislead those without an education. Another reason was the vested interests of the Church and other social groups. The churches were funded by the state with public money to provide education for the poor and did not want to lose that influence on youth. It had been deduced from

420-544: A certain living distance from a state school, or having written consent from a county superintendent to receive private instruction. The law was passed by popular vote but was later ruled unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court in Pierce v. Society of Sisters , determining that "a child is not a mere creature of the state." This case settled the dispute about whether or not private schools had

480-523: A county responsibility. State control increased the number of school inspectors after 1872. Medical and dental inspections were introduced after 1908, though reaching remote schools proved difficult. The leaving age was raised to 14 in 1883. The new system was co-ordinated nationally by the Scotch Education Department with the curriculum emphasising the teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic (the three ‘Rs’). The churches made

540-545: A crucial contribution to the new system by handing over their schools without charge to the School Boards. At this time, the Free Church supported 548 schools across Scotland together with 584 teachers. The early 2000s rock band The Cooper Temple Clause was named after the provision familiar to generations of history students. Mass education Compulsory education refers to a period of education that

600-486: A curriculum focused on religious and moral instruction. The first set of Jules Ferry Laws, passed in 1881, extended the central government's role in education well beyond the provisions of the Guizot Law, and made primary education free for girls and boys. In 1882, the second set of Jules Ferry Laws made education compulsory for girls and boys until the age of 13. In 1936, the upper age limit was raised to 14. In 1959, it

660-404: A direct response to this Education Act, the founding father of British popular journalism, George Newnes , began his career in publishing in 1881 when he founded Tit-Bits . This was a weekly magazine which took the form of a mini-encyclopedia of information to appeal to the new generations of young readers. Tit-Bits reached a circulation of 700,000 by the end of the 19th century and paved

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720-673: A legal obligation to ensure that their children were educated. Following continued campaigning by the National Education League, the Elementary Education Act 1880 ( 43 & 44 Vict. c. 23) ("the Mundella Act") required attendance to the age of 10 everywhere in England and Wales, with various exemptions. In 1891, elementary schooling became free in both board and voluntary (church) schools. As

780-698: A new Education Act 1696 re-established the compulsory provision of a school in every parish with a system of fines, sequestration, and direct government implementation as a means of enforcement where required, making Scotland the first country with national compulsory education. In the United States, following Luther and other Reformers, the Separatist Congregationalists who founded Plymouth Colony in 1620, obliged parents to teach their children how to read and write. The Massachusetts School Laws , three legislative acts enacted in

840-591: A reasonable building led by a qualified head teacher. 62 temporary prefabricated buildings were constructed in London. Newly certified teachers like Elizabeth Burgwin became the head of a temporary school in 1874 until she and the staff moved to the newly constructed Orange Street Girls' School in Southwark that same year. Rural boards, run by parishes, had only one or two schools to manage, but industrial town and city boards had many. Rural boards favoured economy and

900-503: A school for everyone paid for by parishioners. The Parliament of Scotland confirmed this with the Education Act 1633 and created a local land-based tax to provide the required funding. The required majority support of parishioners, however, provided a tax evasion loophole which heralded the Education Act 1646 . The turmoil of the age meant that in 1661 there was a temporary reversion to the less compulsory 1633 position. However,

960-626: A stronger amendment by Jacob Bright , a younger brother of John Bright , insisting that religious teaching not be for or against any denomination, was defeated by 251 votes to 130. The supporters of the amendment were all Liberals, and the government won only with Conservative support. Section 7 also gave parents the right to withdraw their children from any religious instruction provided in board schools and to withdraw their children at any time to attend any other religious instruction of their choice. Secondly, parents still had to pay fees for their children to attend school. Section 25 gave school boards

1020-493: Is a trend of mass education being introduced in the aftermath of civil wars. According to a 2022 study, nondemocracies frequently introduced mass education to teach obedience and respect for authority. Compulsory education was not unheard of in ancient times. However, instances are generally tied to royal, religious or military organizations—substantially different from modern notions of compulsory education. Plato 's The Republic ( c.  424  – c.  348 BCE )

1080-460: Is credited with having popularized the concept of compulsory education in Western intellectual thought. Plato's rationale was straightforward. The ideal city would require ideal individuals, and ideal individuals would require an ideal education. The popularization of Plato's ideas began with the wider Renaissance and the translation of Plato's works by Marsilio Ficino (1434–1499), culminating in

1140-757: Is necessary and important for every citizen. Throughout history, compulsory education laws have typically been the latest form of education intervention enacted by states. In general, governments in Europe and Latin America began to intervene in primary education an average of 107 years before democratization as measured by Polity . Compulsory education laws, despite being one of the last measures introduced by central governments seeking to regulate primary education, nevertheless were implemented an average of 52 years before democratization as measured by Polity and 36 years before universal male suffrage. Historically, there

1200-424: Is required of all people and is imposed by the government . This education may take place at a registered school or at home or other places . Compulsory school attendance or compulsory schooling means that parents are obliged to send their children to a state-approved school. All countries except Bhutan , Papua New Guinea , Solomon Islands , and Vatican City have compulsory education laws. During

1260-595: The Board of Education established, by Minute dated 6 April 1900, a new system of " Higher elementary schools ". The subsequent Education Act 1902 (Balfour Act), which Morant drafted, created all-embracing local education authorities which had a wider remit and powers to provide public monies to the church schools. Morant became Permanent Secretary of the Board of Education in April 1903. This article relating to law in

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1320-1040: The Education Act 1633 , a similar act to the English Elementary Education Act was passed in 1872 for Scotland, the Education (Scotland) Act 1872 . It required compulsory attendance from the start. It allowed post-elementary schools, but not public funding of them. There were around 1,000 school boards in Scotland at the time they were eventually abolished. The 1872 Education Act brought in compulsory education for all children between 5 and 13, although fees still had to be paid until 1890. Teacher shortages continued and problems arose in areas where teachers who spoke no Gaelic attempted to teach children who had no English. Pupil-teachers could later qualify after attending Teacher Training College. Local school boards made sure sufficient schools were built and that children attended them. After 1918, this became

1380-465: The Enlightenment . The Enlightenment philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau , known for his own work on education (including Emile, or On Education ), said, 'To get a good idea of public education, read Plato's Republic. It is not a political treatise, as those who merely judge books by their title think, but it is the finest, most beautiful work on education ever written.' In Sparta boys between

1440-840: The Holy Roman Empire soon followed suit. In 1559, the German Duchy Württemberg established a compulsory education system for boys. In 1592, the German Duchy Palatine Zweibrücken became the first territory in the world with compulsory education for girls and boys, followed in 1598 by Strasbourg , then a free city of the Holy Roman Empire and now part of France . In Scotland , the School Establishment Act 1616 commanded every parish to establish

1500-623: The London School Board . The District Auditor – Cockerton – ruled that the London School Board could not use the rates to fund higher-grade classes in science and art. The London School Board unsuccessfully appealed twice. A new education act was needed. The Cockerton Judgement halted advanced, or secondary, teaching fostered by the more radical and enterprising School Boards. It prevented school boards from funding anything but elementary schools. As an interim measure,

1560-508: The Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1642, 1647, and 1648, are commonly regarded as the first steps toward compulsory education in the United States. The 1647 law, in particular, required every town having more than 50 families to hire a teacher, and every town of more than 100 families to establish a school. The Puritan zeal for learning was reflected in the early and rapid rise of educational institutions; e.g., Harvard College

1620-629: The Reform Act 1867 to vote "wisely". It also came about due to demands for reform from industrialists, who feared that Britain's competitive status in world trade, manufacture and improvement was being threatened by the lack of an effective education system. There were objections to the concept of universal education . One was that many people remained hostile to the idea of mass education . They claimed it would make labouring classes 'think' and thus attain class consciousness , possibly encouraging them to revolt. Others feared that handing children to

1680-692: The United Kingdom Census 1861 that out of 4.3 million children of primary school age in England & Wales, 1 million were in purely voluntary (church) schools and 1.3 million were in state aided voluntary schools but 2 million had no schooling. Lord Ripon ( Lord President of the Council ) and William Forster (Vice-President of the Council) were responsible for education in the Gladstone government of 1868–1874 and were keen to introduce

1740-530: The 1830s, and erect their own board schools or elementary schools . Section 74 of the Act empowered boards to create a by-law and to table it before Parliament to make attendance compulsory unless there was an excuse, such as sickness, living more than three miles from a school or having been certified as reaching a certain standard of education. In 1873, 40% of the population lived in compulsory attendance districts. All schools would be inspected by making use of

1800-493: The 1950s. China's nine-year compulsory education was formally established in 1986 as part of its economic modernization program. It was designed to promote "universalization", the closure of the education gap by economic development and between rural and urban areas by provision of safe and high-quality schools. The program initially faced shortages due to a huge population and weak economic foundation, but by 1999 primary and junior middle schools respectively served 90% and 85% of

1860-710: The Prussian model gradually spread to other countries. It was quickly adopted by the governments in Denmark-Norway and Sweden , and also in Finland , Estonia and Latvia within the Russian Empire , and later England and Wales and France . Due to population growth and the proliferation of compulsory education, UNESCO calculated in 2006 that over the subsequent 30 years, more people would receive formal education than in all prior human history. France

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1920-610: The United Kingdom , or its constituent jurisdictions, is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Elementary Education Act 1870 The Elementary Education Act 1870 ( 33 & 34 Vict. c. 75), commonly known as Forster's Education Act , set the framework for schooling of all children between the ages of 5 and 12 in England and Wales. It established local education authorities with defined powers, authorized public money to improve existing schools, and tried to frame conditions attached to this aid so as to earn

1980-466: The age 6 and 7 left their homes and were sent to military school. School courses were harsh and have been described as a "brutal training period". Between the age of 18 and 20, Spartan males had to pass a test that consisted of fitness, military ability, and leadership skills. A student's failure meant a forfeiture of citizenship ( perioidos ) and political rights. Passing was a rite of passage to manhood and citizenry, in which he would continue to serve in

2040-414: The board. The franchise was different from national elections since female householders could vote and stand for office. The boards financed themselves by a precept (a requisition) added to either the local poor rate or the municipal rate . They were also eligible to apply for capital funding in the form of a government loan. The boards could make grants to existing church schools, as had occurred since

2100-570: The building of board schools or divert the school rate funds into church schools. Many factory owners feared the removal of children as a source of cheap labour. However, with the simple mathematics and English that they were acquiring, factory owners now had workers who could read and make measurements. It is sometimes incorrectly claimed that the 1870 act forbid the use of the Welsh language at schools in Wales. The act does not mention Welsh and English

2160-411: The church schools, and some older grammar schools who were also having problems with finance. It was seen by leading conservatives as an unacceptable extension to local government, and an unacceptable use of the rates. In 1899, Sir John Gorst 's private secretary Sir Robert Morant (1863–1920) engineered a test case in which a School of Art in London complained of competition from evening classes run by

2220-415: The consequence of weak capacity to implement education policies or lack of information on the part of policymakers on how to promote student learning. In other situations, governments might be intentionally motivated to provide education for reasons that have nothing to do with improving the knowledge and skills of citizens. On the other hand, in countries with a republican system of government, being educated

2280-745: The establishment of compulsory education for boys and girls, first in regions that are now part of Germany , and later in Europe and in the United States . Martin Luther 's seminal text An die Ratsherren aller Städte deutschen Landes (To the Councillors of all Towns in German Countries, 1524) called for establishing compulsory schooling so that all parishioners would be able to read the Bible by themselves. The Protestant South-West of

2340-480: The existing Church of England schools absorbed into any kind of National Education system. Education was not a legislative priority after Irish Disestablishment and the First Irish Land Act . A bill was eventually introduced in the 1870 session although Gladstone was at least as concerned about the abolition of University Tests at the same time. Local authorities were required to make returns of

2400-439: The existing regime. The individual schools continued to be eligible for an annual government grant calculated on the basis of the inspection ('payment by results'). Two provisions of the Act became, for religious reasons, matters of contention within the governing Liberal Party. Firstly, nonconformists objected to their children being taught Anglican doctrine. As a compromise, William Cowper-Temple (pronounced "Cooper-Temple"),

2460-553: The first time. In areas served by school boards that had implemented by-laws requiring attendance, compulsory attendance until 13 was exempted if a child over 10 had been certified by the inspector as satisfying the required standard for that board. The standards required varied between 4th Standard (such as in Birmingham) and 6th Standard (such as in Bolton) . Although universal primary education had been established in Scotland by

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2520-586: The goodwill of managers. It has long been seen as a milestone in educational development, but recent commentators have stressed that it brought neither free nor compulsory education, and its importance has thus tended to be diminished rather than increased. The law was drafted by William Forster , a Liberal MP , and it was introduced on 17 February 1870 after campaigning by the National Education League , although not entirely to their requirements. In Birmingham, Joseph Chamberlain , not yet

2580-447: The institution of formal Jewish education in the 1st century AD, Ben Gamla instituted schools in every town and made formal education compulsory from age 6 to 8. The Aztec Triple Alliance , which ruled from 1428 to 1521 in what is now central Mexico , is considered to be the first state to implement a system of universal compulsory education, although earlier Nahua states may have had it as well. The Protestant Reformation prompted

2640-502: The late 18th and early 19th centuries, most schools in the United States did not mandate regular attendance. In many areas, students attended school for no more than three to four months out of the year. At the start of the 20th century, the purpose of compulsory education was to master physical skills which are necessary and can be contributed to the nation . It also instilled values of ethics and social communications abilities in teenagers, and it would allow immigrants to fit in

2700-527: The military and train as a soldier until the age of 60 when the soldier could retire to live with his family. Every parent in Judea since ancient times was required to teach their children at least informally. Over the centuries, as cities, towns and villages developed, a class of teachers called Rabbis evolved. According to the Talmud (tractate Bava Bathra 21a), which praises the sage Joshua ben Gamla with

2760-412: The national population. The following table indicates at what ages compulsory education starts and ends in different countries. The most common age for starting compulsory education is 6, but that varies between 3 and 8. While compulsory education is mostly seen as important and useful, compulsory schooling is seen by some as obsolete and counterproductive in today's world and has repeatedly been

2820-413: The number of children in their area and existing educational provision. That was done by comparing the results of a census of existing school places with the number of children of school age recorded in the census . If there was a shortfall, a school board for the district would be created. The boards were to provide elementary education for children aged 5–12 (inclusive). Board members were elected by

2880-460: The only way of meeting these needs was by the rapid development of a planned system of mass education.” Soviet schools “responded to the economic requirements of society” by emphasizing “basic formation in math, and polytechnic knowledge related to economic production.” The Soviet regime's deliberate expansion of mass education supremacy was what most impressed the U.S. education missions to the USSR in

2940-504: The parents were "unfit to have the children educated properly." In 1918, Mississippi became the last state to enact a compulsory attendance law. In 1922 an attempt was made by the voters of Oregon to enact the Oregon Compulsory Education Act , which would require all children between the ages of 8 and 16 to attend public schools , only leaving exceptions for mentally or physically unfit children, exceeding

3000-404: The power to pay the fees of poor children, including those attending voluntary (church) schools. Although few school boards actually did so, the provision caused great anger among nonconformists, who saw it as a new source of local ratepayers' money being spent on Church of England schools. A large conference was held at Manchester in 1872 to lead resistance to the section, and one of the campaigners

3060-476: The ratepayers under a system of cumulative voting . The number of members was determined by the size of the population of the district. Each voter could choose three or more members from a list of candidates, and those with the highest number of votes were chosen for the existing number of seats available. A voter could cast all their votes for one person. Known as 'plumping', that ensured that religious and later political minorities could ensure some representation on

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3120-482: The release of children for agricultural labour. Town boards tended to be more rigorous in their provisions, and by 1890, some had special facilities for gymnastics, art and crafts and domestic science. There were ongoing political clashes between the vested interests of Church, private schools and the National Education League followers. In some districts, the creation of boards was delayed by local vote. In others, church leaders managed to be voted onto boards and restrict

3180-648: The right to do business and educate within the United States. In the Soviet Union, a compulsory education provision law was implemented in 1930. State-provided education during this era was primarily focused on eradicating illiteracy. In line with the overall goals of the regime's Five Year Plans , the motivation behind education provision and literacy instruction was to ”train a new generation of technically skilled and scientifically literate citizens.” Industrial development needed more skilled workers of all kinds. No possible source of talent could be left untapped, and

3240-469: The unacquainted society of a new country. It is mostly used to advance the education of all citizens , minimize the number of students who stop going to school because of family economic reasons, and balance the education differences between rural and urban areas. The overall correlation between the level of access to education in a country and the skills of its student population is weak. This disconnect between education access and education quality may be

3300-798: The way for popular journalism. Most significantly, the Daily Mail was founded by Alfred Harmsworth , a contributor to Tit-Bits , and the Daily Express was launched by Arthur Pearson , who worked at Tit-Bits for five years after winning a competition to get a job on the magazine. The school boards were abolished by the Balfour Education Act 1902 , which replaced them with around 300 local education authorities (LEAs), by which time there were 5,700 board schools (2.6 million pupils) and 14,000 voluntary schools (3 million pupils). The LEAs remit included secondary education for

3360-637: Was assumed to be the language of instruction; as had been the case in Welsh day schools since early in the 19th century. A trend towards more use of Welsh at schools in Welsh-speaking areas had begun prior to the act and continued after it. The Act established the foundations of English elementary education although it was not taken up in all areas and would be more firmly enforced through later reforms. The state's Gladstonian liberalism became increasingly involved. Lord Sandon 's Elementary Education Act 1876 ( 39 & 40 Vict. c. 70) gave parents

3420-536: Was founded as early as 1636. Prussia implemented a modern compulsory education system in 1763. It was introduced by the Generallandschulreglement (General School Regulation), a decree of Frederick the Great in 1763–5. The Generallandschulreglement, authored by Johann Julius Hecker , asked for all young citizens, girls and boys, to be educated from age 5 to age 13–14 and to be provided with

3480-537: Was further extended to 16. In 1852, Massachusetts was the first U.S. state to pass a compulsory universal public education law. In particular, the Massachusetts General Court required every town to create and operate a grammar school. Fines were imposed on parents who did not send their children to school, and the government took the power to take children away from their parents and apprentice them to others if government officials decided that

3540-577: Was slow to introduce compulsory education, this time due to conflicts between the secular state and the Catholic Church, and as a result between anti-clerical and Catholic political parties. During the July Monarchy, government officials proposed a variety of public primary education provisions, culminating in the Guizot Law of 28 June 1833. The Guizot law mandated that all communes provide education for boys and required that schools implement

3600-541: Was the Birmingham politician Joseph Chamberlain , who emerged as a national figure for the first time. The resulting splits (some education campaigners, including Chamberlain, stood for Parliament as independent candidates) helped to cost the Liberals the 1874 election . Between 1870 and 1880, 3,000 to 4,000 schools were started or taken over by school boards. The act required that every child should be taught in

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