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105-546: The Cochabamba valley has been inhabited for over a thousand years due to its fertile productive soils and climate. Archaeological evidence suggests that the initial valley inhabitants were of various ethnic indigenous groups. Tiwanaku , Tupuraya, Mojocoya, Omereque and Inca inhabited the valley at various times before the Spanish arrived. The first Spanish inhabitant of the Valley was Garci Ruiz de Orellana in 1542. He purchased

210-414: A Desert climate To the extreme southwest, is a small tract of Puna which features a cold Tundra climate , with unusual subpolar oceanic characteristics. Precipitation in this area ranges between 300mm and 650mm per year. Since May 2010, the chief executive officer of Bolivia departments has been the governor; before then, the officer was called the prefect, and until 2006, the prefect was appointed by

315-703: A lapis lazuli and ceramic figurines, incense burners and a ceremonial medallion from the lake floor. The artifacts are representative of the lavishness of the ceremonies and the Tiwanaku culture. When a topographical map of the site was created in 2016 by the use of a drone, a "set of hitherto unknown structures" was revealed. These structures spanned over 411 hectares, and included a stone temple and about one hundred circular or rectangular structures of vast dimensions, which were possibly domestic units. Between 2005 and 2007 various types of aerial surveillance methods were used by UNESCO to create an aerial picture of

420-522: A "half Andean Cross "-shaped structure that is 257 m wide, 197 m broad at its maximum, and 16.5 m tall. At its center appears to have been a sunken court. This was nearly destroyed by a deep looters excavation that extends from the center of this structure to its eastern side. Material from the looter's excavation was dumped off the eastern side of the Akapana. A staircase is present on its western side. Possible residential complexes might have occupied both

525-422: A center of pre-Columbian religious ceremonies for both the general public and elites. For example, human sacrifice was used in several pre-Columbian civilizations to appease a god in exchange for good fortune. Excavations of the Akapana at Tiwanaku revealed the remains of sacrificial dedications of humans and camelids. Researchers speculate that the Akapana may also have been used as an astronomical observatory. It

630-514: A considerable historical and archaeological importance. To the southeast of the highlands of Cochabamba, are semi-arid valleys and mountains terminating at the banks of the Wapaymayu or Río Grande. This area, famous for its cultural history, is marked by dry valleys and mountains, with agricultural lands bordering rivers throughout the region. Precipitation in this region is generally sparse, oscillating between 300mm and 600mm per year, bordering on

735-897: A few highland areas of Tasmania , and the Australian and Southern Alps . This type of climate is even found in very remote parts of the New Guinea Highlands . The classification used for this regime is Cfc. Temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F) and below −20 °C (−4 °F) are rare. In the most marine areas under this regime, temperatures above 20 °C (68 °F) are extreme weather events, even during summer. Small areas in Yunnan, Sichuan ; parts of Bolivia and Peru ; and parts of Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania have summers sufficiently short to be Cwc with fewer than four months over 10 °C (50 °F). This

840-499: A former military aide to the Luis García Meza dictatorship of the 1980s, had allied himself with the leaders of Bolivia's eastern departments in a dispute with President Evo Morales over regional autonomy and other political issues. The protestors blockaded the highways, bridges, and main roads, having days earlier set fire to the departmental seat of government, trying to force the resignation of Reyes Villa. Citizens attacked

945-521: A period of decline during the 18th century as mining began to wane. In 1786, King Charles III of Spain renamed the city to the 'loyal and valiant' Villa of Cochabamba. This was done to commend the city's pivotal role in suppressing the indigenous rebellions of 1781 in Oruro by sending armed forces to Oruro to quell the uprisings. Since the late 19th century it has again been generally successful as an agricultural centre for Bolivia. The 1793 census shows that

1050-514: A product and reflection of the cool ocean adjacent to them. In the autumn, winter, and early spring, when the polar jet stream is most active, the frequent passing of marine weather systems creates the frequent fog, cloudy skies, and light drizzle often associated with oceanic climates. They are typically found poleward of Mediterranean climates , except in Australia where they are poleward of both such climates and humid subtropical climates due to

1155-561: A relatively narrow annual temperature range and few extremes of temperature. Oceanic climates can be found in both hemispheres generally between 40 and 60 degrees latitude, with subpolar versions extending to 70 degrees latitude in some coastal areas. Other varieties of climates usually classified together with these include subtropical highland climates , represented as Cwb or Cfb , and subpolar oceanic or cold subtropical highland climates , represented as Cfc or Cwc . Subtropical highland climates occur in some mountainous parts of

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1260-612: A result of their location, these regions tend to be on the cool end of oceanic climates, approaching polar regions . Snowfall tends to be more common here than in other oceanic climates. Subpolar oceanic climates are less prone to temperature extremes than subarctic climates or continental climates , featuring milder winters than these climates. Subpolar oceanic climates feature only one to three months of average monthly temperatures of at least 10 °C (50 °F). As with oceanic climates, none of its average monthly temperatures fall below -3.0 °C (26.6 °F) or 0 °C depending on

1365-580: A site of ancient alien intervention. These claims are entirely unsubstantiated. The Kalasasaya is a large courtyard more than 300 feet long, outlined by a high gateway. It is located to the north of the Akapana and west of the Semi-Subterranean Temple. Within the courtyard is where explorers found the Gateway of the Sun. Since the late 20th century, researchers have theorized that this was not

1470-750: A strict air-mass sense, not oceanic: they are affected by southerlies directly from the Mediterranean, and polar intrusions from Siberia. Yet their position near the Black Sea makes them too wet in summer to be Mediterranean , too mild during winter to be humid continental , and not hot enough in summer to be humid subtropical ; therefore Köppen classifies them as oceanic. Despite their anomalous position, however, their temperatures, around 4–5 °C (39–41 °F) in winter and 20–22 °C (68–72 °F) in summer, are not wholly atypical for European oceanic climates. Some Eastern European regions such as

1575-488: A system of proportions. Many theories for the skill of Tiwanaku's architectural construction have been proposed. One is that they used a luk’ a, which is a standard measurement of about sixty centimeters. Another argument is for the Pythagorean Ratio. This idea calls for right triangles at a ratio of five to four to three used in the gateways to measure all parts. Lastly, Protzen and Nair argue that Tiwanaku had

1680-419: A system set for individual elements dependent on context and composition. This is shown in the construction of similar gateways ranging from diminutive to monumental size, proving that scaling factors did not affect proportion. With each added element, the individual pieces were shifted to fit together. As the population grew, occupational niches developed, and people began to specialize in certain skills. There

1785-591: A temple and terraced mound. Evidence of similar types of cranial vault modification in burials between the Omo site and the main site of Tiwanaku is also being used for this argument. Today Tiwanaku has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site , administered by the Bolivian government. Recently, the Department of Archaeology of Bolivia (DINAR, directed by Javier Escalante) has been conducting excavations on

1890-471: Is 5 m tall. Identical 20-meter-wide projections extend 27.6 meters north and south from the northeast and southeast corners of the Pumapunku. Walled and unwalled courts and an esplanade are associated with this structure. A prominent feature of the Pumapunku is a large stone terrace; it is 6.75 by 38.72 meters in dimension and paved with large stone blocks. It is called the " Plataforma Lítica " and contains

1995-538: Is a Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia , near Lake Titicaca , about 70 kilometers from La Paz , and it is one of the largest sites in South America. Surface remains currently cover around 4 square kilometers and include decorated ceramics, monumental structures, and megalithic blocks. It has been conservatively estimated that the site was inhabited by 10,000 to 20,000 people in AD 800. The site

2100-425: Is a climate variety, often grouped together with oceanic climates, which exists in some mountainous or elevated portions of the world in either the subtropics or tropics. Despite the latitude, the higher elevations of these regions mean that the climate shares characteristics with oceanic climates. Subtropical highland climates with uniform rainfall ( Cfb ) usually have rainfall spread relatively evenly throughout

2205-463: Is below 18 °C (64 °F). Without their elevation, many of these regions would likely feature either humid subtropical or tropical climates. This type of climate exists in parts of east, south and southeastern Africa , interior southern Africa and elevated portions of eastern Africa as far north as Ethiopia and of western Africa (west region of Cameroon) up to the southwestern Angola highlands also share this climate type. It also exists in

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2310-571: Is climatically Mediterranean , some parts of Southern Europe also have oceanic climates. However, these instances of the climate are highly variable, and often somewhat anomalous. The north coast of Spain , the western Azores off the coast of Portugal are too wet in summer to be Mediterranean, and too mild in summer to be humid subtropical , though they often have winter means above 9 °C (48 °F), unusual for European oceanic climates. Another anomalous case can be found in northwestern Turkey, including northern Istanbul . These places are, in

2415-519: Is correct. The Gateway of the Sun and others located at Pumapunku are not complete. They are missing part of a typical recessed frame known as a chambranle , which typically have sockets for clamps to support later additions. These architectural examples, as well as the Akapana Gate, have unique detail and demonstrate high skill in stone-cutting. This reveals a knowledge of descriptive geometry . The regularity of elements suggests they are part of

2520-657: Is divided into 16 provinces ( provincias ), which are further subdivided into 47 municipalities ( municipios ) and – on the fourth level – into 144 cantons . The provinces with their capitals and population according to census 2012 are listed as follow: The municipalities in Cochabamba Department can also be grouped informally into large regions. Provinces are not subsumed under regions, which have rather different borders. The five regions are: The languages spoken in Cochabamba Department are mainly Spanish and Quechua . The following table shows

2625-617: Is found in parts of coastal Iceland , the Faroe Islands , upland/mountainous parts of Scotland and Northern England , northwestern coastal areas of Norway (most of Lofoten , Vesterålen , warmest part of Tromsø reaching to 71°N on some islands), uplands/highlands in western Norway, the Aleutian Islands of Alaska and northern parts of the Alaskan Panhandle , the southwest of Argentina and Chile , and

2730-735: Is in South Africa from Mossel Bay on the Western Cape coast to Plettenberg Bay (the Garden Route ), with additional pockets of this climate inland of the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal coast. It is usually warm most of the year with no pronounced rainy season, but slightly more rain in autumn and spring. The Tristan da Cunha archipelago in the South Atlantic also has an oceanic climate. Although oceanic climate

2835-452: Is more frequent and commonplace in the subpolar oceanic climates due to the colder weather in those locations. Overall temperature characteristics of the oceanic climates feature cool temperatures and infrequent extremes of temperature. In the Köppen climate classification , oceanic climates have a mean temperature of 0 °C (32 °F) or higher (or −3 °C (27 °F) or higher) in

2940-564: Is needed to find new productive wells. Once called “the basket grain of Bolivia” today Cochabamba produces just a portion of the agriculture output of the country. Overpopulation in the productive valleys and “minifundio” doomed the once competitive production. Nevertheless, Cochabamba is still important in poultry, dairy, tropical fruits, potatoes, among others. Recently, Cochabamba experiences some improvement in manufacturing and industry. The cement mill of COBOCE located in Capinota almost triples

3045-465: Is one of Bolivia's most diverse regions, with a similar orography and diversity to La Paz department . Cochabamba is made up of a variety of regions. The northern portions of the department, known as the Chapare, is a region of moist Southwestern Amazonian moist forests with high levels of precipitation between 2,000mm and 7,000mm a year. This region is marked by steep hills and mountains at the edge of

3150-715: Is rare in Asia, subtropical highland climates and cold subtropical highland climates can be found in parts of Southwestern China , and the Himalayan regions of the northern Indian subcontinent . The oceanic climate is prevalent in the more southerly parts of Oceania . A mild maritime climate is in existence in New Zealand. In Australia, the climate is found in Tasmania , southern half of Victoria and southeastern New South Wales (southwards from Wollongong ). Some parts of

3255-705: The Grand Banks of Newfoundland , is thought to greatly modify the climate of northwest Europe. As a result of the North Atlantic Current , west coast areas located in high latitudes like Ireland, the UK, and Norway have much milder winters (for their latitude) than would otherwise be the case. The lowland attributes of western Europe also help drive marine air masses into continental areas, enabling cities such as Dresden , Prague , and Vienna to have maritime climates in spite of being located well inland from

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3360-846: The Guiana Shield , The highest elevations of the Brazilian Highlands , and due to variations in rainfall and temperature patterns in some places of the Tropical Andes in Bolivia, Perú, Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela. Most of Yunnan and mountainous areas across Southeast Asia , parts of the Himalayas , parts of Sri Lanka , and parts of the Hawaiian Islands of Maui and Hawaii . In the Caribbean , only

3465-793: The Northern Hemisphere include parts of coastal Iceland , the coast of Norway north of Bodø , the Scottish Highlands , the mountains of Vancouver Island , and Haida Gwaii in Canada . In the Southern Hemisphere examples include extreme southern Chile and Argentina (such as Punta Arenas and Ushuaia ), the Tasmanian Central Highlands , and parts of New Zealand . Oceanic climates are not necessarily found in coastal locations on

3570-466: The Puquina language is most likely to have been the language of Tiwanaku. The dating of the site has been significantly refined over the last century. From 1910 to 1945, Arthur Posnansky maintained that the site was 11,000–17,000 years old based on comparisons to geological eras and archaeoastronomy . Beginning in the 1970s, Carlos Ponce Sanginés proposed the site was first occupied around 1580 BC,

3675-499: The Wari culture . The Wari and Tiwanaku civilizations shared the same iconography, referred to as the "Southern Andean Iconographic Series". The relationship between the two civilizations is presumed to be trade based or military based. The Wari aren't the only other civilization that Tiwanaku could have had contact with. Inca cities also contained similar types of architecture Infrastructure seen in Tiwanaku. From this it can be expected that

3780-585: The president of Bolivia . The current governor, Humberto Sánchez of the Movement for Socialism – Political Instrument for the Sovereignty of the Peoples (MAS–IPSP) was elected on 7 March 2021 and took office on 4 May. The MAS–IPSP has been the dominant political party in the department since the 2008 recall referendum. Under the 2009 Constitution , Bolivian departments have an elected legislature,

3885-425: The subtropics or tropics , some of which have monsoon influence, while their cold variants and subpolar oceanic climates occur near polar or tundra regions. Locations with oceanic climates tend to feature frequent cloudy conditions with precipitation, low hanging clouds, and frequent fronts and storms. Thunderstorms are normally few, since strong daytime heating and hot and cold air masses meet infrequently in

3990-893: The subtropics . It exists in both hemispheres between 35° and 60°: at low altitudes between Mediterranean , humid continental , and subarctic climates. Western sea breezes ease temperatures and moderates the winter, especially if warm sea currents are present, and cause cloudy weather to predominate. Precipitation is constant, especially in colder months, when temperatures are warmer than elsewhere at comparable latitudes. This climate can occur farther inland if no mountain ranges are present or nearby. As this climate causes sufficient moisture year-round without permitting deep snow cover, vegetation typically prospers in this climate. Deciduous trees are predominant in this climate region. However, conifers such as spruce , pine , and cedar are also common in few areas, and fruits such as apples , pears , and grapes can often be cultivated here. In

4095-578: The suka kollus , accurate dating of the civilization's growth and influence, and evidence for a drought-based collapse of the Tiwanaku civilization. Archaeologists such as Paul Goldstein have argued that the Tiwanaku empire ranged outside of the altiplano area and into the Moquegua Valley in Peru. Excavations at Omo settlements show signs of similar architecture characteristic of Tiwanaku, such as

4200-417: The Akapana, made of andesite , is estimated to weigh 65.7 tons . Tenon stone blocks in the form of puma and human heads stud the upper terraces. The Akapana East was built on the eastern side of early Tiwanaku. Later it was considered a boundary between the ceremonial center and the urban area. It was made of a thick, prepared floor of sand and clay, which supported a group of buildings. Yellow and red clay

4305-1008: The Central Andes descending into the flat floodplains of the Llanos de Moxos to the north of Cochabamba. Further east of this region is a transition zone between the Tropical Wet-and-Dry forests of Santa Cruz and the Chapare, where Monsoonal climates predominate with an average annual precipitation between 1,800mm and 3,000mm. South of the Tropical lowlands of Cochabamba lies a thin band of montane cloud forests that run slightly southeast from north to south in Cochabamba. This region features an unusual subtropical highland climate and Oceanic climate , with precipitation year-round, with some drying periods. Precipitation in this region ranges between 1,000mm and 2,500mm. The center of

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4410-616: The Departmental Legislative Assembly. The Cochabamba Assembly has 34 members including two indigenous representatives. The first elections were held 4 April 2010 and the current composition was determined at the regional election on 7 March 2021. The current executive committee, elected on 3 May 2022, consists of Elena Aine Espinoza as president, Francisco Otalora Ticona as first vice-president, Pedro Andrés Badran Leon as second vice-president and Julieta Veizaga Guevara as first secretary. Cochabamba Department

4515-460: The Gateway of the Sun called Southern Andean Iconographic Series can be seen on several stone sculptures, Qirus , snuff trays and other Tiwanaku artifacts. The unique carvings on the top of the Gate of the sun depict animals and other beings. Some have claimed that the symbolism represents a calendar system unique to the people of Tiwanaku, although there is no definitive evidence that this theory

4620-682: The Inca took some inspiration from the city of Tiwanaku and other early civilizations in the Andean basin. The structures that have been excavated by researchers at Tiwanaku include the terraced platform mound Akapana , Akapana East, and Pumapunku stepped platforms, the Kalasasaya , the Kantatallita, the Kheri Kala, and Putuni enclosures, and the Semi-Subterranean Temple. The Akapana is

4725-467: The Kalasasaya are almost all reconstructed. The reconstruction was not sufficiently based on evidence. The reconstruction does not have as high quality of stonework as was present in Tiwanaku. Early visitors compared Kalasasaya to Englands Stonehenge . Ephraim Squier called it "American Stonehenge". Before the reconstruction, it had more of a "Stonehenge"-like appearance as the filler stones between

4830-464: The Kalasasaya is estimated to weigh 26.95 metric tons. Within many of the site's structures are impressive gateways; the ones of monumental scale are placed on artificial mounds, platforms, or sunken courts. One gateway shows the iconography of a front-facing figure in Staff God pose. This iconography also is used on some oversized vessels, indicating an importance to the culture. The iconography of

4935-592: The Puma Punku. Alan Kolata of the University of Chicago conducted research at Tiwanaku in the late 1900s from which he made descriptions of the City and its structure and culture in his book The Tiwanaku. He later published Valley of The Spirits which described more aspects of Tiwanaku culture such as astrology and mythology. John Wayne Janusek of Vanderbilt University spent time in the late 1900s as well at

5040-419: The Tiwanaku, have a complex belief system similar to the cosmology of several other Andean civilizations. They believe in the existence of three spaces: Arajpacha, the upper world; Akapacha, the middle or inner world; and Manqhaoacha, the lower world. Often associated with the cosmos and Milky Way, the upper world is considered to be where celestial beings live. The middle world is where all living things are, and

5145-424: The aforementioned parallels; however, in most cases oceanic climates parallel higher middle latitude oceans. The polar jet stream , which moves in a west to east direction across the middle latitudes, advances low pressure systems, storms, and fronts. In coastal areas of the higher middle latitudes (45–60° latitude), the prevailing onshore flow creates the basic structure of most oceanic climates. Oceanic climates are

5250-553: The architecture and stonework seen at Tiwanaku. His work has played a huge role in creating potential reconstructions of what many of the structures look like, especially the puma punku. Subtropical highland climate An oceanic climate , also known as a marine climate or maritime climate , is the temperate climate sub-type in Köppen classification represented as Cfb , typical of west coasts in higher middle latitudes of continents, generally featuring cool to warm summers and cool to mild winters (for their latitude), with

5355-613: The artifacts he will find, on behalf of Meiggs, to Washington's Smithsonian Institution and the American Museum of Natural History in New York . Ber’s expedition was cut short by the violent hostility of the local population, instigated by the Catholic parish priest, but von Grumbkow’s early pictures survive. In the 1960s, the Bolivian government initiated an effort to restore the site and reconstruct part of it. The walls of

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5460-526: The city had a population of 22,305 persons. There were 12,980 mestizos, 6,368 Spaniards, 1,182 indigenous natives, 1,600 mulattos and 175 African slaves. In 2000, Cochabamba was wracked by large-scale protests over the privatisation of the city's water supply, known as the Water War . In January 2007 city dwellers clashed with mostly rural protestors, leaving four dead and over 130 injured. The democratically elected Prefect of Cochabamba, Manfred Reyes Villa,

5565-570: The coldest month, compared to continental climates where the coldest month has a mean temperature of below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (27 °F)) in the coldest month. Summers are warm but not hot, with the warmest month having a mean temperature below 22 °C (72 °F). Poleward of the latter is a subtype of it, the subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen Cfc ), with long but relatively mild (for their latitude) winters, and cool and short summers with average temperatures of at least 10 °C (50 °F) for one to three months. Examples in

5670-539: The department is marked by the temperate xeric valleys of Cochabamba (known as Kanata), Alto Cochabamba, and Capinota. These valley areas are marked by dry montane forests, and semi-arid orographies. Temperate climates year-round feature considerable diurnal temperature variation due to the high altitude. A majority of the department's population lives in this area, where major cities are located like Cochabamba , Cliza , Punata , Sacaba , Quillacollo , Arani , Santivańez , Capinota , Irpa Irpa , among others. Surrounding

5775-551: The east, and (in some locations) summers become hotter. The line between oceanic Europe and Mediterranean Europe normally runs west to east and is related to changes in precipitation patterns and differences to seasonal temperatures; although intrusions of polar air, remnants of marine air-masses, and higher summer precipitation can create oceanic climates in Eastern Europe and transcontinental regions as far south as 40°N. The oceanic climate exists in an arc spreading across

5880-635: The exposed areas of the High Atlas , some mountainous areas across southern Europe , mountainous sections of North America , including parts of the southern Appalachians and the Central America Volcanic Arc . In South America , it can be found mainly in temperate mountainous areas in the Tropical Andes , Venezuelan Coastal Range , the highest elevations of Serra do Mar in Southeastern Brazil , and tepuis of

5985-429: The gateway's original location. Near the courtyard is the Semi-Subterranean Temple; a square sunken courtyard that is unique for its north-south rather than east-west axis. The walls are covered with tenon heads of many different styles, suggesting that the structure was reused for different purposes over time. It was built with walls of sandstone pillars and smaller blocks of Ashlar masonry. The largest stone block in

6090-817: The hottest month, the average temperature is below 22 °C (72 °F), and at least four months feature average temperatures higher than 10 °C (50 °F). The average temperature of the coldest month must not be colder than −3–0 °C (27–32 °F), or the climate will be classified as continental. The average temperature variations in the year are between 10–15 °C (50–59 °F), with average annual temperatures between 6–13 °C (43–55 °F). Rain values can vary from 50–500 cm (20–197 in), depending on whether mountains cause orographic precipitation . Frontal cyclones can be common in marine west coast regions, with some areas experiencing more than 150 rainy days annually, but strong storms are rare. Cfb climates are predominant in most of Europe except

6195-765: The immediate west and northwest in transition for humid continental , the remainder of Cape Cod ) and northeastern Georgia both in the eastern United States . It is also found in the highest portions of the Brazilian state of Bahia and Roraima (in transition or strongly influenced for Cwb ), Brønnøy Municipality in Nordland at 65.28 °N ( Norway north-central coast), the provinces of Sabah (northeastern Malaysia ), and Baluchistan , Pakistan . Although there are more or less rare places associated with relatively isolated mountainous regions (e.g., North Oceania islands and China ). The subtropical highland climate

6300-561: The isotherm used. Typically, these areas in the warmest month experience daytime maximum temperatures below 17 °C (63 °F), while the coldest month features highs slightly above freezing and lows near or just below freezing while keeping the average warm enough. It typically carries a Cfc designation, though very small areas in Argentina and Chile have summers sufficiently short to be Cwc with fewer than four months over 10 °C (50 °F). This variant of an oceanic climate

6405-515: The lack of ceramic styles from earlier periods. Tiwanaku began its steady growth in the early centuries of the first millennium AD. From approximately 375 to 700 AD, this Andean city grew to significance. At its height, the city of Tiwanaku spanned an area of roughly 4 square kilometers (1.5 square miles) and had a population greater than 10,000 individuals. The growth of the city was due to its complex agropastoral economy, supported by trade. The site appeared to have collapsed around 1000 AD, however

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6510-408: The large stone pillars were all looted. As noted, the Gateway of the Sun, now in the Kalasasaya, is believed to have been moved from its original location. Modern, academically sound archaeological excavations were performed from 1978 through the 1990s by University of Chicago anthropologist Alan Kolata and his Bolivian counterpart, Oswaldo Rivera. Among their contributions are the rediscovery of

6615-403: The largest stone block found in the Tiwanaku site. According to Ponce Sangines, the block is estimated to weigh 131 metric tonnes. The second-largest stone block found within the Pumapunku is estimated to be 85 metric tonnes. Scattered around the site of the Puma Punku are various types of cut stones. Due to the complexity of the stonework the site is often cited by conspiracy theorists to be

6720-406: The lower world is where life itself is inverted. As the site has suffered from looting and amateur excavations since shortly after Tiwanaku's fall, archeologists must attempt to interpret it with the understanding that materials have been jumbled and destroyed. This destruction continued during the Spanish conquest and colonial period, and during 19th century and the early 20th century. Other damage

6825-467: The main routes of transport joining the two main cities, the host government La Paz and the industrial hub Santa Cruz. Therefore, many cervices i.e. transport, banking, telecommunication, gastronomy, are economically important in the corridor La Paz – Santa Cruz. Extraction of oil was very important for the economy in the past; especially in Chapare where the wells are located. By 2013 many of the exploited wells were showing signs of depletion. Thus, investment

6930-571: The majority of the land from local tribal chiefs Achata and Consavana through a title registered in 1552 at the Imperial City of Potosí. The price paid was 130 pesos. His residence, known as the House of Mayorazgo, still stands in the Cala Cala neighbourhood of the city. The city, called Villa de Oropesa was founded on 2 August 1571 by order of Viceroy Francisco de Toledo, Count of Oropesa. It

7035-416: The mountains and Lake Titicaca. The lake level of Lake Titicaca has fluctuated significantly over time. The spiritual importance and location of the lake contributed to the religious significance of Tiwanaku. In the Tiwanaku worldview, Lake Titicaca is the spiritual birthplace of their cosmic beliefs. According to Incan mythology, Lake Titicaca is the birthplace of Viracocha , who was responsible for creating

7140-542: The north of Croatia and Serbia and some parts of the Czech Republic , also have oceanic climates; these are generally near the boundary for being humid continental . The line between oceanic and continental climates in Europe runs in a generally north to south direction. For example, western Germany is more impacted by milder Atlantic air masses than eastern Germany. Thus, winters across Europe become colder to

7245-412: The northeast and southeast corners of this structure. Originally, the Akapana was thought to have been developed from a modified hill. Twenty-first-century studies have shown that it is an entirely man-made earthen mound , faced with a mixture of large and small stone blocks. The dirt comprising Akapana appears to have been excavated from the "moat" that surrounds the site. The largest stone block within

7350-818: The northeast, as global temperatures became warmer towards late 20th and early 21st century. They are the main climate type in New Zealand and the Australian states of Tasmania , Victoria , and southeastern New South Wales (starting from the Illawarra region). In North America, they are found mainly in Vancouver Island and neighbouring parts of British Columbia , as well as many coastal areas of southeast Alaska . There are pockets of this iteration of Cfb climates in South American countries, mostly in regions of southern Chile and Argentina, parts of

7455-539: The northeastern coast of Honshu , such as Mutsu, Aomori in Japan, feature this climate, which is rare in Asia due to the lack of a west coast in the middle latitudes. Île Amsterdam and Île Saint-Paul , both part of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands , are located in the subtropics and have an oceanic climate (akin to Tristan da Cunha; see above). Temperate oceanic climates, also known as "marine mild winter" climates or simply oceanic climates, are found either at middle latitudes . They are often found on or near

7560-620: The northwestern coast of North America from the Alaskan panhandle to northern Washington . In addition, some east coast areas such as Block Island , Cape Cod , Martha's Vineyard , and Nantucket have a similar climate. And in the highlands of Central and South America with the variant Cfb. An extensive area of oceanic climates distinguishes the coastal regions of southern Chile and extends into bordering Argentina . The only noteworthy area of maritime climate at or near sea-level within Africa

7665-494: The number of those belonging to the recognised group of speakers. Cochabamba is home to a diverse amount of religious adherents, with 42% identifying as Catholics, 32% as Evangelical Christians, 0.67% as Muslims, and the remaining 27% as identifying with either no religion or other religions. The Cochabamba economy is based mainly in services, but recently it is experiencing some diversification in manufacturing, agriculture and tourism. The geographic location of Cochabamba makes it

7770-763: The ocean. Oceanic climates in Europe occupy a large stretch of land, from Norway 's Atlantic coast, Ireland and the United Kingdom and southeast to some parts of Turkey . Western Europe is almost exclusively oceanic between 45°N to 54.913°N; including most of France (away from the Mediterranean), nearly all of Belgium , the Netherlands , Austria , most of Luxembourg , most of Denmark , western Germany , northwestern Switzerland , south coast and western areas of Norway north to Skrova and extreme southern Sweden . While most of Southern Europe

7875-842: The peaks in the highest mountain ranges have this climate (including the Blue Mountains in Jamaica and Cerro Maravilla in Puerto Rico ), with only Hispaniola 's Cordillera Central and Chaîne de la Selle having significant urban settlements under this climate zone, such as cities like Kenscoff in Haiti and Constanza in the Dominican Republic . Areas with subpolar oceanic climates feature an oceanic climate but are usually located closer to polar regions, with long but relatively mild winters and short, cool summers. As

7980-583: The period of the site, certain buildings changed purposes, causing a mix of artifacts found today. Detailed study of Tiwanaku began on a small scale in the mid-nineteenth century. In the 1860s, Ephraim George Squier visited the ruins and later published maps and sketches completed during his visit. German geologist Alphons Stübel spent nine days in Tiwanaku in 1876, creating a map of the site based on careful measurements. He also made sketches and created paper impressions of carvings and other architectural features. A book containing major photographic documentation

8085-480: The positions of the sun, moon, Milky Way and other celestial bodies well enough to give them a significant role in their architecture. Aymara legends place Tiwanaku at the center of the universe, probably because of the importance of its geographical location. The Tiwanaku were highly aware of their natural surroundings and would use them and their understanding of astronomy as reference points in their architectural plans. The most significant landmarks in Tiwanaku are

8190-551: The production tapering the strong demand. The roads to the industrial park and other facilities of the park were improved making it more competitive for the local and new industries. Also, it is worth to mention the almost 1b USD government investment in the petro chemistry (urea plant) located in Bulo Bulo. 17°20′S 65°30′W  /  17.333°S 65.500°W  / -17.333; -65.500 Tiwanaku Tiwanaku ( Spanish : Tiahuanaco or Tiahuanacu )

8295-405: The protestors, breaking the blockade and routing them, while the police did little to stop the violence. Further attempts by the protestors to reinstate the blockade and threaten the government were unsuccessful, but the underlying tensions have not been resolved. In July 2007, a monument erected by veterans of January's protest movement in honour of those killed and injured by government supporters

8400-650: The provinces of Chubut , Santa Cruz , and southeast Buenos Aires province in Argentina. In Western Asia , the climate can be found on the Black Sea coast of northern Turkey and Georgia , often transitional to humid subtropical . While Cfb zones are rare in Africa, one dominates the coastline of the Eastern Cape in South Africa . The climate subtype can also be found in Nantucket , Massachusetts (in

8505-462: The reasoning behind this is still open to debate. Recent studies by geologist Elliott Arnold of the University of Pittsburgh have shown evidence of a greater amount of aridity in the region around the time of collapse. A drought in the region would have affected local systems of agriculture and likely played a role in the collapse of Tiwanaku. The people of Tiwanaku held a tight relationship with

8610-419: The regions, but are more common in subtropical highland climates where these air masses meet more frequently due to the influence of hotter weather in the subtropics or tropics, especially in monsoon-influenced climates. In most areas with an oceanic climate, precipitation comes in the form of rain for the majority of the year. Most oceanic climate zones, however, experience at least one snowfall per year. Snowfall

8715-415: The remaining population is mestizo. Cochabamba Department is bordered by Chuquisaca and Potosi Departments to the south, Oruro and La Paz Departments to the west, Beni Department to the north, and Santa Cruz Department to the east. The borders are formed mainly by rivers, like Ichilo to the east, Rio Grande to the south and Cotacajes to the west. Geographically and climatically, Cochabamba

8820-499: The residential area outside the monumental core, has provoked controversy amongst local archaeologists. The program was directed by Gary Urton , of Harvard, who was an expert on quipus , and Alexei Vranich of the University of Pennsylvania . The controversy was over allowing a team of untrained students to work on the site, even under professional supervision. It was so important that only certified professional archaeologists with documented funding were allowed access. The controversy

8925-615: The shape of the continent. Only in Europe do they penetrate far inland, where they eventually transition into warm-summer humid continental climates ; in other continents, they are blocked by a large mountain range or limited by nearby oceans. The North Atlantic Gulf Stream , a tropical oceanic current that passes north of the Caribbean and up the East Coast of the United States to North Carolina , then heads east-northeast to

9030-453: The site of Tiwanaku recording findings of the excavations going on. In 2008 he published Ancient Tiwanaku which described his findings on the architecture, agriculture and other aspects of Tiwanaku life. Jean-Pierre Protzen was an architecture professor of the University of California at Berkeley and spent much of his life studying the architecture of Tiwanaku. In 2013, he published The Stones of Tiahuanaco which gives great descriptions of

9135-416: The site's oldest radiocarbon date. This date is still seen in some publications and museums in Bolivia. Since the 1980s, researchers have recognized this date as unreliable, leading to the consensus that the site is no older than 200 or 300 BC. More recently, a statistical assessment of reliable radiocarbon dates estimates that the site was founded around AD 110 (50–170, 68% probability), a date supported by

9240-486: The site. Lidar, aerial photography, drones, and terrestrial laser scanning were all used in this process. Data concluded from this research includes topographical maps that show the principal structures at the site along with mapping of multiple structures in the Mollo Kuntu area. Over 300 million data points were placed from these methods and have helped redefine main structures that have not fully been excavated such as

9345-403: The smaller valleys of the department's center from the west to the east, is a region of Andean highlands, featuring a subtropical highland climate , with annual precipitation averaging between 400mm and 1,400mm. This region of rocky valleys and moderately sized mountains features mosaics of high altitude forests and agricultural heartland. This region features dramatic and diverse geographies, with

9450-582: The sun, moon, people, and the cosmos. In the Kalasasaya at Tiwanaku, carved atop a monolith known as the Gate of the Sun , is a front-facing figure holding a spear-thrower and snuff. Some speculate that this is a representation of Viracocha. However, it is also possible that this figure represents a deity that the Aymara refer to as “Tunuupa” who, like Viracocha, is associated with legends of creation and destruction. The Aymara , who are thought to be descendants of

9555-448: The terraced platform mound Akapana. The Proyecto Arqueologico Pumapunku-Akapana (Pumapunku-Akapana Archaeological Project, PAPA) run by the University of Pennsylvania , has been excavating in the area surrounding the terraced platform mound for the past few years, and also conducting Ground Penetrating Radar surveys of the area. In former years, an archaeological field school offered through Harvard 's Summer School Program, conducted in

9660-448: The tropics, a subtropical highland climate typically features mild weather year-round. Temperatures there remain relatively constant throughout the year and snowfall is seldom seen due to warmer winters than most oceanic climates. Areas with this climate feature monthly averages below 22 °C (72 °F) but above either 0 °C (32 °F) or −3 °C (27 °F) depending on isotherm used. At least one month's average temperature

9765-414: The west coast of continents; hence another name for Cfb, "marine west coast climates". In addition to moderate temperatures year-round, one of the characteristics is the absence of a dry season. Except for Europe , this type of climate is confined to narrow bands of territory, largely in mid or high latitudes, although it can appear in elevated areas of continental terrain in low latitudes, e.g. plateaus in

9870-571: The year, similar to other oceanic climates, but unlike these climates, they have a high diurnal temperature variation and low humidity, owing to their inland location and relatively high elevation. Subtropical highland climates with monsoon influence ( Cwb ) have distinctive wet summers and dry winters . In locations outside the tropics, other than the drying trend in the winter, subtropical highland climates tend to be essentially identical to an oceanic climate, with mild summers and noticeably cooler winters, plus, in some instances, some snowfall. In

9975-459: Was accompanied by hierarchical stratification within the state. Some authors believe that the elites of Tiwanaku lived inside four walls that were surrounded by a moat. This theory is called "Tiwanaku moat theory". This moat, some believe, was to create the image of a sacred island. Inside the walls were many images devoted to human origin, which only the elites would see. Commoners may have entered this structure only for ceremonial purposes since it

10080-490: Was an increase in artisans, who worked in pottery, jewelry, and textiles. Like the later Inca, the Tiwanaku had few commercial or market institutions. Instead, the culture relied on elite redistribution. That is, the elites of the state controlled essentially all economic output but were expected to provide each commoner with all the resources needed to perform his or her function. Selected occupations include agriculturists, herders, pastoralists, etc. Such separation of occupations

10185-605: Was charged with nationalistic and political undertones. The Harvard field school lasted for three years, beginning in 2004 and ending in 2007. The project was not renewed in subsequent years, nor was permission sought to do so. In 2009 state-sponsored restoration work on Akapana was halted due to a complaint from UNESCO . The restoration had consisted of facing the platform mound with adobe , although researchers had not established this as appropriate. In 2013, marine archaeologists exploring Lake Titicaca's Khoa reef discovered an ancient ceremonial site and lifted artifacts such as

10290-417: Was committed by people quarrying stone for building and railroad construction, and target practice by military personnel. No standing buildings have survived at the modern site. Only public, non-domestic foundations remain, with poorly reconstructed walls. The ashlar blocks used in many of these structures were mass-produced in similar styles so that they could possibly be used for multiple purposes. Throughout

10395-538: Was constructed so that it was aligned with the peak of Quimsachata , providing a view of the rotation of the Milky Way from the southern pole. Other structures like Kalasasaya are positioned to provide optimal views of the sunrise on the Equinox, Summer Solstice, and Winter Solstice. Although the symbolic and functional value of these monuments can only be speculated upon, the Tiwanaku were able to study and interpret

10500-482: Was destroyed in the middle of the night, reigniting racial conflicts in the city. In August 2008, a nationwide referendum was held, and while President Evo Morales had 67% support in Bolivia, the Prefect of Cochabamba, Manfred Reyes Villa, was not confirmed by the voters of the department. In 2018 Cochabamba hosted the 2018 South American Games ODESUR. Around 74% of Cochabambinos identify as indigenous, while most of

10605-514: Was first recorded in written history in 1549 by Spanish conquistador Pedro Cieza de León while searching for the southern Inca capital of Qullasuyu . Jesuit chronicler of Peru Bernabé Cobo reported that Tiwanaku's name once was taypiqala , which is Aymara meaning "stone in the center", alluding to the belief that it lay at the center of the world. The name by which Tiwanaku was known to its inhabitants may have been lost as they had no written language. Heggarty and Beresford-Jones suggest that

10710-488: Was home to the holiest of shrines. In many Andean cultures, mountains are venerated and may be considered sacred objects. The site of Tiwanaku is located in the valley between two sacred mountains, Pukara and Chuqi Q’awa . At such temples in ancient times, ceremonies were conducted to honor and pay gratitude to the gods and spirits. They were places of worship and rituals that helped unify Andean peoples through shared symbols and pilgrimage destinations. Tiwanaku became

10815-425: Was published in 1892 by engineer Georg von Grumbkow, With commentary by archaeologist Max Uhle , this was the first in-depth scientific account of the ruins. Von Grumbkow had first visited Tiwanaku between the end of 1876 and the beginning of 1877, when he accompanied as a photographer the expedition of French adventurer Théodore Ber , financed by American businessman Henry Meiggs , against Ber’s promise of donating

10920-515: Was to be an agricultural production centre to provide food for the mining towns of the relatively nearby Altiplano region, particularly the city of Potosí which became one of the largest and richest cities in the world during the 17th century – funding the vast wealth that ultimately made Spain a world power at the time. With the silver mining industry in Potosi at its height, Cochabamba thrived during its first centuries of existence. The city entered

11025-416: Was used in different areas for what seems like aesthetic purposes. It was swept clean of all domestic refuse, signaling its great importance to the culture. The Pumapunku is a man-made platform built on an east-west axis like the Akapana. It is a T-shaped, terraced earthen platform mound faced with megalithic blocks. It is 167.36 m wide along its north-south axis and 116.7 m broad along its east-west axis and

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