The National Copper Corporation of Chile ( Spanish : Corporación Nacional del Cobre de Chile ), abbreviated as Codelco , is a Chilean state-owned copper mining company. It was formed in 1976 from foreign-owned copper companies that were nationalised in 1971.
126-838: The headquarters are in Santiago and the seven-man board of directors is appointed by the President of the Republic. It has the Minister of Mining as its president and six other members including the Minister of Finance and one representative each from the Copper Workers Federation and the National Association of Copper Supervisors. It is currently the largest copper producing company in the world and produced 1.66 million tonnes of copper in 2007, 11% of
252-489: A 14-metre (46 ft) statue of the Virgin Mary . Today, the statue is visible from various points in the city. However, the shrine was not completed until several decades later. The 1910 Chile Centennial celebrations marked the beginning of several urban development projects. The railway network was expanded, connecting the city and its growing suburbs with a new ring and route to Cajón del Maipo . A new railway station
378-668: A 49% interest in the El Abra Mine. It has several other potential mining operations under exploration and development including the Alejandro Hales, Gaby/Gabriela Mistral, the Toki Cluster, Mocha, and Casualidad projects. All excess profits go to the government, including a 10% tax on foreign currency sales (Law 13,196). In 2007 Codelco paid US$ 7.394 billion to the Chilean Treasury. Codelco has negotiated
504-543: A 7-year US$ 3.0 billion syndicated loan which, with the US$ 1.96 billion in cash and cash equivalent at the end of 2007 leaves the corporation well placed to finance the several new projects that it is investigating. Codelco Norte is a division of Codelco that is made of the Chuquicamata and Radomiro Tomic mining areas. Copper has been mined for centuries at Chuquicamata as was shown by the discovery in 1898 of "Copper Man",
630-410: A Teniente converter with electric furnace slag cleaning, three Pierce Smith converters, a rotary anode furnace and two reverbatory refining furnaces and two anode casting wheels. Capacity is 450,000 tonnes p.a. concentrate to produce 110,000 tonnes copper annually. Off gasses go to a Hugo Petersen sulphuric acid plant. The refinery produces cathode copper, and gold, silver and selenium are produced from
756-486: A heated discussion about the actual implementation of mandatory earthquake standards in the city's modern architecture. Despite urban integration efforts, socioeconomic inequality and geosocial fragmentation remain two of the most important problems, both in the city and in the country. These problems have been considered one of the factors that led to the " Estallido Social " , a series of massive protests and severe riots carried out between 2019 and 2020. The protests led to
882-477: A layer of smog blanketed the city. In response, the authorities implemented legislative measures to reduce industrial pollution and placed restrictions on vehicle use. To address the problem of transportation, the metro system underwent significant expansion, with lines being extended and three new lines added between 1997 and 2006 in the southeastern sector. In 2011, a new extension was inaugurated in Maipú, bringing
1008-559: A leached zone and a substantial zone of secondary enrichment, both of very variable thickness. It surrounds a narrow, almost circular ring of tourmaline breccia which in turn surrounds the Braden Chimney, an inverted cone of breccia which was emplaced after the main mineralisation. Reserves and resources are substantial. At the end of 2007 reserves and resources in the mining plan totalled 4,204 million tonnes grading 0.91% copper or 38.3 million tonnes of contained copper. In addition
1134-515: A mummy dated at about 550 A.D. which was found trapped in an ancient mine shaft by a fall of rock. However mining on any scale did not start until the later years of the 19th century and these early operations mined the high grade veins (10-15% copper) and disregarded the low grade disseminated ore. One attempt was made to process the low grade ore in 1899-1900 by Norman Walker, a partner in La Compañia de Cobre de Antofagasta, but it failed leaving
1260-704: A north–south direction and 35 km (22 mi) from east to west. The Mapocho River flows through the city. The city is flanked by the main chain of the Andes to the east and the Chilean Coastal Range to the west. On the north, it is bordered by the Cordón de Chacabuco , a mountain range of the Andes. At the southern border lies the Angostura de Paine , an elongated spur of the Andes that almost reaches
1386-573: A powerful earthquake struck the city on 3 March 1985, causing minimal casualties but leaving many homeless and destroying numerous historic buildings. With the onset of the transition to democracy in 1990, the city of Santiago surpassed four million inhabitants, with the majority residing in the south, particularly in La Florida, which was the most populous area, followed by Puente Alto and Maipú. The real estate development in these municipalities, as well as in others such as Quilicura and Peñalolén,
SECTION 10
#17327827624831512-525: A serious civil confrontation, which led to thousands of arrests and accusations of human rights violations. Meanwhile, the demonstrations registered serious episodes of violence against public and private infrastructure, mainly in the surroundings of Plaza Baquedano , with the Santiago Metro being one of the most affected by these episodes: more than half of its stations registered damage (several being partially set on fire) and only eleven months later
1638-539: A small scale mine failed for lack of capital and the property was eventually bought by the American, William Braden, for approximately US$ 100,000. The same year Braden formed Rancagua Mines, which became the Braden Copper Company, in association with old colleagues from ASARCO, including Barton Sewell. Work started on establishing a mine in 1905 after Government permission had been acquired but progress
1764-418: A substandard cathode. The 'exotic' ore is now being heap leached and the copper extracted by SX/EW which leaves the impurities behind in the leach solution. It is expected that this operation will produce 129,000 tonnes of good quality copper cathode annually. This is the leaching of certain copper bearing waste dumps and is expected to produce 26,000 tonnes of copper annually. This is a major discovery that
1890-459: A substantial tonnage of so-called exotic copper in the channel of paleogravels (ancient gravels) between the two and which were mined in Mina Sur. The minerals, thought to be deposited by colloidal copper solutions leached from the main deposit, included manganese bearing copper pitch and copper wad, along with other impurities which made the ore difficult to leach in the original vats and produced
2016-421: A water equivalent of more than 15 million cubic metres have been affected by Andina, including the partial removal of rock glaciers. Situated 44 km east of Rancagua and 75 km south of the capital, Santiago, El Teniente claims to be the largest underground copper mine in the world (see below). The El Teniente orebody has been known and worked on a small scale for many years. In the 16th century it became
2142-416: Is cathode copper. It is also one of the world's largest molybdenum producers, producing 27,857 fine metric tons in 2007, and is a large producer of rhenium , of which Chile is the world's largest producer. It also produces small amounts of gold and silver from refinery anode slimes , the residue from electro refining of copper. Codelco's history begins with Law 11,828, of May 5, 1955, that created
2268-690: Is Ariel Guajardo. Situated some 80 km northeast of the capital, Santiago , the Andina mine was discovered in 1920 but production did not start until 1970. It consists of the Rio Blanco underground (block cave) mine and the Sur Sur open pit and an underground concentrator. Unlike other Codelco mines, it does not have its own smelter. Geologically it consists of about half the Los Bronces-Rio Blanco complex of mineralised breccias ,
2394-406: Is a porphyry copper with an extensive capping of leachable oxide and sulphide mineralisation. Production over the next three years is expected to be in the 152,000 to 168,000 tonnes copper p.a. from the 227,000 tonnes p.a.capacity SX/EW plant. It is planned to exploit the underlying sulphides starting in 2010 which should extend the mine life by over 10 years. The Gabriela Mistral ("Gaby") Project
2520-489: Is a problem which is being addressed but little has been reported. The El Salvador mine is a combined open pit and underground copper mine in the company town of El Salvador . The El Salvador mine was purchased by Anaconda Copper , who had little intention of mining it, due to high tax rates by the Chilean government. When the tax rates were reduced Anaconda decided to bring the mine into production. Production at
2646-451: Is a smelter situated on the coast 35 km north of Valparaiso. It was transferred from ENAMI in May 2005. It processes concentrates and anodes from Andina and El Teniente, amongst other producers, and makes Codelco increasingly self-sufficient. The 'New Ventanas Project' is investigating the feasibility of converting it into a large scale smelting and refining complex. The plant consists of
SECTION 20
#17327827624832772-428: Is also possible that it may enable an expansion of the sulphide mill's capacity. For many years Chuquicamata, particularly its smelter, was a byword for pollution and the inhabitants of the Chuquicamata camp and Calama had serious amounts of arsenic in their blood. This has changed drastically. The camp at Chuquicamata has been closed and the inhabitants moved to Calama, away from the dust and general pollution close to
2898-414: Is an oxide copper project located 120 km south of Calama. Reserves are estimated at 580 million tonnes of oxide ore grading 1.41% copper and there is underlying sulphide mineralisation but this is not being considered at present. A 14-year open pit leaching and SX/EW operation producing about 150,000 tonnes of copper annually is planned. Startup was in 2008 marking the milestone to be the first mine in
3024-441: Is being studied which will give access to 1.5 billion tonnes of ore grading 0.96% copper and extend the life of the mine by many years. All ore is now treated in the lower Colón mill, the original Sewell mill being closed. Capacity is now 130,000 tonnes daily, split equally between SAG and conventional milling, followed by flotation, thickening and filtration. The recent increase in mill capacity has been necessary to compensate for
3150-399: Is extracted by SX/EW. Leached ore is removed by bucket wheel excavator followed by secondary leaching. It is likely that the 'refractory' sulphide ore will be mined and used to keep the Chuquicamata mill full during the changeover to underground mining. The last published production by Radomiro Tomic, from Cochilco, was 379,600 tonnes in 2013. Between the main pit and Mina Sur there remains
3276-561: Is from the family of his paternal grandmother, Marie Severine Cappelen (died 1900) married to Peder Høegh Smith (died 1881). He grew up as the eldest son among nine children and attended the Trondheim Cathedral School . He was educated as a chemist at Trondhjems Tekniske Læreanstalt , now the Norwegian University of Science and Technology , taking his final exam in 1893. The same year he emigrated to
3402-629: Is headed by a provincial delegate appointed by the President of the Republic, and it is also part of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, governed by a popularly elected governor . When the term Santiago is used without further clarification, it typically refers to Gran Santiago (Greater Santiago), the metropolitan area characterized by continuous urban development. This area includes the commune of Santiago and over 40 other communes, encompassing much of Santiago Province and parts of neighboring provinces . The definition of
3528-483: Is no less than 14 km long. The deposit is covered with some 100 metres of alluvium and in 1993/94 Codelco estimated a resource base for the operation of 802 million tonnes of oxide ore grading 0.59% copper and 1,600 million tonnes of refractory (sulphide) ore. The deposit covers an area of 5 km x 1.5 km. Mining started in 1997 and is again a conventional truck and shovel operation followed by crushing, pre treatment and stacking before acid leaching. Copper
3654-486: Is present at over 1,000 meters of altitude. The natural vegetation of Santiago is made up of a thorny woodland of Vachellia caven (also known as Acacia caven and espinillo) and Prosopis chilensis in the west and an association of Vachellia caven and Baccharis paniculata in the east around the Andean foothills. Elias Anton Cappelen Smith Elias Anton Cappelen Smith (6 November 1873 – 25 June 1949)
3780-464: Is still in use today, although the process has been significantly improved since then. In 2010, with 250 converters working in the world, the Peirce–Smith converters refine 90% of the copper matte. The Guggenheim process is a method of chemical precipitation which employs ferric chloride and aeration to prepare sludge for filtration. Cappelen Smith improved the leaching technology and applied it to
3906-548: Is the Tupungato mountain at 6,570 m (21,555 ft). Other mountains include Tupungatito , San José , and Maipo . Cerro El Plomo is the highest mountain visible from Santiago's urban area. During recent decades, urban growth has outgrown the boundaries of the city, expanding to the east up the slopes of the Andean Precordillera . In areas such as La Dehesa, Lo Curro, and El Arrayan, urban development
Codelco - Misplaced Pages Continue
4032-538: Is the capital and largest city of Chile and one of the largest cities in the Americas . It is located in the country's central valley and is the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region , which has a population of seven million, representing 40% of Chile's total population. Most of the city is situated between 500–650 m (1,640–2,133 ft) above sea level . Founded in 1541 by
4158-403: Is through adits (horizontal tunnels) to shafts and other services cut in the Braden Chimney. Mining methods include panel caving, panel caving with pre-undercut, and block caving, which have been adapted to overcome the serious rockburst problem which stopped mining some years ago on level 6 and threatened the future of the mine. A new level, Level 8, is now in operation and another, lower, level
4284-475: The Apostle James , the patron saint of Spain. The city was established near Huelén, which Valdivia renamed Santa Lucía. He assigned the city's layout to master builder Pedro de Gamboa , who designed a grid plan . At its center, Gamboa placed a Plaza Mayor , which became the town's central hub. Surrounding the plaza, plots were designated for the cathedral , the jail, and the governor's house . The city
4410-525: The Arauco War . Santiago was left vulnerable, and a coalition of Mapuche and Picunche tribes led by chief Michimalonco destroyed the city on 11 September 1541, despite the efforts of a Spanish garrison of 55 soldiers defending the fort. The defense was led by Spanish conquistadora Inés de Suárez . When she realized they were being overpowered, she ordered the execution of all indigenous prisoners, displaying their heads on pikes and throwing some towards
4536-619: The Army of the Andes emerged victorious at the Battle of Chacabuco and restored the patriot government in Santiago. However, independence was still uncertain. The Spanish army achieved further victories in 1818 and advanced toward Santiago, but their progress was finally halted at the Battle of Maipú on April 5, 1818, on the Maipo River plains. With the end of the war, Bernardo O'Higgins
4662-652: The Copper Office ( Departamento del Cobre ) of the Chilean government, approved under President Carlos Ibáñez del Campo . During the administration of President Eduardo Frei Montalva , Congress sanctioned Law 16,425, on January 25, 1966, and transformed the Copper Office into the Copper Corporation of Chile (Codelco). With the constitutional reform that nationalized copper (Law 17,450 July 11, 1971), during President Salvador Allende 's government, full ownership of all copper mines and copper fields in
4788-592: The Edificio Diego Portales was constructed in 1972. In 1967, the new Pudahuel International Airport was opened, and after years of discussion, construction of the Santiago Metro began in 1969. The first phase of the Metro, which ran beneath the western section of Alameda, was opened in 1975 and soon became one of the most prestigious buildings in the city. Over the following years, the Metro continued to expand, with two perpendicular lines in place by
4914-499: The National Stadium emerged in 1938. In the following decades, Santiago continued to grow at an unprecedented rate. In 1940, the city had a population of 952,075 residents, which increased to 1,350,409 by 1952, and reached 1,907,378 in the 1960 census. This growth was reflected in the urbanization of rural areas on the outskirts of the city, where middle and lower-class families with stable housing were established. In 1930,
5040-639: The Picunche people (as they were known to Chileans) or the Promaucae (as referred to by the Incas) were under Inca rule from the late 15th century to the early 16th century. The Incas established a settlement of mitimas in the valley, located in the center of present-day Santiago, with fortifications such as Huaca de Chena and the El Plomo hill sanctuary. According to Chilean historian Armando de Ramón ,
5166-407: The Picunche people who lived in the area. Valdivia later called a meeting with the local chiefs, during which he explained his plan to establish a city on behalf of Charles IV of Spain . The city would serve as the capital of his governorship of Nueva Extremadura . On 12 February 1541, Valdivia officially founded the city of Santiago del Nuevo Extremo ( Santiago of New Extremadura ) in honor of
Codelco - Misplaced Pages Continue
5292-888: The Teatro Municipal opera house and the Club Hípico de Santiago . In addition, the 1875 International Exposition was held in the Quinta Normal grounds. Santiago emerged as the central hub of the national railway system. On 14 September 1857, the first railway arrived in the city and terminated at the Santiago Estación Central railway station , which was under construction at the time and officially opened in 1884. During this period, rail lines connected Santiago to Valparaíso and regions in northern and southern Chile. The streets of Santiago were also paved, and by 1875, there were 1,107 railway cars in
5418-870: The United States . Cappelen Smith started working as an assistant chemist at Armour and Company in Chicago in 1893. Cappelen Smith was employed in the metallurgical industry working from 1895 to 1896 for the Chicago Copper Refining Company, from 1896 to 1900 for the Anaconda Copper Mining Company , and from 1901 to 1910 as the head metallurgist for the Baltimore Copper Smelting and Rolling Company in Perth Amboy, New Jersey . It
5544-488: The basic slag produced during the blowing combined with the acid silica refractory lining, thereby causing a very short lifetime of the lining. By developing a basic refractory material adapted to the matte refining process (in magnesia bricks), Cappelen Smith and William H. Peirce found a way to drastically increase the lifetime of the lining. It has been stated that, in some cases, the process allowing an increase from 10 to 2500 tons of copper produced without relining
5670-409: The church of San Francisco in 1572. Both of these structures were primarily made of adobe and stone. In addition to the construction of significant buildings, the city began to thrive as the surrounding areas welcomed tens of thousands of livestock. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the growth of the city was hindered by a series of disasters including an earthquake , a smallpox epidemic in 1575,
5796-418: The ministries and other public services, as well as the start of the construction of medium-rise buildings. Meanwhile, the traditional residents of the center began to migrate to more rural areas like Providencia and Ñuñoa, which attracted the oligarchy and European immigrant professionals, and San Miguel for middle-class families. Additionally, in the periphery, villas were built by various organizations of
5922-404: The 1950s. However their gradual depletion forced the construction of a mill and flotation plant in 1961 to treat the underlying secondary sulphides. These have been steadily expanded until recently the pit was producing over 600,000 tonnes of copper annually, though this has now fallen with the lower grades as the richer secondary mineralisation is also depleted in the three porphyries that make up
6048-495: The 1980s when the government embraced a neoliberal economic model. In 1979, the master plan was revised, expanding the urban area to over 62,000 hectares for real estate development. This led to urban sprawl , particularly in La Florida , causing the city to reach 40,619 hectares in size in the early 1990s. According to the 1992 census, Santiago became the country's most populous municipality, with 328,881 residents. Tragically,
6174-492: The 72,000 tonnes per day concentrator. Work is now under way on the Andina Phase I Development Project which aims to raise mill capacity to 92,000 tonnes per day and is expected to be complete by November 2009. Pre feasibility studies on raising mill capacity to over 200,000 tonnes per day by 2014 should be complete this year. Deep drilling to prove up resources to sustain such a production rate continue. No estimates of
6300-484: The 80 GWh annual heat for an electrowinning copper extraction process, despite dust problems. The Toki Cluster is a group of porphyries that is now included in the Codelco Norte division. In 2004 the resources in the four porphyries found to date was estimated at 18 million tonnes of copper. Since then a fifth, "Miranda", has been found containing estimated resources of 2.5 million tonnes of copper. Ventanas
6426-743: The 855,000 tonnes p.a. electrolytic refinery. Plans to go underground and mine the rest of the Chuquicamata orebody by block caving are now well advanced. At the SIMIN conference in 2007 in Santiago Codelco engineers detailed a possible future mining plan. The open pit is becoming gradually uneconomic and it was estimated that mining would slow down and stop by 2020. In the meantime the mill will be kept up to its 182,000 tonnes per day capacity with sulphides from Radomiro Tomic and Alejandro Hales. The underground mine will start up in 2018 and when it reaches full capacity of 120,000 tonnes per day in 2030,
SECTION 50
#17327827624836552-539: The Congress mostly meets in nearby Valparaíso . In Chile, several entities share the name Santiago , which can often lead to confusion. The commune of Santiago , also referred to as Santiago Centro , is an administrative division encompassing the area occupied by the city during colonial times. It is governed by the Municipality of Santiago and led by a mayor. This commune is part of Santiago Province , which
6678-602: The El Salvador mine in 2011 because of declining ore grades and increased costs, but extended the project life by an additional 15–20 years. They' also have a new project call San Antonio that would be located in the old mine at Potrerillos. The General Manager is Jaime Rojas, the General Counsel is Oscar Lira, the sustainability and external affairs manager y Rodrigo Vargas and the Human Resources manager
6804-597: The Mapocho River floods in 1590, 1608, and 1618, and a devastating earthquake on 13 May 1647 which resulted in the death of over 600 people and affected over 5,000 others. Despite these setbacks, the capital of the Captaincy General of Chile continued to grow, with all the power of the country being centered on the Plaza de Armas in Santiago. In 1767, the corregidor Luis Manuel de Zañartu launched one of
6930-729: The Mining and Metallurgical Society of America for distinguished service in the art of hydrometallurgy . In 1925, he was made a commander 1st Class in the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav . He was made a member of the Royal Norwegian Scientific Society during 1926. He was also commander of the Chilean Al Merito-order and was awarded an honorary doctorate at Drexel Institute of Technology . In 1930, Cappelen Smith helped finance
7056-703: The Normal School of Preceptors, the School of Arts and Crafts, and the Quinta Normal . The latter comprised the Museum of Fine Arts (now the Museum of Science and Technology) and the National Museum of Natural History . These institutions were established primarily for educational purposes, but also served as examples of public planning during that period. In 1851, the first telegraph system connecting
7182-479: The Santiago basin around the 10th millennium BC. These groups were primarily nomadic hunter-gatherers, traveling from the coast to the interior to hunt guanacos during the Andean snowmelt. By around 800 AD, the first permanent settlers established agricultural communities along the Mapocho River , where they cultivated crops such as maize , potatoes , and beans , and domesticated camelids. The villages of
7308-598: The Spanish conquistador Pedro de Valdivia , Santiago has served as the capital city of Chile since colonial times. The city features a downtown core characterized by 19th-century neoclassical architecture and winding side streets with a mix of art deco, neo-gothic, and other styles. Santiago's cityscape is defined by several stand-alone hills and the fast-flowing Mapocho River , which is lined by parks such as Parque Bicentenario , Parque Forestal , and Parque de la Familia . The Andes Mountains are visible from most parts of
7434-520: The anode slime left over from the refining process. On July 26, 2012, the Chilean and Ecuadorian government signed an agreement to activate the highly controversial Junin copper mining project, in the Intag area of Northwestern Ecuador. The agreement calls for Codelco, jointly with the Ecuadorian national mining company- ENAMI- to begin exploration activities in the biodiverse Cordillera de Toisan after
7560-577: The area served as a base for failed Inca expeditions to the south and was a junction along the Inca Trail . Pedro de Valdivia , a conquistador from Extremadura sent by Francisco Pizarro from Peru , arrived in the Mapocho valley on 13 December 1540, after a long journey from Cusco . Valdivia and his party camped by the river on the slopes of the Tupahue hill and gradually began interacting with
7686-466: The aristocracy lost much of its power, and the middle class, composed of merchants, bureaucrats, and professionals, acquired the role of setting national policy. In this context, Santiago began to develop a substantial middle- and lower-class population, while the upper classes sought refuge in the districts of the capital. Thus, the old moneyed class, who previously frequented Cousiño and Alameda Park, lost their hegemony over popular entertainment venues, and
SECTION 60
#17327827624837812-602: The attackers. In response to this brutal act, the indigenous forces dispersed in fear. The city was gradually rebuilt, with the newly established city of Concepción gaining political prominence as the Royal Audiencia of Chile was established there in 1565. However, the ongoing threat of the Arauco War and frequent earthquakes delayed the establishment of the Royal Court in Santiago until 1607, which solidified
7938-552: The balance of the tonnage will come from the Alejandro Hales underground mine. It is estimated that extractable underground reserves below the present pit total 1,150 million tonnes of ore grading 0.76% copper and 0.052% molybdenum. This remarkable mine was for many years the world's largest annual producer until overtaken recently by Escondida and it is one of the largest ever copper mining excavation. It has produced over 29 million tonnes of copper in total, far more than any other mine . The Radomiro Tomic deposit, 5 km north of
8064-646: The beginning of Chile’s path to independence . The city, which became the capital of the newly formed nation, faced various challenges, particularly from military actions in the vicinity. Although institutions like the Instituto Nacional and the National Library were established during the Patria Vieja , they were shut down after the patriots’ defeat at the Battle of Rancagua in 1814. The royal government continued until 1817, when
8190-469: The capital to develop a mine so he approached the Guggenheim Brothers. They examined his claims and estimated reserves at 690 million tonnes grading 2.58% copper. The Guggenheims also had a process for treating the low grade ores developed by E A Cappelen Smith and were immediately interested, organised the Chile Exploration Company (Chilex) in January 1912 and eventually bought out Burrage for US$ 25 million in Chilex stock. Chilex then went ahead with
8316-427: The capital to the Port of Valparaíso was inaugurated. During the "Liberal Republic" and the administration of Mayor Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna , a new phase in the urban development of the capital was initiated. One of the main projects during this period was the remodeling of Cerro Santa Lucía , which had fallen into disrepair despite its central location. In his effort to transform Santiago, Vicuña Mackenna initiated
8442-418: The cathedral's façade, the Palacio de La Moneda , the San Carlos Canal , and the completion of the embankments during the government of Ambrosio O'Higgins . These works were officially opened in 1798. The O'Higgins government also opened the road to Valparaíso in 1791, connecting the capital with the country's main port. On September 18, 1810, the First Government Junta was proclaimed in Santiago, marking
8568-417: The center, lies at 570 m (1,870 ft). Estadio San Carlos de Apoquindo , at the eastern edge of the city, has an elevation of 960 m (3,150 ft). The Santiago Basin is part of the Intermediate Depression and is remarkably flat, interrupted only by a few "island hills;" among them are Cerro Renca , Cerro Blanco , and Cerro Santa Lucía . The basin is approximately 80 kilometers (50 miles) in
8694-477: The central streets of Santiago, further diminishing the role of Valparaíso. The enactment of the Autonomous Municipalities Act empowered municipalities to establish various administrative divisions within the Santiago department, with the goal of enhancing local governance. In 1891, the municipalities of Maipú , Ñuñoa , Renca , Lampa , and Colina were created, followed by Providencia and Barrancas in 1897, and Las Condes in 1901. The La Victoria departmento
8820-474: The city and contribute to a smog problem, particularly during winter due to the lack of rain. The outskirts of the city are surrounded by vineyards, and Santiago is within an hour's drive of both the mountains and the Pacific Ocean. Santiago is the political and financial center of Chile and hosts the regional headquarters of many multinational corporations and organizations . The Chilean government's executive and judiciary branches are based in Santiago, while
8946-412: The city created a crisis in the city center. To reinvigorate the area, the government transformed the main shopping streets into pedestrian walkways, as it did in the 1970s, and offered tax benefits for the construction of residential buildings, which attracted young adults. The city faced a series of problems due to disorganized growth. During the winter months, air pollution reached critical levels and
9072-474: The city's status as the capital. During the early years of the city, the Spanish suffered from severe shortages of food and other supplies. The Picunches had adopted a strategy of halting cultivation and retreating to more remote locations, which isolated the Spanish and forced them to resort to eating whatever they could find. The shortage of clothing meant that some Spanish had to dress with hides from dogs, cats, sea lions , and foxes . Although Santiago
9198-498: The city, while 45,000 people used trams daily. As the new century began, Santiago underwent various changes due to the rapid growth of industry. Valparaíso, which had previously been the economic center of the country, gradually lost its prominence to the capital. By 1895, 75% of the national manufacturing industry was located in Santiago, while only 28% was in Valparaíso. By 1910, major banks and shops had established themselves in
9324-623: The coast. The mountain range immediately bordering the city on the east is known as the Sierra de Ramón , which was formed due to tectonic activity of the San Ramón Fault . This range reaches 3296 meters at Cerro de Ramón . The Sierra de Ramón represents the " Precordillera " of the Andes. 20 km (12 mi) further east is the even larger Cordillera of the Andes , which has mountains and volcanoes that exceed 6,000 m (19,690 ft) and on which some glaciers are present. The tallest
9450-507: The company deeply in debt. The modern era started when the American engineer Bradley finally developed a method of working low grade oxidised copper ores. In 1910 he approached the lawyer and industrialist Albert C Burrage who sent engineers to examine Chuquicamata. Their reports were good and in April 1911 he started to buy up mines and claims in association with Duncan Fox y Cia., an English entrepreneur. Unfortunately, Burrage did not have
9576-575: The construction of new avenues, such as the Américo Vespucio Avenue and Panamericana Route 5 , as well as the expansion of 'industrial belts'. The 1962 World Cup provided a new impetus for city improvement efforts, and in 1966, the Santiago Metropolitan Park was established on Cerro San Cristóbal. The Ministry of Housing and Urbanism ( MINVU ) also began to eradicate shantytowns and build new homes. Finally,
9702-523: The construction of the Camino de Cintura , a road surrounding the entire city. The redevelopment of Alameda Avenue also took place during this time, turning it into the city's main road. Also during this era, O'Higgins Park was established with the help of European landscapers in 1873. The public park, known for its large gardens, lakes, and carriage trails, became a landmark in Santiago. Other notable structures were also opened during this period, including
9828-713: The construction of the Ciudad Parque Bicentenario, which marked the bicentenary of the Republic. The trend of constructing tall buildings continued in the eastern sector, which was highlighted by the opening of the Titanium La Portada and Gran Torre Santiago skyscrapers in the Costanera Center complex. On 27 February 2010, a powerful earthquake hit the capital city of Santiago, causing damage to some older buildings and rendering some modern structures uninhabitable. This sparked
9954-596: The converters. A reduction of the cost of copper converting from 15 to US$ 20 to 4–5 USD has been stated. The Peirce–Smith converter replaced quickly the Manhès-David Converter: by March 1912, the Peirce–Smith Converting Co. claimed that "over 80% of the copper produced in [the U.S.] is being converted either in P-S type converters or on basic lining, under license, in the old acid shells". It
10080-612: The country were transferred to Codelco. The creation of the Corporación Nacional del Cobre de Chile , as it is currently known, was formalized by decree of April 1, 1976, under the Augusto Pinochet dictatorship. Codelco's symbol is based on the alchemical symbol for copper . Codelco consists of research, exploration, acquisition and development departments. It has five principal operating divisions, Codelco Norte, Salvador, Andina, Ventanas and El Teniente, and
10206-476: The development and construction of a mine on the eastern section of the Chuquicamata field - it acquired the remainder gradually over the next 15 years - and a 10,000 tons per day leaching plant which was planned to produce 50,000 tons of electrolytic copper annually. Amongst the equipment purchased were steam shovels from the Panama Canal. A port and oil-fired power plant were built at Tocopilla, 90 miles to
10332-464: The district. When Exxon finally did decide to sell in 2002, Codelco expressed interest but were not prepared to match the US$ 1.3 billion that Anglo American were prepared to give for it. Rock glaciers have been seriously intervened by Andina since the late 1980s, when it started to deposit several million tons of waste rock on top of rock glaciers, resulting in their acceleration and partial destabilisation. Since then, 2.1 km of rock glaciers with
10458-472: The eastern sector. This development extended to the Barrio Alto , which became an attractive location for the construction of high-rise buildings. Major companies and financial corporations established themselves in the area, giving rise to a thriving modern business center commonly known as Sanhattan . The departure of these companies to Barrio Alto and the construction of shopping centers all around
10584-516: The end of 1978. Building telecommunications infrastructure was also an important development of this period, as reflected in the construction of the Torre Entel , which, since its construction in 1975, has become one of the symbols of the capital and remained the tallest structure in the country for two decades. After the military coup of 1973 and the establishment of the military regime , significant changes in urban planning did not occur until
10710-592: The foothills of Las Condes and the La Reina sector. The regulation of growth in Santiago only began in the 1960s with the creation of various development plans for Greater Santiago, a concept that reflected the city's new reality as a much larger urban center. In 1958, the Intercommunal Plan of Santiago was released, which proposed a limit of 38,600 urban and semi-urban hectares for a maximum population of 3,260,000 residents. The plan also included plans for
10836-598: The gradual move of mining into the lower grade primary ore zone. The concentrate goes to the Caletones smelter further down the valley. This is equipped with two Teniente converters with slag furnaces, three Pierce Smith converters and six anode furnaces feeding two anode and one fire refined casting wheels. Tailings are flumed down the valley to dams on flatter ground. An independent company, Minera Valle Central, retreats old and current El Teniente tailings and extracts some 12,000 tonnes p.a. of copper in concentrate. Sewell,
10962-584: The latter derived from the Galician evolution of Vulgar Latin Sanctu Iacobu . Allegedly, there was no indigenous name for the area where Santiago is located, but the Mapuche language uses the adapted name Santiaw . Residents of the city and region are referred to as santiaguinos (for males) and santiaguinas (for females). Archaeological evidence suggests that the first human groups arrived in
11088-459: The likely copper output at a milling rate of 200,000 tonnes per day have been given and cannot be until the deep drilling campaign is complete. One of the mysteries of Andina is why it did not buy Compania Minera Disputada de las Condes when Peñarroya was prepared to sell it for a very low price in 1972. It went to Enami who subsequently sold it for a handsome profit to Exxon Minerals for US$ 97 million. It would have given Codelco complete control of
11214-520: The low grade copper ore deposits of the Guggenheim family mining interests in the Chuquicamata open pit copper mine in the north of Chile . The Guggenheim process first the exploitation of poor quality copper ore in the Chuquicamata mine starting in 1915. This mine is still today one of the world's largest copper resources. In 1920 Cappelen Smith was honored with the gold medal of
11340-424: The main pit, was discovered in 1952 when Anaconda conducted an extensive churn drilling programme to explore for oxidised ore to the north of the Chuquicamata pit. It was named Chuqui Norte but they did not develop it, largely because the technology had not been developed, particularly SX/EW. Two smaller areas of interest were found and the overall results showed that the Chuquicamata complex of mineralised porphyries
11466-540: The metropolitan area has evolved over time as the city has expanded, incorporating smaller cities and rural areas. The name Santiago was chosen by the Spanish conqueror Pedro de Valdivia when he founded the city in 1541 as "Santiago del Nuevo Extremo," in reference to his home region of Extremadura and as a tribute to James the Great , the patron saint of Spain . The saint's name appears in various forms in Spanish, such as Diego , Jaime , Jacobo , or Santiago , with
11592-424: The mine began in the early 1960s, and was intended to replace production of the company's Potrerillos mine, which would be closing. Production from the El Salvador would increase Chile's total output of copper about 450,000 tons of copper per year, rather than a decrease in production, out of satisfaction and relief, the company renamed the mine El Salvador, Spanish The Savior. In 2005 Codelco had planned to shut down
11718-402: The mine has identified additional resources of 15,827 million tonnes grading 0.46% copper or nearly 73 million tonnes of contained copper though there is no indication how much of this may prove economic. Production in 2007 was 404,728 tonnes copper and 5,053 tonnes molybdenum. Mining is gradually moving lower and removing the ore between the barren country rock and the Braden Chimney. Access
11844-403: The mine until the 1960s when the Chilean state acquired a 51% holding in the "Chilenization" of the copper industry. In 1971 the mine was nationalised and in 1976 was incorporated into Codelco. Production from the capping of oxidised minerals, which required mere leaching in sulphuric acid to dissolve the copper and the recovery of the copper by electrolysis was the sole means of production until
11970-496: The mine. The off gasses from the flash smelter, Teniente converter and Pierce-Smith converters have a high enough sulphur dioxide content to allow sulphuric acid production in a single absorption sulphuric acid plant which has improved sulphur capture to 98%. The corporation also planned some years ago to reduce arsenic emissions by 97% but there have been no recent reports. Pollution of the River Loa, which flows through Calama
12096-574: The most significant architectural projects of the colonial period, the Calicanto Bridge, connecting the city to La Chimba on the north side of the Mapocho River. He also began constructing embankments to prevent river overflows. Although the bridge was completed, its piers were frequently damaged by the river. In 1780, Governor Agustín de Jáuregui hired the Italian architect Joaquín Toesca , who designed several important buildings, including
12222-546: The network returned to full normal service. The city lies in the center of the Santiago Basin , a large bowl-shaped valley consisting of broad and fertile lands surrounded by mountains. The city has a varying elevation, gradually increasing from 400 m (1,312 ft) in the western areas to more than 700 m (2,297 ft) in the eastern areas. Santiago's international airport , in the west, lies at an altitude of 460 m (1,509 ft). Plaza Baquedano , near
12348-726: The orebody. The present mine is a conventional truck and shovel operation, with a large proportion of the ore crushed in-pit and transported by underground conveyors to the mill bins. The 182,000 tonnes p.a. concentrator is also conventional and is primary crushing followed by SAG mills and ball mills with cyclone classification. The flotation section produces both copper and molybdenum concentrates. The 1.65 million tonnes p.a. of concentrate are smelted in one Outokumpu flash smelter and one Teniente converter with electric furnace and cylindrical slag cleaning followed by four Pierce Smith converters. The blister copper goes to six anode furnaces which feed three anode casting wheels. The anodes go on to
12474-542: The original mine camp and known as the 'city of stairs' because it looked as though it had been poured down the mountain, has become a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It was founded in 1906 by William Braden to house his mine workers and had a population of around 15,000 at its peak. It was closed down in the late 1980s as all the workers moved down to Rancagua. Codelco sold a 51% interest in its El Abra deposit in 1994 to Cyprus-Amax (now part of Freeport McMoRan Copper and Gold) who then developed it. Production started in 1996. It
12600-882: The other half being owned and mined by the Los Bronces mine of Compania Minera Disputada de la Condes which is in turn owned by Anglo American . Originally owned by the American Cerro De Pasco Corporation , who brought the mine to production, it has been gradually built up by Codelco and is now the subject of a major expansion scheme. At the end of 2007, reserves and resources in the mining plan totalled 5,698 million tonnes grading 0.78% copper containing 44.3 million tonnes of metal and additional identified resources of 11,342 tonnes grading 0.52% copper containing 59.6 million tonnes of metal. The orebodies are at considerable heights, between 3,000 and 4,200 metres and operations can be severely affected by
12726-412: The population of Santiago to be 507,296 inhabitants, equivalent to 13.6% of the total population of Chile. This represented a growth of 52.5% from the 1907 census, an annual increase of 3.3%, which was almost three times the national average. This growth was mainly due to an influx of farmers from the southern regions who came to work in the factories and railroads that were being built. However, this growth
12852-548: The property of the Jesuits as it was located on their Hacienda de la Compañia de Jesús. They operated a small mine known as the Socavón de los Jesuitas. Following their expulsion, the hacienda was acquired in 1768 by Don Mateo de Toro y Zambrano y Ureta. Between 1819 and 1823 his heirs restarted and enlarged the workings, bringing in a mining engineer to help. However, these and subsequent attempts to establish anything more than
12978-750: The second quarter of 2013. The project would be one of the first experience for the Chilean-owned company outside the Chilean deserts where it has most of its mines. It is controversial because Intag is the same area where communities have forced two transnational mining companies to abandon exploration activities due to widespread rejection of mining activities (Mitsubishi subsidiary in 1997 and Canadian Copper Mesa in 2009). Santiago Santiago ( / ˌ s æ n t i ˈ ɑː ɡ oʊ / , US also / ˌ s ɑː n -/ ; Spanish: [sanˈtjaɣo] ), also known as Santiago de Chile ( Spanish: [san̪ˈtja.ɣo ðe ˈtʃi.le] ),
13104-426: The streets. The harsh living conditions resulted in widespread diseases like tuberculosis, and took a toll on the homeless population. At the same time, unemployment rates and living costs skyrocketed, while the salaries of the people in Santiago fell. The situation would change several years later with a new industrial boom fostered by CORFO and the expansion of the state apparatus from the late 1930s. At this time,
13230-488: The time. Modernity also spread in the city, with the introduction of the first theaters, the expansion of the telephone network, and the opening of Los Cerrillos Airport in 1928, among other advancements. The perception that the early 20th century was a time of economic prosperity due to technological advancements was in stark contrast to the living conditions of lower social classes. The previous decades of growth resulted in an unprecedented population boom starting in 1929, but
13356-431: The total length of the metropolitan railway to 105 km (65 mi). In the early 1990s, the bus system also underwent a major reform. In 2007, the master plan known as Transantiago was established, although it has faced various challenges since its implementation. Entering the 21st century, rapid development continued in Santiago. The Civic District was revitalized with the creation of the Plaza de la Ciudadanía and
13482-417: The urban area covered 6,500 hectares, which increased to 20,900 in 1960 and to 38,296 in 1980. Although growth was mainly concentrated in communities such as Barrancas to the west, Conchalí to the north, and La Cisterna and La Granja to the south, the center of the city lost population, leaving more space for commercial, banking, and government development. The upper class, on the other hand, began to settle in
13608-437: The weather. Originally the mine was only the underground block cave and an underground concentrator with an "hotel" (bunkhouse) where the workers live when the Rio Blanco valley is impassable in the winter. Now the Sur Sur and Don Luis breccias above and to the south of the underground mine are being worked as open pits. Production in 2007 was 218,322 tonnes of extractable copper and 2,525 tonnes molybdenum in concentrate from
13734-478: The west and an aqueduct was constructed to bring water in from the Andes. Production started on May 18, 1915. Actual production rose from 4345 tonnes in the first year to 50,400 tonnes in 1920 and 135,890 tonnes in 1929 before the Depression hit and demand fell. The Guggenheims gave up control of the mine in 1923 when they sold 51% to Anaconda Copper , which acquired most of the remainder in 1929. Anaconda ran
13860-531: The world to introduce the full autonomous trucks from [Komatsu] . Leaching of tailings with the potential to produce and additional 30,000 to 50,000 tonnes p.a. between 2011 and 2014 is being investigated, as is wind power. An 'exotic copper' orebody, "Vicky" has also been found in the Gabriela Mistral area with potential estimated resources of 80 million tons of oxide ore with a copper grade of 0.6%. A 44,000 m central solar heating plant supplies 80% of
13986-443: The world total. It owns the world's largest known copper reserves and resources. At the end of 2007 it had a total of reserves and resources of 118 million tonnes of copper in its mining plan, sufficient for more than 70 years of operation at current production rates. It also has additional identified resources of 208 million tonnes of copper, though one cannot say how much of this may prove economic. Codelco's principal product
14112-559: Was a Norwegian American chemical engineer , civil engineer and metallurgist . He pioneered copper production in the early 20th century. Among his achievements were the Peirce–Smith converter and the Guggenheim process . Cappelen Smith was born at Trondheim in Sør-Trøndelag , Norway . He was the son of Elias Anton Smith (1842–1912), founder of E.A. Smith AS and Ingeborg Anna Røvig (1846–1923). His middle name Cappelen
14238-527: Was accepted as Supreme Director and, like his father, undertook several important projects for the city. During the Patria Nueva era, previously closed institutions were reopened. The General Cemetery was inaugurated, work on the San Carlos Canal was completed, and the drying riverbed in the south arm of the Mapocho River, known as La Cañada, which had been used as a landfill for some time,
14364-579: Was also built in the north of the city: the Mapocho Station . The Parque Forestal was established on the southern side of the Mapocho river, and new buildings such as the Museum of Fine Arts , the Barros Arana public boarding school , and the National Library were opened. In addition, a sewer system was installed, serving approximately 85% of the city's population. The 1920 census estimated
14490-402: Was also divided, leading to the creation of Lo Cañas in 1891, which was then further split into La Granja and Puente Alto in 1892, followed by La Florida in 1899, and La Cisterna in 1925. The San Cristobal Hill underwent a prolonged process of development during this period. In 1903, an astronomical observatory was established on the hill, and the following year, construction began on
14616-453: Was concentrated in the suburbs and not in the city center. During this time, the downtown district consolidated as a commercial, financial, and administrative center, with the establishment of various shops and businesses around Ahumada Street and a Civic District in the vicinity of the Palace of La Moneda. The latter project involved the construction of modernist buildings for the offices of
14742-531: Was developed by two French engineers, Pierre Manhès and Paul David from 1880 to 1884. Their copper-converting process, named the Manhès-David process , was directly derived from the Bessemer process . In this horizontal chemical reactor, where air was injected into copper matte , a molten sulfide material containing iron, sulphur and copper, to become molten blister, an alloy containing 99% copper. But
14868-474: Was divided into eight blocks from north to south and ten blocks from east to west, between the Mapocho River and the Cañada with each quarter-block, or solar , granted to settlers. The colonial architecture following the grid plan consisted of one or two-story houses, adobe walls, tile roofs, and rooms around interior corridors and patios . Valdivia left for the south with his troops months later, initiating
14994-532: Was due to suburban expansion to the south and west of the capital, as well as the growth of the bustling district of La Chimba, which resulted from the division of old properties in the area. This new peripheral development marked the end of the previous checkerboard structure that had dominated the city center. During the Republican era, several institutions were founded, including the University of Chile ,
15120-399: Was facing the threat of permanent destruction early on, due to attacks from indigenous peoples, earthquakes, and floods, the city began to grow rapidly. Out of the 126 blocks designed by Pedro de Gamboa in 1558, 40 were occupied. In 1580, the first major buildings in the city started to be erected, marked by the placement of the foundation stone of the first Cathedral in 1561 and the building of
15246-428: Was largely driven by the construction of housing projects for middle-class families. Meanwhile, high-income families relocated to the foothills, now commonly referred to as Barrio Alto , boosting the population of Las Condes and giving rise to young communes, including Lo Barnechea and Vitacura , both established in 1981 and 1991, respectively. The area around Providencia Avenue became an important commercial hub in
15372-475: Was made between Chuquicamata and Calama. It was initially estimated to have reserves of over 500 million tonnes grading over 1% copper, but was found to be geologically complex and have a high arsenic content and work was stopped on it for some years. Work resumed in 2000, as a result of the development of a process to treat high arsenic ores, the need for sulphide ore feed to the mill when Chuquicamata's mining goes underground and to test bioleaching technology. It
15498-495: Was met with tragedy as the Great Depression hit. The collapse of the nitrate industry in the north left 60,000 people unemployed, compounded by a decline in agricultural exports, resulting in an estimated 300,000 unemployed people nationwide. Desperate for survival, many migrants flocked to Santiago and its thriving industry. However, they often found themselves struggling to find housing, with many being forced to live on
15624-423: Was slow because of difficulty of access and a hard winter climate. A small gravity plant was soon erected but it was not until 1912 that a flotation plant was erected at Sewell. Control passed to Kennecott in 1915 and it ran the mine until nationalisation in 1971. The porphyry orebody consists of a stockwork (a network of narrow veins) of mineralised veinlets, mainly in andesitic lavas and tonalite, superimposed by
15750-463: Was transformed into an avenue now known as the Alameda de las Delicias . Two earthquakes struck the city in the 19th century: one on November 19, 1822, and another on February 20, 1835. Despite these disasters, the city continued to grow rapidly. In 1820, the population was recorded as 46,000, but by 1854, it had risen to 69,018. By 1865, the census reported 115,337 residents. This significant increase
15876-514: Was while at this company that he and William H. Peirce developed the Peirce-Smith converter , which revolutionized the Manhès-David process . Cappelen Smith died in New York in 1949. The Peirce–Smith converter, introduced in 1908, improved significantly the copper converting process. Before this improvement, the converter was a long cylindrical vessel, lined with sand and clay. It
#482517