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132-551: Operation Frankton was a commando raid on ships in the German occupied French port of Bordeaux in southwest France during World War II . The raid was carried out by a small unit of Royal Marines known as the Royal Marines Boom Patrol Detachment (RMBPD), part of Combined Operations inserted by HMS  Tuna captained by Lieutenant-Commander Dick Raikes who, earlier, had been awarded

264-439: A Special Service Brigade consisting of four battalions under the command of Brigadier Joseph Charles Haydon . The Special Service Brigade was quickly expanded to 12 units which became known as Commandos. Each Commando had a lieutenant-colonel as the commanding officer and numbered around 450 men (divided into 75-man troops that were further divided into 15-man sections ). Technically these men were only on secondment to

396-607: A zip-line over Loch Arkaig , all while carrying arms and full equipment. Training continued by day and night with river crossings, mountain climbing, weapons training, unarmed combat , map reading, and small boat operations on the syllabus. Living conditions were primitive in the camp, with trainees housed either under canvas in tents or in Nissen huts and they were responsible for cooking their own meals. Correct military protocols were enforced: Officers were saluted and uniforms had to be clean, with brasses and boots shining on parade. At

528-474: A Commando unit, but by one of their predecessors: No.11 Independent Company. The mission, led by Major Ronnie Tod , was an offensive reconnaissance carried out on the French coast south of Boulogne-sur-Mer and Le Touquet . The operation was a limited success; at least two German soldiers were killed whilst the only British injury was a flesh wound suffered by Lieutenant-Colonel Dudley Clarke, who had accompanied

660-632: A Middle East Commando depot was formed with the responsibility of training and supplying reinforcements for the Commando units in that theatre. In February 1942 the Commando training depot at Achnacarry in the Scottish Highlands was established by Brigadier Charles Haydon under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Vaughan, the Commando depot was responsible for training complete units and individual replacements. The training regime

792-520: A bad conscience on Raeder's part. Mackinnon had been admitted to the hospital for treatment for an infected knee. Evidence shows that Laver, Mills, Mackinnon and Conway were not executed in Paris in 1942 but possibly in the same location as Wallace and Ewart under the Commando Order. The exact date of their execution is not known. Sheard and Moffatt from the capsized Conger were not drowned on

924-455: A compass, a depth sounding reel, repair bag, torch, camouflage net, waterproof watch, fishing line, two hand grenades , rations and water for six days, a spanner to activate the mines and a magnet to hold the kayak against the side of cargo ships. The total safe load for the 'Cockle' Mark 2 was 480 lb (220 kg). The men also carried a .45 1911 Colt semi-automatic pistol and a Fairbairn–Sykes fighting knife . The men selected to go on

1056-736: A formation of the British Armed Forces organised for special service in June 1940. After the events leading to the British Expeditionary Force 's (BEF) evacuation from Dunkirk , after the disastrous Battle of France , Winston Churchill , the British Prime Minister , called for a force to be assembled and equipped to inflict casualties on the Germans and bolster British morale. Churchill told

1188-470: A guard force when they were at anchor in the Norwegian fjords. In April 1943, seven men of No. 14 (Arctic) Commando took part in a raid on German shipping near Haugesund code named Operation Checkmate . They managed to sink several ships using limpet mines, but were captured and eventually taken to Sachsenhausen and Bergen-Belsen concentration camps, where they were executed. The Germans responded to

1320-512: A gun battery at Zoutelande . The attack failed, with the unit suffering heavy casualties, including all the rifle troop commanders. The next day No. 47, supported by No. 48 Commando, again attacked the Zoutelande gun battery. This time they managed to continue the advance and link up with No. 4 Commando. The capture of these batteries allowed the navy to start sweeping the channel into Antwerp for mines. On 5 November, No. 41 Commando captured

1452-656: A harder blow against the Germans in a combined operation led to the setting up of a Controlling Officer at Whitehall, responsible for avoiding inter-departmental rivalry, duplication or even conflict. In December 2022, ten former Royal Marines recreated the route of Operation Frankton in the Cockleshell 22 project, to support charities Royal British Legion , the Royal Marines Charity, and Help for Heroes . They paddled over 70 miles in folding kayaks along

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1584-663: A higher number of Bren and Thompson guns than a normal British infantry section. The Webley Revolver was initially used as the standard sidearm, but it was eventually replaced by the Colt 45 pistol , which used the same ammunition as the Thompson submachine gun. Another pistol was the Browning Hi Power chambered in 9 mm Parabellum by the Canadian manufacturer John Inglis and Company . One weapon specifically designed for

1716-469: A large cargo ship and three on a small liner. On their way downriver the two kayaks met by chance on the île Cazeau. They continued down river together until 06:00 hours when they beached their kayaks near St Genes de Blaye and tried to hide them by sinking them. The two crews then set out separately, on foot, for the Spanish border. After two days Laver and Mills were apprehended at Montlieu-la-Garde by

1848-594: A minefield. The exploding mines alerted the German garrison and the Commandos had to abandon the operation. In Hardtack 7 the Commandos had returned to Sark, but had to abandon the operation and return to England when they were unable to scale the island's cliffs. During 1941, the Middle East Commandos and Layforce were tasked to carry out a campaign of harassment and dislocation against enemy forces in

1980-657: A night raid on 14 July 1940. Later raids were much smaller; only 12 men of No. 62 Commando took part in Operation Dryad in September 1942, when they captured seven prisoners and located several German codebooks. Operation Branford , a reconnaissance mission that aimed to identify a suitable gun position to support future raids on Alderney , followed only days later. In October of that year 12 men from No.s 12 and 62 Commandos took part in Operation Basalt ,

2112-628: A raid on Sark that saw four Germans killed and one taken prisoner. All the other Channel Islands raids were less successful. In January 1943, Operation Huckabuck , a raid on Herm , was a failure. After three attempts to scale the islands cliffs the Commandos finally reached the top, but there were no signs of any German occupation troops or of the island's population. The next raids were Operations Hardtack 28 and Hardtack 7 in December 1943. The Hardtack 28 raid on Jersey ended in failure when two men were killed and one wounded after they walked into

2244-604: A second award and 162 Military Crosses with 13 bars. Other ranks were awarded 32 Distinguished Conduct Medals and 218 Military Medals . In 1952 the Commando Memorial was unveiled by the Queen Mother . It is now a Category A listed monument in Scotland , dedicated to the men of the original British Commando Forces raised during Second World War. Situated around a mile from Spean Bridge village, it overlooks

2376-598: A simultaneous mission to sink the ships in Bordeaux, led by Claude de Baissac of the Special Operations Executive , which Hasler's team and Combined Operations knew nothing about because of the secrecy and lack of co-operation among British government agencies. De Baissac was preparing to take explosives onto the ships when he heard the explosions of Hasler's limpet mines. The loss of the opportunity for Hasler and de Baissac to work together to strike

2508-733: A sixth ship had been damaged even more extensively than any of the other five reported, which were quickly repaired and put back into service. In his pre-operation briefing, Hasler was told that after the operation he and other members of the group should make their way to the French town of Ruffec , 100 miles (160 km) from where they had beached their kayak, and find someone there from the French Resistance . He and Sparks arrived in Ruffec on 18 December 1942. They made contact with escape line leader Mary Lindell and her son, Maurice, at

2640-620: Is a plaque commemorating the 70th anniversary of the operation in Birkenhead , the home of Corporal Albert Laver. Laver, Sheard, Mills, Conway, Wallace, Moffatt, and Ewart are commemorated on the Plymouth Naval Memorial . In June 2002, the Frankton Trail was opened, a walking path which traces the 100 miles (160 km) route taken through occupied France, on foot, by Hasler and Sparks. The Frankton Souvenir

2772-632: Is a tidal channel of the Thames estuary that separates the Isle of Sheppey from the rest of Kent . On its banks is a 6,509.4-hectare (16,085-acre) biological Site of Special Scientific Interest which stretches from Sittingbourne to Whitstable in Kent. It is also a Ramsar internationally important wetland site and a Special Protection Area under the European Union Directive on

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2904-614: Is an Anglo-French organisation, set up to keep alive the story of the raid. It plans to develop the trail, and install explanatory plaques at points. On 31 March 2011 a memorial to the Cockleshell Heroes and three French individuals was dedicated. Made from Portland stone it was transported across care of Brittany Ferries . The memorial cost about £80,000 (equivalent to £123,148 in 2023). The only known surviving Cockle Mark II kayak from Operation Frankton, Cachalot , together with other original equipment, can be seen at

3036-584: Is no longer separate but the marshlands gradually encroaching delineate it. The channel needs constant dredging for busy recreational and light vessel use. The Swale is crossed at its western end by two bridges: the Kingsferry Bridge and the later Sheppey Crossing . The Swale forms both a National Nature Reserve and a Special Protection Area : the eel grass , Ray's knotgrass , white seakale , glassworts and golden samphire support rare and uncommon migrant butterflies and moths , including

3168-481: Is not known precisely what happened to the Sperrbrecher and the tanker Python but it was possible the limpets may have either fallen off and exploded in the water. Nevertheless, for several hours after the first explosion there was chaos and confusion at the two ports, Bassen and Bordeaux. It was not until 23 February 1943 that Combined Operations Headquarters heard via a secret message sent by Mary Lindell to

3300-689: The 51st (Highland) Division . The Germans had moved most of their reserve troops to the Ludendorff Bridge at Remagen , which had just been captured by the U.S. 9th Armored Division . The Commandos crossed the Rhine at a point 2 miles (3.2 km) west of Wesel . Their crossing was unopposed and the brigade headed to the outskirts of Wesel. Here they waited until a raid of 200 bombers of the Royal Air Force finished their attack, during which over 1,000 tons of bombs were dropped. Moving into

3432-540: The Arctic Circle and specialised in using small boats and canoes to attack shipping. The joint service unit No. 30 Commando was formed for intelligence gathering. Its members were trained in the recognition of enemy documents, search techniques, safe cracking, prisoner handling, photography, and escape techniques. No. 62 Commando or the Small Scale Raiding Force was a small 55–man unit under

3564-567: The Bardia raid , but by late July 1941 Layforce had been severely reduced in strength. Reinforcements were unlikely given the circumstances. The operational difficulties that had been exposed during the Bardia raid, combined with the inability of the high command to fully embrace the Commando concept, had largely served to make the force ineffective. The decision was made to disband Layforce. In November 1942, No. 1 and No. 6 Commandos formed part of

3696-790: The Combined Military Services Museum , located in Maldon, Essex . In France, the memory of the heroes of Operation Frankton is commemorated every year, notably in Bordeaux , Blanquefort , Saint-Georges-de-Didonne and Ruffec . Commemorative plaques have been placed in the Entre-deux-Mers region in Baigneaux and Cessac . Unfortunately, the one in Cessac , located on the edge of a bicycle path, in view of

3828-624: The DSO for operations while in command of the submarine HMS  Seawolf  (47S) . (The RMBPD would later form the Special Boat Service .) The plan was for six folding kayaks to be taken to the area of the Gironde estuary by submarine . Twelve men would then paddle by night to Bordeaux. On arrival they would attack the docked cargo ships with limpet mines and then escape overland to Spain. Men from no.1 section were selected for

3960-589: The Gendarmerie and handed over to the Germans at La Reole hospital 30 miles (48 km) southeast of Bordeaux, while attempting to make their way to the Spanish border. On the first night the three remaining kayaks, Catfish , Crayfish and Coalfish , covered 20 miles (32 km) in five hours and landed near St Vivien du Medoc . While they were hiding during the day and unknown to the others, Wallace and Ewart in Coalfish had been captured at daybreak near

4092-535: The Gendarmerie and handed over to the Germans. On 10 December, the Germans announced that a sabotage squad had been caught on 8 December near the mouth of the Gironde and "finished off in combat". It was not until January 1943 in the absence of other information that all 10 men on the raid were posted missing, until news arrived of two of them. Later it was confirmed that five ships had been damaged in Bordeaux by mysterious explosions. New research in 2010 revealed that

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4224-533: The Landing Craft Assault carrying them ashore were sunk by mines and beach obstacles, which resulted in the loss of 76 of their 420 men. These losses delayed their advance to their primary objective, the port of Port-en-Bessin , which they captured the following day. The Battle of the Scheldt started 1 November 1944, with 4th Special Service Brigade assigned to carry out a seaborne assault on

4356-742: The Mediterranean and Middle East to South-East Asia . Their operations ranged from small groups of men landing from the sea or by parachute, to a brigade of assault troops spearheading the Allied invasions of Europe and Asia. After the war most Commando units were disbanded, leaving only the 3 Commando Brigade of the Royal Marines , which is now known as the UK Commando Force. The modern Royal Marine Commandos , Parachute Regiment, Special Air Service , British Army commandos and

4488-675: The Orne River . The Commandos cleared the town of Ouistreham and headed for the bridges, about 10 miles (16 km) away. Arriving at the Pegasus Bridge , the Commandos fought on the left flank of the Orne bridgehead until they were ordered to withdraw. The brigade remained in Normandy for ten weeks, sustaining 1,000 casualties, including the brigade commander, Brigadier Lord Lovat . The all Royal Marines 4th Special Service Brigade

4620-492: The Pointe de Grave lighthouse where they had come ashore. By the end of the second night, 8/9 December, the two remaining kayaks Catfish and Crayfish had paddled a further 22 miles (35 km) in six hours. The third night, 9/10 December, they paddled 15 miles (24 km) and on the fourth night, 10/11 December, because of the strong ebb tide they only managed to cover 9 miles (14 km). The original plan had called for

4752-717: The Royal Army Medical Corps , attached to No. 45 (Royal Marine) Commando was awarded the Victoria Cross. The 1st Commando Brigade next took part in Operation Plunder , the crossing of the Rhine River in March 1945. After a heavy artillery bombardment on the evening of 23 March 1945, the brigade carried out the initial assault under cover of darkness with the 15th (Scottish) Division and

4884-534: The SBS ): "Of the many brave and dashing raids carried out by the men of Combined Operations Command none was more courageous or imaginative than Operation Frankton". Mackinnon is commemorated on the Portsmouth Naval Memorial . The bravery of the 'Cockleshell Hero' Royal Marine James Conway was honoured with a permanent memorial unveiled on Sunday 10 December 2017 in his home town of Stockport. There

5016-697: The Special Boat Service trace their origins to the Commandos. The Second World War Commando legacy also extends to mainland Europe and the United States : the French Commandos Marine ; Dutch Korps Commandotroepen ; Belgian Special Operations Regiment ; the Greek 1st Raider–Paratrooper Brigade ; the United States Army Rangers and Green Berets were influenced by the wartime Commandos. The British Commandos were

5148-509: The Strait of Dover had swept away so much swampy land, accentuated by sea levels being lower, even to beyond the end of the ice age, i.e. in the mid seventh millennium BC, the coasts of Essex and Kent stretched much further into the North Sea . Sheppey formed part of mainland Britain. The Swale was a valley opening eastwards. As sea-levels rose again, water occupied its whole length. It and

5280-700: The Tam O'Shanter with a black hackle . The official head-dress of the Middle East Commandos was a bush hat with their own knuckleduster cap badge. This badge was modelled on their issue fighting knife (the Mark I trench knife ) which had a knuckleduster for a handle. In 1942 the green Commando beret and the Combined Operations tactical recognition flash were adopted. As the men were equipped for raiding operations and only lightly armed, they did not carry anti-gas protective equipment or large packs, and

5412-796: The Twenty-Eighth Japanese Army . The Commando brigade was then withdrawn to India in preparation for Operation Zipper , the planned invasion of Malaya. The Zipper landings were not needed due to the Japanese surrender so the brigade was sent to Hong Kong for policing duties instead. At the end of the Second World War, all the British Army, Royal Navy, Royal Air Force, and some Royal Marines Commandos were disbanded. This left only three Royal Marines Commandos and one brigade (with supporting Army elements). As of 2010,

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5544-532: The first battle of Sedjenane between February and March 1943. Both Commando units remained in theatre until April, when the decision was made to withdraw them from the fighting in North Africa. Lacking the administrative support and reinforcements of regular infantry units, the strength of the two units had fallen and they were no longer considered effective. In May 1943 a Special Service Brigade comprising No. 2, No. 3, No. 40 (RM), and No. 41 (RM) Commandos

5676-454: The 11th Special Air Service (SAS) Battalion, which eventually became the 1st Parachute Battalion . After their re-designation a new No. 2 Commando was formed. Other Commandos were grouped together in a larger formation known as Layforce and sent to the Middle East. The Special Air Service and the Special Boat Squadron were formed from the survivors of Layforce. The men of No. 14 (Arctic) Commando were specially trained for operations in

5808-416: The 2/6th Battalion Queen's Regiment failed to reach a rendezvous on time. On 2 April 1945 the whole of the now named 2nd Commando Brigade were engaged in Operation Roast at Comacchio lagoon in north east Italy . This was the first major action of the big spring offensive to push the Germans back across the River Po and out of Italy. After a fierce three-day battle the Commandos succeeded in clearing

5940-415: The British Commando force is 3 Commando Brigade , which consists of both Royal Marines and British Army components, as well as commando-trained personnel from the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force. Other units of the British armed forces, which can trace their origins to the British Commandos of the Second World War, are the Parachute Regiment , the Special Air Service , and the Special Boat Service . Of

6072-475: The British Commandos. Their first volunteers were from troops stationed in Northern Ireland , who were sent to train at the Commando depot at Achnacarry. However, subsequent Ranger battalions were formed and trained independent of British influence. The men serving with the Commandos were awarded 479 decorations during the war. This includes eight Victoria Crosses awarded to all ranks. Officers were awarded 37 Distinguished Service Orders with nine bars for

6204-431: The Commando units in the field. In December 1944, the four Special Service brigades were re-designated as Commando brigades. When the Commando units were originally formed in 1940, training was the responsibility of the unit commanding officers. Training was hampered by the general shortage of equipment throughout the British Army at this time, as most arms and equipment had been left behind at Dunkirk . In December 1940

6336-443: The Commandos was the De Lisle carbine . Modelled on the Lee–Enfield rifle and fitted with a silencer , it used the same .45 cartridge as the Thompson and was designed to eliminate sentries during Commando raids. Some were used and proved successful on operations, but the nature of the Commando role had changed before they were put into full production, and the order for their purchase was cancelled. The Fairbairn–Sykes fighting knife

6468-437: The Commandos, plus three members of the Royal Navy, were awarded the Victoria Cross. Eighty others received decorations for gallantry. On 19 August 1942 a major landing took place at the French coastal town of Dieppe . The main force was provided by the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division , supported by No. 3 and No. 4 Commandos. The mission of No. 3 Commando was to neutralize a German coastal battery near Berneval-le-Grand that

6600-424: The Commandos; they retained their own regimental cap badges and remained on the regimental roll for pay. The Commando force came under the operational control of the Combined Operations Headquarters . The man initially selected as the commander of Combined Operations was Admiral Roger Keyes , a veteran of the Gallipoli campaign and the Zeebrugge Raid in the First World War . Keyes resigned in October 1941 and

6732-426: The Conservation of Wild Birds . Parts of it are a Nature Conservation Review site, Grade I, National Nature Reserves , a Kent Wildlife Trust nature reserve and a Local Nature Reserve . The name "Swale" is Old English in origin, and is believed to mean "swirling, rushing river", or "rushing water". At these times the Swale was a gully from what had been a sea channel in very warm periods. Namely before

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6864-405: The DSM which at the time could not be awarded posthumously , so instead they were mentioned in dispatches . Wallace and Ewart revealed only certain information during their interrogation, and were executed under the Commando Order , on the night of 11 December, in a sandpit in a wood north of Bordeaux, and not at Chateau Magnol, Blanquefort , as is sometimes claimed. A plaque has been erected on

6996-484: The German garrison, and sank eight ships. After this the Germans increased the garrison in Norway by an extra 30,000 troops, upgraded coastal and inland defences, and sent a number of capital ships to the area. In September 1942 men from No. 2 Commando took part in Operation Musketoon , a raid against the Glomfjord hydroelectric power plant . The Commandos were landed by submarine and succeeded in blowing up some pipelines, turbines, and tunnels. This effectively destroyed

7128-419: The Gironde estuary to Bordeaux, where they took part in joint French-British commemoration events. They then made a 100-mile speed march from Blaye to Ruffec, the escape route followed by Major Hasler and Corporal Sparks. British Commandos Reaching a wartime strength of over 30 units and four assault brigades , the Commandos served in all theatres of war from the Arctic Circle to Europe and from

7260-423: The Hotel de la Toque Blanche and were taken to a local farm. They spent the next 18 days there in hiding. Lindell arranged for them to be guided on foot across the Pyrenees into Spain and safety. Six ships were damaged, four of them severely. The German blockade runner Tannenfels listed heavily and soon sank. The rear of the freighter Dresden , whose superstructure and propeller shaft had been severed, sank to

7392-402: The Jaubert farmhouse, has been vandalized. In 2011, as part of a project to move the monument to the dead of the 1914–1918 war , the municipality proposes to place a second plaque against the wall of the town hall, at the new location of the commemorations. A monument is also present on the town of Montalivet-les-Bains , facing the sea. A tramway station on line C of the TBM network, located in

7524-430: The Mediterranean. At the time that Layforce was raised, the British had the ascendency in the theatre, as they had largely defeated the Italians. It was felt that the Commandos could be employed in the capture of the island of Rhodes . However, the arrival of the Afrika Korps in Cyrenaica and the invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece greatly changed the strategic outlook. By the time Layforce arrived in Egypt in March

7656-474: The Royal Marines were executed by a naval firing squad, the Commander of the Navy Admiral Erich Raeder wrote in the Seekriegsleitung war diary that the executions of the captured Royal Marines were something "new in international law, since the soldiers were wearing uniforms". The American historian Charles Thomas wrote that Raeder's remarks about the executions in the Seekriegsleitung war diary seemed to be some sort of ironic comment, which might have reflected

7788-411: The War Office that Hasler and Sparks were safe. On 2 April 1943 Hasler arrived back in Britain by air from Gibraltar , having passed through the French Resistance escape organisation. Sparks was sent back by sea and arrived much later. For their part in the raid Hasler was awarded a Distinguished Service Order and Sparks the Distinguished Service Medal (DSM). Laver and Mills were also recommended for

7920-423: The Western nations represented in No. 10 (Inter-Allied) Commando, only Norway did not develop a post-war commando force. The French troops were the predecessors of the Commandos Marine . The Dutch Troops were the predecessors of the Korps Commandotroepen and the Belgian Troops were the predecessors of the Immediate Reaction Cell . The 1st Battalion of the United States Army Rangers were also influenced by

8052-449: The bottom. The cargo ship Alabama was holed by the five limpets and was also severely damaged. The cargo ship Portland was also holed and a fire caused severe internal damage. Subsequently, the Tannenfels which was no longer considered sea worthy, was scuttled and used as a blockship in the Gironde. The Alabama and the Portland with the help of divers, were raised and put in dry dock to undergo repairs which took several months. It

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8184-418: The bullet-marked wall at the Chateau, but the authenticity of the details on the plaque has been questioned; indeed given the evidence of a statement by a German officer who was at the execution it is certain that the chateau has no link with Wallace and Ewart. A small memorial can also be seen at the Pointe de Grave, where they were captured. In March 2011 a €100,000 memorial was unveiled at this same spot. After

8316-473: The city just after midnight, the Commandos met resistance from defenders organised around an anti-aircraft division. It was not until 25 March that all resistance ended and the brigade declared the city taken. During the Burma Campaign in 1944–1945, the 3rd Commando Brigade participated in several coastal landings of the Southern Front offensive. These landings culminated in the battle of Hill 170 at Kangaw. Here Lieutenant George Knowland of No. 1 Commando

8448-402: The commandos, running low on ammunition, rations, and water, fell back towards Sphakia. In the end, the vast majority of the commandos were left behind on the island, becoming prisoners of war . About 600 of the 800 commandos that had been sent to Crete were listed as killed, missing, or wounded; only 179 commandos managed to get off the island. In April 1941 men from No. 7 Commando took part in

8580-478: The deck of the Sperrbrecher , apparently spotting something, shone his torch down toward the water, but the camouflaged kayak evaded detection in the darkness. They had planted all their mines and left the harbour with the ebb tide at 00:45 hours. At the same time Laver and Mills in Crayfish had reached the eastern side of the dock without finding any targets, so returned to deal with the ships docked at Bassens . They placed eight limpet mines on two vessels, five on

8712-469: The dock facilities. Eight hours later, delayed-action fuses set off the explosives in the Campbeltown , which wrecked the dock gates and killed some 360 Germans and French. A total of 611 soldiers and sailors took part in Chariot; 169 were killed and 200 (most wounded) taken prisoner. Only 242 men returned. Of the 241 Commandos who took part 64 were killed or missing and 109 captured. Lieutenant-Colonel Augustus Charles Newman and Sergeant Thomas Durrant of

8844-551: The end of each course the final exercise was a simulated night beach landing using live ammunition. Another smaller Commando depot, known as the Commando Mountain and Snow Warfare training camp, was established at Braemar . This camp was run by two famous mountaineers : the depot commander Squadron Leader Frank Smythe and chief instructor Major John Hunt . The depot provided training for operations in Arctic conditions, with instruction in climbing snow-covered mountains, cliff climbing, and small boat and canoe handling. Training

8976-438: The execution of all captured Commandos. The three remaining Commandos managed to reach Sweden and were eventually returned to No. 2 Commando. In 1943, the Norwegian Troop of No. 10 (Inter-Allied), No. 12, and No. 14 (Arctic) Commandos assisted the Royal Navy in carrying out anti-shipping raids in Norwegian coastal waters. The Commandos provided extra firepower for the navy Motor Torpedo Boats when they were at sea and acted as

9108-448: The first night but died of hypothermia. The body of Moffatt was found on the Île de Ré on 14 December but Sheard's body is believed to have been recovered and buried elsewhere further up the coastline. Sheard is remembered on the Hero's Stone at his place of birth, North Corner, Devonport. The words of Lord Mountbatten , the commander of Combined Operations , are carved into a Purbeck stone at Royal Marines Poole (current headquarters of

9240-405: The first unit to adopt the Bergen rucksack to carry heavy loads of ammunition, explosives, and other demolition equipment. A battle jerkin was produced to wear over battledress and the airborne forces' camouflaged Denison smock became standard issue for Commando forces later in the war. The very first Commando raid – Operation Collar on 23 June 1940 – was not actually carried out by

9372-561: The formation of the heavy weapons troops, Commandos were issued the 3-inch mortar and the Vickers machine gun . The issue of the medium Vickers machine gun to Commando units set them apart from typical British Army infantry divisions, who tended to only employ the weapon in specialist machine gun battalions. Initially the Commandos were indistinguishable from the rest of the British Army and volunteers retained their own regimental head-dress and insignia. No. 2 Commando adopted Scottish head-dress for all ranks and No. 11 (Scottish) Commando wore

9504-413: The generating station and the aluminium plant was shut down permanently. One Commando was killed in the raid and another seven were captured while trying to escape. They spent a short time at Colditz Castle before being transferred to Sachsenhausen concentration camp . Shortly after their arrival at Sachsenhausen they were executed. They were the first victims of the secret Commando Order , which mandated

9636-532: The gun battery north east of Domburg ; this left only one battery still under German control. The brigade regrouped and concentrated its assault on the last position. Just before the attack began on 9 November, the 4,000 men in the battery surrendered. This was quickly followed by the surrender of the rest of the island's garrison. In January 1945 the 1st Commando Brigade were involved in Operation Blackcock , where Lance Corporal Henry Harden of

9768-559: The guns, they prevented the Germans from firing effectively on the main assault by harassing their gun crews with sniper fire. In a subsidiary operation No. 4 Commando landed in force along with the French Troop No. 10 (Inter-Allied) Commando and 50 United States Army Rangers and destroyed the artillery battery at Varengeville . Most of No. 4 Commando safely returned to England. Captain Patrick Porteous of No. 4 Commando

9900-546: The headquarters. This gave them enough vehicles of their own to accommodate two fighting troops, the heavy weapons troop, and the Commando Headquarters. By now the Commandos started to move away from smaller raiding operations. They were formed into four brigades to spearhead future Allied landing operations. The previous Special Service Brigade Headquarters was replaced by Headquarters Special Services Group under command of Major-General Robert Sturges . Of

10032-511: The heavy weapons of a normal infantry battalion. The weapons used were the standard British Army small arms of the time; most riflemen carried the Lee–Enfield rifle and section fire support was provided by the Bren light machine gun . The Thompson was the submachine gun of choice, but later in the war the Commandos also used the cheaper and lighter Sten gun . Commando sections were equipped with

10164-505: The island of Walcheren . The plan was for the island to be attacked from two directions, with the Commandos coming by sea and the Canadian 2nd Division and the 52nd (Lowland) Division attacking across the causeway. No. 4 Commando landed at Flushing and No. 41 and 48 at Westkapelle . No. 47 Commando was held in reserve and landed after No.s 41 and 48. They were to advance past No. 48 Commando and attempt to link up with No. 4 Commando in

10296-479: The joint chiefs of staff to propose measures for an offensive against German-occupied Europe , and stated in a minute to General Hastings Ismay on 6 June 1940: "Enterprises must be prepared, with specially-trained troops of the hunter class, who can develop a reign of terror down these coasts, first of all on the "butcher and bolt" policy..." The Chief of the Imperial General Staff at that time

10428-600: The larger raids involved one or more commando units. In March 1942, No. 2 Commando plus demolition experts from seven other Commando units took part in Operation Chariot , also known as the St. Nazaire Raid. The destroyer HMS Campbeltown , accompanied by 18 smaller ships, sailed into St. Nazaire where Campbeltown was rammed directly into the Normandie dock gates. The Commandos engaged the German forces and destroyed

10560-696: The men on operations. In February 1942 the Royal Marines were tasked to organise Commando units of their own. In total nine Commando units were formed by the Royal Marines: No. 40 , No. 41 , No. 42 , No. 43 , No. 44 , No. 45 , No. 46 , No. 47 and the last, No. 48 , which was only formed in 1944. In 1943 two other Commando units were formed. The first was the Royal Naval Commandos , who were established to carry out tasks associated with establishing, maintaining, and controlling beachheads during amphibious operations. The other

10692-427: The mission was scheduled to start on 6 December 1942. This was delayed because of bad weather en route and the need to negotiate a minefield. By 7 December 1942 the submarine had reached the Gironde estuary and surfaced some 10 miles (16 km) from the mouth of the estuary. Cachalot ' s hull was damaged while being passed out of the submarine hatch, leaving just five kayaks to start the raid. The reserve member of

10824-525: The numerous raids directed at Norway by increasing the number of troops stationed there. By 1944 the garrison had risen to 370,000 men. In comparison, a British infantry division in 1944 had an establishment of 18,347 men. There were seven Commando missions carried out on the Channel Islands . Operation Ambassador , which focused on Guernsey , was the first and largest of these, employing 140 men from No. 3 Commando and No. 11 Independent Company in

10956-475: The operational control of the Special Operations Executive (SOE). They carried out raids planned by SOE such as Operation Postmaster on the Spanish island of Fernando Po off the coast of West Africa . In February 1941 the Commandos were reorganized in accordance with a new war establishment. Each Commando unit now consisted of a Headquarters and six troops (instead of the previous 10). Each troop would comprise three officers and 62 other ranks ; this number

11088-457: The other eight, six were executed by the Germans and two died from hypothermia. Two German vessels were sunk with another four suffering varying degrees of damage. The Royal Marines Boom Patrol Detachment (RMBPD) was formed on 6 July 1942, and based at Southsea , Portsmouth . The RMBPD was under the command of Royal Marines Major Herbert 'Blondie' Hasler with Captain J. D. Stewart as second in command. The detachment consisted of 34 men and

11220-461: The physical demands of the course and that any man who failed to live up to the requirements would be 'returned to unit' (RTU). Exercises were conducted using live ammunition and explosives to make training as realistic as possible. Physical fitness was a prerequisite, with cross country runs and boxing matches to improve fitness. Speed and endurance marches were conducted up and down the nearby mountain ranges and over assault courses that included

11352-471: The port. Hasler submitted a plan of attack on 21 September 1942. The initial plan called for a force of three kayaks to be transported to the Gironde estuary by submarine then paddle by night and hide by day until they reached Bordeaux 60 miles (97 km) from the sea, thus hoping to avoid the 32 mixed Kriegsmarine ships that patrolled or used the port. On arrival they hoped to sink between six and 12 cargo ships then escape overland to Spain. Permission for

11484-599: The raid against dock installations at St Nazaire , has been hailed as the greatest raid of all time, but others, like Operation Aquatint and Operation Musketoon , resulted in the capture or death of all involved. The smaller raids ended in mid-1944 on the orders of Major-General Robert Laycock, who suggested that they were no longer as effective and only resulted in the Germans strengthening their beach defences, something that could be extremely detrimental to Allied plans. The first Commando raid in Norway, Operation Claymore ,

11616-462: The raid on 20 October 1942, which included kayak handling, submarine rehearsals, limpet mine handling and escape and evasion exercises. The RMBPD practised for the raid with a simulated attack against Deptford , starting from Margate and kayaking up the Swale . Mark II kayaks , which were given the codename of Cockle , were selected for the raid. The Mark II was a semi rigid two-man kayak, with

11748-440: The raid to be carried out on 10 December, but Hasler now changed the plan. Because of the strength of the ebb tide they still had a short distance to paddle, so Hasler ordered they hide for another day and set off to and reach Bordeaux on the night of 11/12 December. After a night's rest, the men spent the day preparing their equipment and limpet mines which were set to detonate at 21:00 hours. Hasler decided that Catfish would cover

11880-453: The raid was granted on 13 October 1942, but Admiral Louis Mountbatten Chief of Combined operations increased the number of kayaks to be taken to six. Mountbatten had originally ordered that Hasler could not take part in the raid, because of his experience as the chief kayaking specialist, but changed his mind after Hasler (the only man with experience in small boats) formally submitted his reasons for inclusion. The RMBPD started training for

12012-520: The raid were divided into two divisions, each having their own targets. A thirteenth man was taken as a reserve, Marine Norman Colley. On 30 November 1942 under the command of Lieutenant-Commander Dick Raikes DSO the Royal Navy submarine HMS  Tuna sailed from Holy Loch in Scotland with the six kayaks and raiders on board. The submarine was supposed to reach the Gironde estuary and

12144-469: The raid, the four remaining kayaks approached a checkpoint in the river and came upon three German frigates . Lying flat on the kayaks and paddling silently they managed to get by without being discovered but Mackinnon and Conway in Cuttlefish became separated from the other kayaks in the group. After reaching the shore, MacKinnon and Conway evaded capture for four days, but were betrayed and arrested by

12276-407: The raid; including the commanding officer , Herbert 'Blondie' Hasler , and with the reserve Marine Colley the team numbered thirteen in total. One kayak was damaged while being deployed from the submarine, and it and its crew therefore could not take part in the mission. Only two of the 10 men who launched from the submarine survived the raid: Hasler, and his number two in the kayak, Bill Sparks . Of

12408-484: The raiders as an observer. A second and similarly inconsequential raid, Operation Ambassador , was made on the German-occupied island of Guernsey on the night of 14 July 1940 by men from H Troop of No. 3 Commando and No. 11 Independent Company. One unit landed on the wrong island and another group disembarked from its launch into water so deep that it came over their heads. Intelligence had indicated that there

12540-598: The raids were scheduled to only last overnight although some, like Operation Gauntlet , were conducted over a number of days. In north west Europe there were 57 raids made between 1940 and 1944. Of these 36 were against targets in France. There were 12 raids against Norway, seven raids in the Channel Islands , and single raids were made in Belgium and the Netherlands . The success of the raids varied; Operation Chariot ,

12672-434: The remaining 20 Commando units, 17 were used in the formation of the four Special Service brigades. The three remaining Commandos (Nos. 12, 14, and 62) were left out of the brigade structure to concentrate on smaller scale raids. The increased tempo of operations, together with a shortage of volunteers and the need to provide replacements for casualties, forced their disbandment by the end of 1943. The small scale raiding role

12804-464: The same name. 'Blondie' Hasler had connections with both the film and the book. He hated the title of both and walked away from his role as technical adviser for the former to try and set the matter right in the latter. On 1 November 2011, a BBC Timewatch television documentary called "The Most Courageous Raid of WWII" was narrated by Paddy Ashdown , a former SBS officer. Ashdown describes Frankton as "a Whitehall cock-up of major proportions" due to

12936-577: The same time there were four Commando units formed in the Middle East : No. 50 , No. 51 , No. 52 , and the Middle East Commando . The No. 10 (Inter-Allied) Commando was formed from volunteers from the occupied territories and enemy aliens . It was the largest Commando unit formed, and contained troops from France , Belgium , Poland , Norway , the Netherlands , and No. 3 (X) Troop. The No. 3 (X) Troop consisted of enemy aliens; it

13068-401: The sides made of canvas, a flat bottom and 15 feet (4.6 m) long. When collapsed it had to be capable of negotiating the narrow confines of the submarine to the storage area, and then, before it was ready to be taken on deck, erected and stored ready to be hauled out via the submarine torpedo hatch. During the raid each kayak's load would be two men, eight limpet mines, three sets of paddles,

13200-492: The situation had become dire. The deployment of forces to Greece meant that the Commandos became the only troops in general reserve. As the strategic situation worsened, it became increasingly difficult to employ them in the manner intended, as they were called upon as reinforcements to the rest of the army. In May 1941 the majority of Layforce were sent as reinforcements to the Battle of Crete . Almost as soon as they landed it

13332-426: The south. On the first day No. 41 captured an artillery observation tower at Westkapelle and cleared the rest of the town. They then moved along the coast and dealt with the coastal defence installations. No. 48 Commando quickly captured a radar station and then advanced on a gun battery south of Westkapelle, which was captured before nightfall. On 2 November No. 47 Commando advanced through No. 48 Commando to attack

13464-731: The spearhead for Allied landings in Algeria as part of Operation Torch . Tensions were high between the British and the Vichy French at this time because of a number of clashes like the Attack on Mers-el-Kébir . As a result, the decision was made for the Commandos to be equipped with American weapons and uniforms in an effort to placate the defenders. The Tunisia Campaign followed the Torch landings. No. 1 and No. 6 Commandos were involved in

13596-652: The spit separating the lagoon from the Adriatic and secured the flank of the 8th Army . This fostered the idea that the main offensive would be along the coast and not though the Argenta Gap . Major Anders Lassen ( Special Air Service ) and Corporal Thomas Peck Hunter No. 43 (Royal Marine) Commando were each awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross for their actions during Operation Roast. There were 36 Commando raids targeted against France between 1940–1944, mostly small affairs involving between 10 and 25 men. Some of

13728-418: The standard British steel helmet was replaced by a woollen cap comforter . Instead of heavy ammunition boots they wore lightweight rubber soled gym shoes that allowed them to move silently. All ranks carried a toggle rope , several of which could be linked together to form longer ropes for scaling cliffs or other obstacles. During boat operations an inflatable lifebelt was worn for safety. The Commandos were

13860-444: The surviving crews encountered 5 ft (1.5 m) high waves and Conger capsized and was scuttled , once it became apparent that it would not be possible to bail it out. The crew consisting of Sheard and Moffatt held on to two of the remaining kayaks, which carried them as close to the shore as possible, and they then had to swim for it. The three kayaks met the missing Coalfish shortly afterwards and continued. Carrying on with

13992-537: The team, Colley, was not needed, so he remained aboard the submarine with the Cachalot crew Ellery and Fisher. According to Tuna's log, the five remaining kayaks were disembarked at 19:30 hours on 7 December. However sources differ on the start time between 19:36 and 20:22. The plan was for the crews to paddle, resting for five minutes in every hour. The first night, 7/8 December, fighting against strong cross tides and cross winds, Coalfish had disappeared. Further on

14124-444: The town of Blanquefort , is named Frankton. A heavily fictionalised version of the event was depicted in the 1955 film The Cockleshell Heroes made by Warwick Films , and starring Anthony Newley , Trevor Howard , Christopher Lee , Victor Maddern , David Lodge and Jose Ferrer , who was also the director. The film was a box office hit in 1956 and was quickly followed by the publication of Brigadier C. E. Lucas Phillips' book of

14256-576: The training areas of the Commando Training Depot established in 1942 at Achnacarry Castle . In the British Army battle honours are awarded to regiments that have seen active service in a significant engagement or campaign , generally (although not always) one with a victorious outcome. The following battle honours were awarded to the British Commandos during the Second World War. The Swale The Swale

14388-699: The very mouth of the Medway divide the Isle of Sheppey from the mainland. When the Romans arrived in Britain, the Swale was much wider, with one part of the Isle of Sheppey — now called the Isle of Harty or Harty — a separate island. Two c.  1600 to 1900 public ferries crossed the Swale. One operated between Oare and Harty, and the other between Murston (near Sittingbourne) and Elmley (another former hamlet and essentially attached islet). Harty

14520-477: The western side of the docks and Crayfish the eastern side. Catfish and Crayfish , reached Bordeaux on the fifth night, 11/12 December; the river was flat calm and there was a clear sky. The attack started at 21:00 hours on 11 December, Hasler and Sparks in Catfish attacking shipping on the western side of the dock, placed eight limpet mines on four vessels including a Sperrbrecher patrol boat. A sentry on

14652-519: Was Operation Anklet , a raid on the Lofoten Islands by No. 12 Commando on 26 December. The German garrison was in the midst of their Christmas celebrations and was easily overcome; the Commandos re-embarked after two days. Operation Archery was a larger raid at Vågsøy Island. This raid involved men from Nos. 2, 3, 4 and 6 Commandos, a Royal Navy flotilla, and limited air support. The raid caused significant damage to factories, warehouses, and

14784-541: Was General John Dill and his Military Assistant was Lieutenant-Colonel Dudley Clarke . Clarke discussed the matter with Dill at the War Office and prepared a paper for him that proposed the formation of a new force based on the tactics of Boer commandos , 'hit sharp and quick – then run to fight another day'; they became 'The Commandos' from then onwards. Dill, aware of Churchill's intentions, approved Clarke's proposal. The first commando raid , Operation Collar ,

14916-480: Was a large German barracks on the island but the Commandos found only empty buildings. When they returned to the beach heavy seas had forced their launch offshore, and they were forced to swim out to sea to be picked up. The size of the raiding force depended on the objective. The smallest raid was conducted by two men from No. 6 Commando in Operation J V . The largest was the 10,500 man Operation Jubilee . Most of

15048-470: Was also involved in the Normandy landings. No. 48 Commando landed on the left flank of Juno Beach and No. 41 Commando landed on the right flank of Sword Beach and then assaulted Lion-sur-Mer . No. 48 Commando landed in front of the St. Aubin-sur-Mer strong point and lost forty percent of its men. The last 4th Brigade unit ashore was No. 47 Commando, which landed on Gold Beach near the town of Asnells . Five of

15180-590: Was also known as the English, Jewish , or British troop and was officially renamed the Miscellaneous Troop in 1944. Most of the troop had German , Austrian , or Eastern European backgrounds, while others were political or religious refugees from Nazi Germany . Some Commandos were designated for different tasks from the start. No. 2 Commando was always intended to be a parachute unit. In June 1940 they began parachute training and were re-designated

15312-453: Was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross. The Commandos' victory in the 36-hour battle for Hill 170 cut off the escape of the 54th Japanese Division. Further amphibious landings by the 25th Indian Infantry Division and the overland advance of the 82nd (West Africa) Division made the Japanese position in the Arakan untenable. A general withdrawal was ordered to avoid the complete destruction of

15444-523: Was awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions during the raid. During the Normandy landings of 6 June 1944 two Special Service Brigades were deployed. The 1st Special Service Brigade landed behind the British 3rd Infantry Division on Sword Beach . Their main objective was to fight through to the 6th Airborne Division that had landed overnight and was holding the northern flank and the bridges over

15576-583: Was based at Lumps Fort , and often exercised in the Portsmouth Harbour and patrolled the harbour boom at nights. On 13 August 1942, Hasler and Stewart visited HMS Tormentor to attend a demonstration of fast motorboat training, in preparation for the operation. The Bay of Biscay port of Bordeaux was a major destination for goods to support the German war effort. In the 12 months from June 1941 – 1942 vegetable and animal oils, other raw materials, and 25,000 tons of crude rubber had arrived at

15708-465: Was conducted in March 1941 by men of Nos. 3 and 4 Commandos. This was the first large scale raid from the United Kingdom during the war. Their objective was the undefended Norwegian Lofoten Islands . They successfully destroyed the fish-oil factories, petrol dumps, and 11 ships, while capturing 216 Germans, encryption equipment, and codebooks. In December 1941 there were two raids. The first

15840-422: Was conducted in how to live, fight, and move on foot or on skis in snowy conditions. A major change in the training programme occurred in 1943. From that point on training concentrated more on the assault infantry role and less on raiding operations. Training now included how to call for fire support from artillery and naval gunfire , and how to obtain tactical air support from the Allied air forces. More emphasis

15972-600: Was conducted on the night of 24/25 June 1940. The request for volunteers for special service was initially restricted to serving Army soldiers within certain formations still in Britain, and from men of the disbanding divisional Independent Companies originally raised from Territorial Army (TA) divisions who had served in the Norwegian Campaign . By the autumn of 1940 more than 2,000 men had volunteered and in November 1940 these new units were organised into

16104-399: Was decided that they could not be employed in an offensive role and would instead be used to cover the withdrawal route towards the south. They were ill-equipped for this type of operation, as they were lacking in indirect fire support weapons such as mortars or artillery; they were armed mainly with rifles and a few Bren light machine guns. By 31 May the evacuation was drawing to a close and

16236-646: Was designed especially for Commandos' use in hand-to-hand combat, replacing the BC-41 knuckleduster/dagger, although a whole range of clubs and knives were used in the field. Some of the heavier and crew–served weapons used included the Boys anti-tank rifle and the 2-inch mortar for indirect fire support. After 1943, the Projector, Infantry, Anti Tank , known as the PIAT, replaced the now obsolete Boys anti-tank rifle. With

16368-527: Was for the time innovative and physically demanding, and far in advance of normal British Army training. The depot staff were all hand picked, with the ability to outperform any of the volunteers. Training and assessment started immediately on arrival, with the volunteers having to complete an 8-mile (13 km) march with all their equipment from the Spean Bridge railway station to the commando depot. When they arrived they were met by Vaughan, who stressed

16500-405: Was in a position to fire upon the landing at Dieppe. The landing craft carrying No. 3 Commando ran into a German coastal convoy . Only a handful of commandos, under the second in command Major Peter Young , landed and scaled the barbed wire laced cliffs. Eventually 18 Commandos reached the perimeter of the battery via Berneval and engaged the target with small arms fire. Although unable to destroy

16632-400: Was made up of 3-inch mortar and Vickers machine gun teams. The Commandos were provided with the motor transport needed to accompany them on operations. Their transport now consisted of the commanding officer's car, 15 motorcycles (six with side cars), ten 15 cwt trucks, and three 3-ton trucks. The heavy weapons troop had seven Jeeps and trailers and one Jeep for each of the fighting troops and

16764-424: Was put on joint training, with two or more Commando units working together in brigades. By the end of the war 25,000 men had passed through the Commando course at Achnacarry. This total includes not only the British volunteers, but volunteers from Belgium, France, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, and the United States Army Rangers , which were modelled on the Commandos. As a raiding force, the Commandos were not issued

16896-498: Was replaced by Vice Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten . Major-General Robert Laycock was the last Commander of Combined Operations; he took over from Mountbatten in October 1943. The Commando units formed in the United Kingdom were: No. 1 , No. 2 , No. 3 , No. 4 , No. 5 , No. 6 , No. 7 , No. 8 (Guards) , No. 9 , No. 10 (Inter-Allied) , No. 11 (Scottish) , No. 12 , No. 14 (Arctic) , No. 30 , and No. 62 Commando . At

17028-630: Was sent to the Mediterranean to take part in the Allied invasion of Sicily . The two Royal Marines Commandos were the first into action, landing ahead of the main force. The 2nd Special Service Brigade serving in the Italian campaign was joined in November 1943 by the Belgian and Polish Troops of No. 10 (Inter-Allied) Commando. The Polish troop captured a German-occupied village on its own when

17160-518: Was set so each troop would fit into two Assault Landing Craft . The new formation also meant that two complete Commando units could be carried in the 'Glen' type landing ship and one unit in the 'Dutch' type landing ship . The motor transport issued to each commando consisted of one car for the commanding officer, 12 motorcycles (six with sidecars ), two 15 hundredweight (cwt) trucks, and one 3-ton truck. These vehicles were only provided for administration and training and were not intended to accompany

17292-616: Was the Royal Air Force Commandos , who would accompany an invasion force either to make enemy airfields serviceable, or to make new airstrips operational and contribute to their defence. In 1943, the formation of the Commando unit was changed. Each Commando now consisted of a small headquarters group, five fighting troops, a heavy weapons troop, and a signals platoon. The fighting troops consisted of 65 men of all ranks divided into two 30–man sections which were subdivided into three 10–man subsections. The heavy weapons troop

17424-572: Was then given to the two French troops of No. 10 (Inter-Allied) Commando. From 1944 the Operational Holding Commando Headquarters was formed. It was responsible for two sub-units: the Army and Royal Marines Holding Commando Wings. Both units had an establishment of five troops and a heavy weapons troop of fully trained commandos. The men in these troops were to provide individual or complete troop replacements for

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