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55-510: The title pontifex comes from the Latin for "bridge builder", a possible allusion to a very early role in placating the gods and spirits associated with the Tiber River , for instance. Also, Varro cites this position as meaning "able to do". The pontifex maximus was the most important member of the college. Until 104 BC, the pontifex maximus held the sole power in appointing members to

110-525: A campaign against the Rutuli . At that time, the Rutuli were a very wealthy nation, and Tarquin was keen to obtain the spoils that would come with victory, in hopes of assuaging the ire of his subjects. Failing to take their capital of Ardea by storm, the king determined to take the city by siege instead. With little prospect of battle, the young noblemen in the king's army fell to drinking and boasting. When

165-479: A force of Roman exiles, fought alongside the Latins. Once more the battle was hard-fought and narrowly decided, with both sides suffering great losses. Mamilius was slain, the master of the horse grievously injured, and Titus Tarquinius barely escaped with his life. But in the end, the Latins abandoned the field, and Rome retained her independence. After the Latin defeat and the death of his son-in-law, Tarquin went to

220-489: A powerful ally when he betrothed his daughter to Octavius Mamilius of Tusculum , among the most eminent of the Latin chiefs. Early in his reign, Tarquin called a meeting of the Latin leaders to discuss the bonds between Rome and the Latin towns. The meeting was held at a grove sacred to the goddess Ferentina . At the meeting, Turnus Herdonius inveighed against Tarquin's arrogance, and warned his countrymen against trusting

275-662: A war against the Volsci , taking the wealthy town of Suessa Pometia . He celebrated a triumph, and with the spoils of this conquest, he commenced the erection of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus , which Tarquin the Elder had vowed. He then engaged in a war with Gabii , one of the Latin cities that had rejected the treaty with Rome. Unable to take the city by force of arms, Tarquin resorted to another stratagem. His son, Sextus, pretending to be ill-treated by his father, and covered with

330-753: The College of Pontiffs . The term pontiff was later applied to any high or chief priest and, in Roman Catholic ecclesiastical usage, to bishops , especially the Pope , who is sometimes referred to as the Roman Pontiff or the Supreme Pontiff. The English term derives through Old French pontif from Latin pontifex , a word commonly held to come from the Latin root words pons , pont- (bridge) + facere (to do, to make), and so to have

385-570: The Dialis , Martialis and Quirinalis flamines , and the college of the Salii were never opened to the plebeians. The number of members in the College of Pontiffs grew over time. Originally consisting of three members, the number was increased to nine by the third century BC; Sulla increased the number to fifteen; Augustus increased the number even further, perhaps to as many as twenty-five. Until

440-528: The Regia (the old palace of the kings) during the early Republican period . They came to replace the religious authority that was once held by the king. A position, the rex sacrorum , was even created to replace the king for purposes of religious ceremonies. When Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire , Pope Leo I began using the title pontifex maximus around 440 to emphasize

495-494: The Stamp Act of 1765 . Toward the end of his speech, he inserted as a rhetorical flourish a comparison between King George III and various historical figures who were brought low by their enemies, including Charles I , Caesar , and, in some accounts, Tarquin. The cultural phenomenon known as " tall poppy syndrome ," in which persons of unusual merit are attacked or resented because of their achievements, derives its name from

550-417: The 3rd century BC, the College elected the pontifex maximus from their own number. The right of the college to elect their own pontifex maximus was returned, but the circumstances surrounding this are unclear. This changed again after Sulla, when in response to his reforms, the election of the pontifex maximus was once again placed in the hands of an assembly of seventeen of the twenty-five tribes. However,

605-644: The College still controlled which candidates the assembly voted on. During the Empire, the office was publicly elected from the candidates of existing pontiffs, until the Emperors began to automatically assume the title, following Julius Caesar ’s example. The pontifex maximus was a powerful political position to hold and the candidates for office were often very active political members of the College. Many, such as Julius Caesar, went on to hold consulships during their time as pontifex maximus . However, after 44 BC

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660-455: The Roman king. Tarquin then bribed Turnus' servant to store a large number of swords in his master's lodging. Tarquin called together the Latin leaders, and accused Turnus of plotting his assassination. The Latin leaders accompanied Tarquin to Turnus' lodging and, the swords then being discovered, the Latin's guilt was then speedily inferred. Turnus was condemned to be thrown into a pool of water in

715-594: The Senate on issues pertaining to the gods, the supervision of the calendar and thus the supervision of ceremonies with their specific rituals, and the appeasement of the gods upon the appearance of prodigies . One of their most important duties was their guardianship of the libri pontificales (pontifical books). Among these were the acta , indigitamenta (lists of invocations or names of deities), ritualia , commentarii , fasti , and annales (yearly records of magistrates and important events). These items were under

770-560: The Sibyl proceeded to burn three of the nine. She then offered him the remaining books, but at the same price. He hesitated, but refused again. The Sibyl then burned three more books before offering him the three remaining books at the original price. At last, Tarquin accepted, in this way obtaining the Sibylline Books . In 509 BC, having angered the Roman populace through the pace and burden of constant building, Tarquin embarked on

825-657: The Vulgate version of the Letter to the Hebrews , "pontifex" (singular) is repeatedly used with reference to the then still extant High Priesthood in Judaism, and analogously suggesting Jesus Christ as the ultimate high priest. The word "pontiff", though now most often used in relation to a pope , technically refers to any Catholic bishop. The phrase "Roman pontiff" is therefore not tautological, but means "Bishop of Rome". In

880-608: The authority of the pope . The term "chief priests" in the New Testament (e.g. Mark 15:11) is translated as Pontifices in the Latin Vulgate and "high priest" as Pontifex in Hebrews 2:17. The pontiffs were assisted by pontifical clerks or scribes ( scribae ) , a position known in the earlier Republican period as a scriba pontificius but by the Augustan period as a pontifex minor . A pontifex minor assisted at

935-442: The bloody marks of stripes, fled to Gabii. The infatuated inhabitants entrusted him with the command of their troops, and when he had obtained the unlimited confidence of the citizens, he sent a messenger to his father to inquire how he should deliver the city into his hands. The king, who was walking in his garden when the messenger arrived, made no reply but kept striking off the heads of the tallest poppies with his stick. Sextus took

990-442: The census so that the wealth of the upper classes might be exposed in order to excite popular envy. When word of this brazen deed reached Servius, he hurried to the curia to confront Tarquin, who levelled the same accusations against his father-in-law, and then in his youth and vigour carried the king outside and flung him down the steps of the senate house and into the street. The king's retainers fled, and as he made his way towards

1045-408: The city in fear of the mob, while Sextus Tarquinius, his deed revealed, fled to Gabii, where he hoped for the protection of the Roman garrison. However, his previous conduct there had made him many enemies, and he was soon assassinated. In place of the king, the comitia centuriata resolved to elect two consuls to hold power jointly. Lucretius, the prefect of the city , presided over the election of

1100-625: The consuls. Brutus was forced to condemn his two sons Titus and Tiberius to death because they had taken part in the conspiracy. Leaving Lucretius in charge of the city, Brutus departed to meet the king on the field of battle. At the Battle of Silva Arsia , the Romans won a hard-fought victory over the king and his Etruscan allies. Each side sustained painful losses; the consul Brutus and his cousin, Arruns Tarquinius , fell in battle against each other. After this failure, Tarquin turned to Lars Porsena ,

1155-417: The consulship and go into exile because he bore the hated name of Tarquinius. Stunned by this betrayal, Collatinus complied, and his father-in-law was chosen to succeed him. Meanwhile, the king sent ambassadors to the senate, ostensibly to request the return of his personal property, but in reality to subvert a number of Rome's leading men. When this plot was discovered, those found guilty were put to death by

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1210-473: The court of Aristodemus at Cumae , where he died in 495. William Shakespeare describes the events leading to Tarquin's downfall in his long poem The Rape of Lucrece . He also alludes to Tarquin in his plays, Titus Andronicus , Julius Caesar , Coriolanus , Macbeth , and Cymbeline . In 1765, Patrick Henry gave a speech before the Virginia House of Burgesses in opposition to

1265-437: The dead Servius, and then putting to death several leading senators, whom he suspected of remaining loyal to Servius. By not replacing the slain senators, and not consulting the senate on matters of government, he diminished both the size and the authority of the senate. In another break with tradition, Tarquin judged capital crimes without the advice of counsellors, causing fear amongst those who might think to oppose him. He made

1320-491: The episode in Livy in which Tarquin is said to have instructed his son Sextus to weaken the city of Gabii by destroying its leading men. The motif of using an unwitting messenger to deliver such a message through the metaphor of cutting the heads off the tallest poppies may have been borrowed from Herodotus , whose Histories contain a similar story involving ears of wheat instead of poppies. A passage concerning Livy's version of

1375-477: The exiled Roman king. Tarquin's final attempt to regain the Roman kingdom came in 499 or 496 BC, when he persuaded his son-in-law, Octavius Mamilius, dictator of Tusculum, to march on Rome at the head of a Latin army. The Roman army was led by the dictator Aulus Postumius Albus and his Master of the Horse , Titus Aebutius Elva , while the elderly king and his last remaining son, Titus Tarquinius , accompanied by

1430-453: The fifth king of Rome, and to have gained the throne through the murders of both his wife and his elder brother, followed by the assassination of his predecessor, Servius Tullius . His reign has been described as a tyranny that justified the abolition of the monarchy . The most ancient sources, such as that of Quintus Fabius Pictor , assert Tarquin was the son of Tarquinius Priscus , but modern historians believe that to be "impossible" under

1485-471: The first consuls, Brutus and Collatinus. When word of the uprising reached the king, Tarquin abandoned Ardea and sought support from his allies in Etruria. The cities of Veii and Tarquinii sent contingents to join the king's army, and he prepared to march upon Rome. Meanwhile, Brutus prepared a force to meet the returning army. In a surprising reversal, Brutus demanded that his colleague Collatinus resign

1540-471: The flame of desire in Collatinus' cousin, Sextus Tarquinius, the king's son. After a few days, Sextus returned to Collatia , where he implored Lucretia to give herself to him. When she refused, he threatened that if she did not yield herself to him, he would kill her, and claim that he had discovered her in the act of adultery with a slave, for which reason he had slain the unfaithful Lucretia, delivering

1595-474: The future king, and his brother Arruns . One of Tarquin's sisters, Tarquinia , married Marcus Junius Brutus, and was the mother of Lucius Junius Brutus , one of the men who would later lead the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom . The elder sister, Tullia Major, was of mild disposition, yet married the ambitious Tarquin. Her younger sister, Tullia Minor, was of fiercer temperament, but her husband Arruns

1650-491: The grove with a wooden frame, or cratis , placed over his head, into which stones were thrown, drowning him. The meeting of the Latin chiefs then continued, and Tarquin persuaded them to renew their treaty with Rome, becoming her allies rather than her enemies. It was agreed that the soldiers of the Latins would attend at the grove on an appointed day, and form a united military force with the Roman army . Next, Tarquin instigated

1705-672: The hint, and put to death, or banished on false charges, all the leading men of Gabii, after which he had no difficulty in compelling the city to submit. Tarquin agreed upon a peace with the Aequi , and renewed the treaty of peace between Rome and the Etruscans . According to the Fasti Triumphales , he won a victory over the Sabines , and established Roman colonies at the towns of Signia and Circeii . At Rome, Tarquin levelled

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1760-481: The king and his family from Rome. As Tribune of the Celeres , Brutus was head of the king's personal bodyguard, and entitled to summon the Roman comitia. This he did, and by recounting the various grievances of the people, the king's abuses of power, and by inflaming public sentiment with the tale of the rape of Lucretia, Brutus persuaded the comitia to revoke the king's imperium and send him into exile. Tullia fled

1815-424: The king of Clusium . Porsena's march on Rome and the valiant defence of the Romans achieved legendary status, giving rise to the story of Horatius at the bridge , and the bravery of Gaius Mucius Scaevola . Accounts vary as to whether Porsena finally entered Rome, or was thwarted, but modern scholarship suggests that he was able to occupy the city briefly before withdrawing. Ultimately, his efforts were of no avail to

1870-585: The king's body lying in the street. But in a frenzy, Tullia herself seized the reins, and drove the wheels of her chariot over her father's corpse. The king's blood spattered against the chariot and stained Tullia's clothes, so that she brought a gruesome relic of the murder back to her house. The street where Tullia disgraced the dead king afterwards became known as the Vicus Sceleratus, the Street of Crime. Tarquin commenced his reign by refusing to bury

1925-503: The literal meaning of "bridge-builder", presumably between mankind and the deity/deities. Uncertainty prevailing, this may be only a folk etymology, but it may also recall ancient tasks and magic rites associated with bridges. The term may also be an allusion to Ancient Roman Religious rituals for placating the gods and spirits associated with the Tiber River , for instance. Also, Varro cites this position as meaning "able to do". There were four chief colleges of priests in ancient Rome,

1980-449: The most illustrious of which was that of the pontifices . The others were those of the augures , the quindecimviri sacris faciundis , and the epulones . The same person could be a member of more than one of these groups. Including the pontifex maximus , who was president of the college, there were originally three or five pontifices , but the number increased over the centuries, finally becoming 16 under Julius Caesar . By

2035-485: The only female members of the college. They were in charge of guarding Rome's sacred hearth, keeping the flame burning inside the Temple of Vesta . Around age 6 to 10, girls were chosen for this position and were required to perform the rites and obligations for 30 years, including remaining chaste. Membership in the various colleges of priests, including the College of Pontiffs, was usually an honor offered to members of politically powerful or wealthy families. Membership

2090-605: The other priesthoods in the college. The flamens were priests in charge of fifteen official cults of Roman religion, each assigned to a particular god. The three major flamens ( flamines maiores ) were the flamen Dialis , the high priest of Jupiter ; the flamen Martialis , who cultivated Mars ; and the flamen Quirinalis , devoted to Quirinus . The deities cultivated by the twelve flamines minores were Carmenta , Ceres , Falacer , Flora , Furrina , Palatua , Pomona , Portunus , Volcanus (Vulcan), Volturnus , and two whose names are lost. The Vestal Virgins were

2145-460: The palace, the aged Servius was set upon and murdered by Tarquin's assassins, perhaps on the advice of his own daughter. Tullia drove in her chariot to the senate house, where she was the first to hail her husband as king. But Tarquin bade her return home, concerned that the crowd might do her violence. As she drove toward the Urbian Hill, her driver stopped suddenly, horrified at the sight of

2200-460: The pontiffs, as with the other official priests of Rome, lost their political influence. Martha Hoffman Lewis could only find four instances where the pontiff's advice was asked: before Augustus' marriage to Livia; in 37 BC when they ordered the removal of the body of one of the proscribed from the Campus; they made expiatory sacrifices on the day the emperor Claudius married Agrippina; and their advice

2255-572: The punishment as her husband's kinsman. To spare her husband the shame threatened by Sextus, Lucretia submitted to his desire. But when he had departed for the camp, Lucretia sent for her husband and father, revealing the whole matter, and accusing Sextus of raping her. Despite the pleas of her family, Lucretia stabbed herself to spare Collatinus any suspicion that she had betrayed him. Her grieving husband, together with his father-in-law, Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus , and his companions, Lucius Junius Brutus and Publius Valerius , swore an oath to expel

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2310-526: The rite ( res divina ) for Juno performed each Kalends , the first day of the month. He took up a position in the Curia Calabra , a sacred precinct ( templum ) on the Capitoline Hill , to observe the new moon . Pontiff A pontiff (from Latin pontifex ) was, in Roman antiquity , a member of the most illustrious of the colleges of priests of the Roman religion ,

2365-808: The same way, a Pontifical Mass is a mass celebrated by a bishop, not necessarily a pope. Note also the Roman Pontifical (the liturgical book containing the prayers and ceremonies for rites used by a bishop) and " pontificals ", the insignia of his order that a bishop uses when celebrating Pontifical Mass. While the pontificals primarily belong to bishops, they have also been granted by papal favour or legally established Church custom to certain presbyters (e.g., abbots). The word has been employed in English also for caliphs ( Islam ) and swamis and jagadgurus ( Hinduism ). Lucius Tarquinius Superbus Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (died 495 BC)

2420-415: The senators, denigrating Servius as a slave born of a slave; for failing to be elected by the senate and the people during an interregnum , as had been the tradition for the election of kings of Rome; for having become king through the machinations of a woman; for favouring the lower classes of Rome over the wealthy, and for taking the land of the upper classes for distribution to the poor; and for instituting

2475-415: The sole possession of the College of Pontiffs and only they were allowed to consult these items when necessary. The Lex Acilia de intercalando bestowed power on the College to manage the calendar. Thus, they determined the days which religious and political meetings could be held, when sacrifices could be offered, votes cast, and senatorial decisions brought forth. The College of Pontiffs came to occupy

2530-414: The subject turned to the virtue of their wives, Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus claimed to have the most dedicated of spouses. With his companions, they secretly visited each other's homes, and discovered all of the wives enjoying themselves, except for Lucretia , the wife of Collatinus, who was engaged in domestic activities. Lucretia received the princes graciously, and together her beauty and virtue kindled

2585-405: The support of the patrician senators , especially those from houses that had been raised to senatorial rank under Tarquin the Elder. He bestowed presents upon them, and spread criticism of Servius the king. In time, Tarquin felt ready to seize the throne. He went to the senate house with a group of armed men, sat himself on the throne, and summoned the senators to attend upon him. He then spoke to

2640-646: The third century BC the pontiffs had assumed control of the state religious system. Inspiration for the Catholic use of the name pontiff for a bishop comes from the use of the same word for the Jewish High Priest in the original Latin translation of the Bible, the Vulgate , where it appears 59 times. For example at Mark 15:11 , "pontifices" (plural) is the Latin term used for "The Chief Priests". And in

2695-540: The throne, in preference to her own sons or grandsons. According to an Etruscan tradition, the hero Macstarna, usually equated with Servius Tullius, defeated and killed a Roman named Gnaeus Tarquinius , and rescued the brothers Caelius and Aulus Vibenna from captivity. This may recollect an otherwise forgotten attempt by the sons of Tarquin the Elder to reclaim the throne. To forestall further dynastic strife, Servius married his daughters, known to history as Tullia Major and Tullia Minor , to Lucius Tarquinius Superbus,

2750-698: The top of the Tarpeian Rock , overlooking the Forum , and removed a number of ancient Sabine shrines to make way for the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill . He constructed tiers of seats in the circus, and ordered the excavation of Rome's great sewer, the cloaca maxima . According to one story, Tarquin was approached by the Cumaean Sibyl , who offered him nine books of prophecy at an exorbitant price. Tarquin abruptly refused, and

2805-404: The traditional chronology, indicating either he was Priscus' grandson or that the traditional chronology itself is "unsound". His mother supposedly was Tanaquil . Tanaquil had engineered her husband's succession to the Roman kingdom on the death of Ancus Marcius . When the sons of Marcius subsequently arranged the elder Tarquin's assassination in 579 BC, Tanaquil placed Servius Tullius on

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2860-526: Was for life, except for the Vestal Virgins whose term was 30 years. In the early Republic, only patricians could become priests. However, the Lex Ogulnia in 300 BC granted the right to become pontifices and augures to plebeians . Nevertheless, even in the late Republic it was still believed that the auspices ultimately resided with patrician magistrates, and certain ancient priesthoods:

2915-465: Was not. She came to despise him, and conspired with Tarquin to bring about the deaths of Tullia Major and Arruns. After the murder of their spouses, Tarquin and Tullia were married. They had three sons: Titus , Arruns , and Sextus , and a daughter, Tarquinia , who married Octavius Mamilius , the prince of Tusculum . Tullia encouraged her husband to advance his own position, ultimately persuading him to usurp her father, King Servius. Tarquin solicited

2970-526: Was sought concerning reforms of the discipline of the haruspices . During the Kingdom of Roman history, the pontiffs were primarily concilia (advisers) of the kings, but after the expulsion of the last Roman King in 510 BC, the College of Pontiffs became religious advisers to the Roman Senate . As the most important of the four priestly colleges, the College of Pontiffs’ duties involved advising

3025-541: Was the legendary seventh and final king of Rome , reigning 25 years until the popular uprising that led to the establishment of the Roman Republic . He is commonly known as Tarquin the Proud , from his cognomen Superbus ( Latin for "proud, arrogant, lofty"). Ancient accounts of the regal period mingle history and legend. Tarquin was said to have been either the son or grandson of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus ,

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