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107-545: During late Miocene and early Pliocene times, a flood basalt engulfed about 63,000 square miles (160,000 km) of the Pacific Northwest, forming a large igneous province . Over a period of perhaps 10 to 15 million years, lava flow after lava flow poured out, ultimately accumulating to a thickness of more than 6,000 feet (1.8  km). As the molten rock came to the surface, the Earth's crust gradually sank into

214-508: A marine environment apart from the vertebrate members of the chordate phylum; invertebrates lack a vertebral column . Some have evolved a shell or a hard exoskeleton . The earliest animals may belong to the genus Dickinsonia , 571 million to 539 million years ago. Individual Dickinsonia typically resemble a bilaterally symmetrical ribbed oval. They kept growing until they were covered with sediment or otherwise killed, and spent most of their lives with their bodies firmly anchored to

321-457: A phylum containing over 10,000 species of animals found exclusively in aquatic (mainly marine) environments. Their bodies consist of mesoglea , a non-living jelly-like substance, sandwiched between two layers of epithelium that are mostly one cell thick . They have two basic body forms: swimming medusae and sessile polyps , both of which are radially symmetrical with mouths surrounded by tentacles that bear cnidocytes. Both forms have

428-542: A broader aridification trend. The EMCI ended 18 million years ago, giving way to the Middle Miocene Warm Interval (MMWI), the warmest part of which was the MMCO that began 16 million years ago. As the world transitioned into the MMCO, carbon dioxide concentrations varied between 300 and 500 ppm. Global annual mean surface temperature during the MMCO was about 18.4 °C. MMCO warmth was driven by

535-529: A clade of large terrestrial predatory crocodyliformes distantly related to modern crocodilians, from which they likely diverged over 180 million years ago, are known from the Miocene of South America. The last Desmostylians thrived during this period before becoming the only extinct marine mammal order. The pinnipeds , which appeared near the end of the Oligocene, became more aquatic. A prominent genus

642-586: A complex digestive system using microscopic, muscle-powered hairs called cilia to exude mucus . The generalized mollusc has two paired nerve cords (three in bivalves). The brain , in species that have one, encircles the esophagus . Most molluscs have eyes and all have sensors detecting chemicals, vibrations, and touch. The simplest type of molluscan reproductive system relies on external fertilization , but more complex variations occur. All produce eggs , from which may emerge trochophore larvae , more complex veliger larvae, or miniature adults. The depiction

749-399: A constant water flow through their bodies to obtain food and oxygen and to remove wastes. Sponges are similar to other animals in that they are multicellular , heterotrophic , lack cell walls and produce sperm cells . Unlike other animals, they lack true tissues and organs , and have no body symmetry . The shapes of their bodies are adapted for maximal efficiency of water flow through

856-570: A cooler, drier climate. C 4 grasses, which are able to assimilate carbon dioxide and water more efficiently than C 3 grasses, expanded to become ecologically significant near the end of the Miocene between 6 and 7 million years ago, although they did not expand northward during the Late Miocene. The expansion of grasslands and radiations among terrestrial herbivores correlates to fluctuations in CO 2 . One study, however, has attributed

963-419: A further worm phylum with tubular digestive systems and an opening at both ends. Over 25,000 nematode species have been described, of which more than half are parasitic. It has been estimated another million remain undescribed. They are ubiquitous in marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments, where they often outnumber other animals in both individual and species counts. They are found in every part of

1070-486: A good analogue for future warmer climates caused by anthropogenic global warming , with this being especially true of the global climate during the Middle Miocene Climatic Optimum (MMCO), because the last time carbon dioxide levels were comparable to projected future atmospheric carbon dioxide levels resulting from anthropogenic climate change was during the MMCO. The Ross Sea margin of

1177-435: A good model for a "living fossil". Eucalyptus fossil leaves occur in the Miocene of New Zealand , where the genus is not native today, but have been introduced from Australia . Both marine and continental fauna were fairly modern, although marine mammals were less numerous. Only in isolated South America and Australia did widely divergent fauna exist. In Eurasia, genus richness shifted southward to lower latitudes from

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1284-598: A major expansion of Antarctic glaciers. This severed the connection between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea and formed the present land connection between Afro-Arabia and Eurasia. The subsequent uplift of mountains in the western Mediterranean region and a global fall in sea levels combined to cause a temporary drying up of the Mediterranean Sea (known as the Messinian salinity crisis ) near

1391-480: A major expansion of grass-grazer ecosystems . Herds of large, swift grazers were hunted by predators across broad sweeps of open grasslands , displacing desert, woodland, and browsers . The higher organic content and water retention of the deeper and richer grassland soils , with long-term burial of carbon in sediments, produced a carbon and water vapor sink. This, combined with higher surface albedo and lower evapotranspiration of grassland, contributed to

1498-637: A pair of appendages . The rigid cuticle inhibits growth, so arthropods replace it periodically by moulting . Their versatility has enabled them to become the most species-rich members of all ecological guilds in most environments. Marine arthropods range in size from the microscopic crustacean Stygotantulus to the Japanese spider crab . Arthropods' primary internal cavity is a hemocoel , which accommodates their internal organs , and through which their haemolymph - analogue of blood - circulates; they have open circulatory systems . Like their exteriors,

1605-476: A plume hundreds of kilometers in diameter that ascends directly through to the surface of the Earth. The track of this hot spot starts in the west and sweeps up to Yellowstone National Park . The steaming fumaroles and explosive geysers are ample evidence of a concentration of heat beneath the surface. The hotspot is stationary, but the North American plate is moving over it, creating a superb record of

1712-602: A significant drop in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels. Both continental and oceanic thermal gradients in mid-latitudes during the Early Miocene were very similar to those in the present. Global cooling caused the East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM) to begin to take on its modern form during the Early Miocene. From 22.1 to 19.7 Ma, the Xining Basin experienced relative warmth and humidity amidst

1819-700: A significant local decline along the northeastern coast of Australia during the Tortonian, most likely due to warming seawater. Cetaceans attained their greatest diversity during the Miocene, with over 20 recognized genera of baleen whales in comparison to only six living genera. This diversification correlates with emergence of gigantic macro-predators such as megatoothed sharks and raptorial sperm whales . Prominent examples are O. megalodon and L. melvillei . Other notable large sharks were O. chubutensis , Isurus hastalis , and Hemipristis serra . Crocodilians also showed signs of diversification during

1926-427: A single orifice and body cavity that are used for digestion and respiration . Fossil cnidarians have been found in rocks formed about 580  million years ago . Fossils of cnidarians that do not build mineralized structures are rare. Scientists currently think cnidarians, ctenophores and bilaterians are more closely related to calcareous sponges than these are to other sponges , and that anthozoans are

2033-415: A single muscular foot . Beyond that it has three further key features. Firstly, it has a muscular cloak called a mantle covering its viscera and containing a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion . A shell secreted by the mantle covers the upper surface. Secondly (apart from bivalves) it has a rasping tongue called a radula used for feeding. Thirdly, it has a nervous system including

2140-463: A total metamorphosis to produce the adult form. The evolutionary ancestry of arthropods dates back to the Cambrian period. The group is generally regarded as monophyletic , and many analyses support the placement of arthropods with cycloneuralians (or their constituent clades) in a superphylum Ecdysozoa . Overall however, the basal relationships of Metazoa are not yet well resolved. Likewise,

2247-444: A way of grouping organisms according to their body plan . A body plan refers to a blueprint which describes the shape or morphology of an organism, such as its symmetry , segmentation and the disposition of its appendages . The idea of body plans originated with vertebrates , which were grouped into one phylum. But the vertebrate body plan is only one of many, and invertebrates consist of many phyla or body plans. The history of

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2354-567: A wide range of chemical and mechanical sensors, mostly based on modifications of the many setae (bristles) that project through their cuticles. Arthropods' methods of reproduction and development are diverse; all terrestrial species use internal fertilization , but this is often by indirect transfer of the sperm via an appendage or the ground, rather than by direct injection. Marine species all lay eggs and use either internal or external fertilization . Arthropod hatchlings vary from miniature adults to grubs that lack jointed limbs and eventually undergo

2461-651: A zone of low rainfall in the Late Miocene. The Indian Plate continued to collide with the Eurasian Plate , creating new mountain ranges and uplifting the Tibetan Plateau , resulting in the rain shadowing and aridification of the Asian interior. The Tian Shan experienced significant uplift in the Late Miocene, blocking westerlies from coming into the Tarim Basin and drying it as a result. At

2568-656: Is a blanket term that includes all animals apart from the vertebrate members of the chordate phylum. Invertebrates lack a vertebral column , and some have evolved a shell or a hard exoskeleton . As on land and in the air, marine invertebrates have a large variety of body plans , and have been categorised into over 30 phyla . They make up most of the macroscopic life in the oceans. The earliest animals were marine invertebrates , that is, vertebrates came later. Animals are multicellular eukaryotes , and are distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls . Marine invertebrates are animals that inhabit

2675-459: Is a phylum which contains only marine invertebrates. The adults are recognizable by their radial symmetry (usually five-point) and include starfish , sea urchins , sand dollars , and sea cucumbers , as well as the sea lilies . Echinoderms are found at every ocean depth, from the intertidal zone to the abyssal zone . The phylum contains about 7000 living species , making it the second-largest grouping of deuterostomes (a superphylum), after

2782-515: Is a remarkable degree of similarity in the gene sequence conservation and complexity between the sea anemone and vertebrates. In particular, genes concerned in the formation of the head in vertebrates are also present in the anemone. Worms (Old English for serpent ) typically have long cylindrical tube-like bodies and no limbs . Marine worms vary in size from microscopic to over 1 metre (3.3 ft) in length for some marine polychaete worms ( bristle worms ) and up to 58 metres (190 ft) for

2889-403: Is rather similar to modern monoplacophorans , and some suggest it may resemble very early molluscs. Good evidence exists for the appearance of marine gastropods, cephalopods and bivalves in the Cambrian period 538.8 to 485.4 million years ago . However, the evolutionary history both of molluscs' emergence from the ancestral Lophotrochozoa and of their diversification into

2996-459: Is still debate about the classification of these specimens, mainly because the diagnostic features which allow taxonomists to classify more recent organisms, such as similarities to living organisms, are generally absent in the Ediacarans. However, there seems little doubt that Kimberella was at least a triploblastic bilaterian animal, in other words, an animal significantly more complex than

3103-491: The Cambrian explosion , but a more nuanced understanding of animal evolution suggests a gradual development of body plans throughout the early Palaeozoic and beyond. More generally a phylum can be defined in two ways: as described above, as a group of organisms with a certain degree of morphological or developmental similarity (the phenetic definition), or a group of organisms with a certain degree of evolutionary relatedness (the phylogenetic definition). As on land and in

3210-559: The Middle Miocene Climate Transition (MMCT). Abrupt increases in opal deposition indicate this cooling was driven by enhanced drawdown of carbon dioxide via silicate weathering. The MMCT caused a sea surface temperature (SST) drop of approximately 6 °C in the North Atlantic. The drop in benthic foraminiferal δ O values was most noticeable in the waters around Antarctica, suggesting cooling

3317-406: The biotic desert of the deep sea , as well as shallower oceans. Most echinoderms are able to regenerate tissue, organs, limbs, and reproduce asexually ; in some cases, they can undergo complete regeneration from a single limb. Geologically, the value of echinoderms is in their ossified skeletons , which are major contributors to many limestone formations, and can provide valuable clues as to

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3424-560: The carbon cycle occurred approximately 6 Ma, causing continental carbon reservoirs to no longer expand during cold spells, as they had done during cold periods in the Oligocene and most of the Miocene. At the end of the Miocene, global temperatures rose again as the amplitude of Earth's obliquity increased, which caused increased aridity in Central Asia. Around 5.5 Ma, the EAWM underwent a period of rapid intensification. Life during

3531-405: The chordates (which include the vertebrates , such as birds , fishes , mammals , and reptiles ). Echinoderms are unique among animals in having bilateral symmetry at the larval stage, but fivefold symmetry ( pentamerism , a special type of radial symmetry) as adults. The echinoderms are important both biologically and geologically. Biologically, there are few other groupings so abundant in

3638-593: The geology of the Himalaya occurred during that epoch, affecting monsoonal patterns in Asia, which were interlinked with glacial periods in the northern hemisphere. The Miocene faunal stages from youngest to oldest are typically named according to the International Commission on Stratigraphy : Regionally, other systems are used, based on characteristic land mammals; some of them overlap with

3745-412: The giant tube worm which lives in waters near underwater volcanoes and can withstand temperatures up to 90 degrees Celsius . Platyhelminthes (flatworms) form another worm phylum which includes a class Cestoda of parasitic tapeworms. The marine tapeworm Polygonoporus giganticus , found in the gut of sperm whales , can grow to over 30 m (100 ft). Nematodes (roundworms) constitute

3852-514: The phylum Porifera (Modern Latin for bearing pores ). They are multicellular organisms that have bodies full of pores and channels allowing water to circulate through them, consisting of jelly-like mesohyl sandwiched between two thin layers of cells . They have unspecialized cells that can transform into other types and that often migrate between the main cell layers and the mesohyl in the process. Sponges do not have nervous , digestive or circulatory systems . Instead, most rely on maintaining

3959-402: The subphylum to which they belong. Their vision relies on various combinations of compound eyes and pigment-pit ocelli : in most species the ocelli can only detect the direction from which light is coming, and the compound eyes are the main source of information, but the main eyes of spiders are ocelli that can form images and, in a few cases, can swivel to track prey. Arthropods also have

4066-534: The " Zanclean flood ". Also during the early Miocene (specifically the Aquitanian and Burdigalian Stages), the apes first evolved, began diversifying, and became widespread throughout the Old World . Around the end of this epoch, the ancestors of humans had split away from the ancestors of the chimpanzees and had begun following their own evolutionary path during the final Messinian Stage (7.5–5.3 Ma) of

4173-472: The 1970s, there was already a debate about whether the emergence of the modern phyla was "explosive" or gradual but hidden by the shortage of Precambrian animal fossils. A re-analysis of fossils from the Burgess Shale lagerstätte increased interest in the issue when it revealed animals, such as Opabinia , which did not fit into any known phylum . At the time these were interpreted as evidence that

4280-710: The Central Paratethys, cut off from sources of freshwater input by its separation from the Eastern Paratethys. From 13.36 to 12.65 Ma, the Central Paratethys was characterised by open marine conditions, before the reopening of the Bârlad Strait resulted in a shift to brackish-marine conditions in the Central Paratethys, causing the Badenian-Sarmatian Extinction Event. As a result of the Bârlad Strait's reopening,

4387-578: The Columbia Plateau Province at the base of the lithosphere (the layer of crust and upper mantle that forms Earth's moving tectonic plates). In an effort to figure out why this area, far from a plate boundary, had such an enormous outpouring of lava, scientists established hardening dates for many of the individual lava flows. They found that the youngest volcanic rocks were clustered near the Yellowstone Plateau and that

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4494-532: The Columbia Plateau include: 45°59′58″N 119°00′05″W  /  45.99944°N 119.00139°W  / 45.99944; -119.00139 Miocene The Miocene ( / ˈ m aɪ . ə s iː n , - oʊ -/ MY -ə-seen, -⁠oh- ) is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about 23.03 to 5.333 million years ago (Ma). The Miocene

4601-837: The Early to the Middle Miocene. Europe's large mammal diversity significantly declined during the Late Miocene. In the Early Miocene, several Oligocene groups were still diverse, including nimravids , entelodonts , and three-toed equids. As in the previous Oligocene Epoch, oreodonts were still diverse, only to disappear in the earliest Pliocene. During the later Miocene mammals were more modern, with easily recognizable canids , bears , red pandas , procyonids , equids , beavers , deer , camelids , and whales , along with now-extinct groups like borophagine canids , certain gomphotheres , three-toed horses , and hornless rhinos like Teleoceras and Aphelos . The late Miocene also marks

4708-469: The Earth's lithosphere , from the top of mountains to the bottom of oceanic trenches . By count they represent 90% of all animals on the ocean floor . Their numerical dominance, often exceeding a million individuals per square meter and accounting for about 80% of all individual animals on earth, their diversity of life cycles, and their presence at various trophic levels point at an important role in many ecosystems. Echinoderms (Greek for spiny skin )

4815-720: The East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) was highly dynamic during the Early Miocene. The Miocene began with the Early Miocene Cool Event (Mi-1) around 23 million years ago, which marked the start of the Early Miocene Cool Interval (EMCI). This cool event occurred immediately after the Oligocene-Miocene Transition (OMT) during a major expansion of Antarctica's ice sheets, but was not associated with

4922-601: The East Asian Winter Monsoon (EAWM) became stronger synchronously with a southward shift of the subarctic front. Greenland may have begun to have large glaciers as early as 8 to 7 Ma, although the climate for the most part remained warm enough to support forests there well into the Pliocene. Zhejiang, China was noticeably more humid than today. In the Great Rift Valley of Kenya , there

5029-460: The LMC; extratropical sea surface temperatures dropped substantially by approximately 7–9 °C. 41 kyr obliquity cycles became the dominant orbital climatic control 7.7 Ma and this dominance strengthened 6.4 Ma. Benthic δ O values show significant glaciation occurred from 6.26 to 5.50 Ma, during which glacial-interglacial cycles were governed by the 41 kyr obliquity cycle. A major reorganisation of

5136-579: The Late Cretaceous, are known from the Miocene of Patagonia, represented by the mole-like Necrolestes . The youngest known representatives of metatherians (the broader grouping to which marsupials belong) in Europe, Asia and Africa are known from the Miocene, including the European herpetotheriid Amphiperatherium , the peradectids Siamoperadectes and Sinoperadectes from Asia, and

5243-653: The Late Miocene, the Earth's climate began to display a high degree of similarity to that of the present day . The 173 kyr obliquity modulation cycle governed by Earth's interactions with Saturn became detectable in the Late Miocene. By 12 Ma, Oregon was a savanna akin to that of the western margins of the Sierra Nevada of northern California . Central Australia became progressively drier, although southwestern Australia experienced significant wettening from around 12 to 8 Ma. The South Asian Winter Monsoon (SAWM) underwent strengthening ~9.2–8.5 Ma. From 7.9 to 5.8 Ma,

5350-574: The Miocene Epoch was mostly supported by the two newly formed biomes , kelp forests and grasslands . Grasslands allow for more grazers, such as horses , rhinoceroses , and hippos . Ninety-five percent of modern plants existed by the end of this epoch . Modern bony fish genera were established. A modern-style latitudinal biodiversity gradient appeared ~15 Ma. The coevolution of gritty , fibrous, fire-tolerant grasses and long-legged gregarious ungulates with high-crowned teeth , led to

5457-484: The Miocene. As in the Oligocene before it, grasslands continued to expand, and forests to dwindle. In the seas of the Miocene, kelp forests made their first appearance and soon became one of Earth's most productive ecosystems. The plants and animals of the Miocene were recognizably modern. Mammals and birds were well established. Whales , pinnipeds , and kelp spread. The Miocene is of particular interest to geologists and palaeoclimatologists because major phases of

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5564-449: The Miocene. The largest form among them was a gigantic caiman Purussaurus which inhabited South America. Another gigantic form was a false gharial Rhamphosuchus , which inhabited modern age India . A strange form, Mourasuchus also thrived alongside Purussaurus . This species developed a specialized filter-feeding mechanism, and it likely preyed upon small fauna despite its gigantic size. The youngest members of Sebecidae ,

5671-550: The North American Great Plains and in Argentina . The global trend was towards increasing aridity caused primarily by global cooling reducing the ability of the atmosphere to absorb moisture, particularly after 7 to 8 million years ago. Uplift of East Africa in the late Miocene was partly responsible for the shrinking of tropical rain forests in that region, and Australia got drier as it entered

5778-656: The Oligocene–Miocene transgression. As the southern Andes rose in the Middle Miocene (14–12 million years ago) the resulting rain shadow originated the Patagonian Desert to the east. Far northern Australia was monsoonal during the Miocene. Although northern Australia is often believed to have been much wetter during the Miocene, this interpretation may be an artefact of preservation bias of riparian and lacustrine plants; this finding has itself been challenged by other papers. Western Australia, like today,

5885-617: The Qiongdongnan Basin in the northern South China Sea indicates the Pearl River was a major source of sediment flux into the sea during the Early Miocene and was a major fluvial system as in the present. During the Oligocene and Early Miocene, the coast of northern Brazil, Colombia, south-central Peru , central Chile and large swathes of inland Patagonia were subject to a marine transgression . The transgressions in

5992-497: The activity of the Columbia River Basalts and enhanced by decreased albedo from the reduction of deserts and expansion of forests. Climate modelling suggests additional, currently unknown, factors also worked to create the warm conditions of the MMCO. The MMCO saw the expansion of the tropical climatic zone to much larger than its current size. The July ITCZ, the zone of maximal monsoonal rainfall, moved to

6099-433: The air, invertebrates make up a great majority of all macroscopic life, as the vertebrates makes up a subphylum of one of over 30 known animal phyla, making the term almost meaningless for taxonomic purpose. Invertebrate sea life includes the following groups, some of which are phyla: Arthropods total about 1,113,000 described extant species, molluscs about 85,000 and chordates about 52,000. Sponges are animals of

6206-429: The approximately 5,000–10,000 known species feed on bacteria and other food particles in the water, some host photosynthesizing micro-organisms as endosymbionts and these alliances often produce more food and oxygen than they consume. A few species of sponge that live in food-poor environments have become carnivores that prey mainly on small crustaceans . Linnaeus mistakenly identified sponges as plants in

6313-472: The aridity of the former. Unequivocally-recognizable dabbling ducks , plovers , typical owls , cockatoos and crows appear during the Miocene. By the epoch's end, all or almost all modern bird groups are believed to have been present; the few post-Miocene bird fossils which cannot be placed in the evolutionary tree with full confidence are simply too badly preserved, rather than too equivocal in character. Marine birds reached their highest diversity ever in

6420-638: The beginning of the Miocene, the northern margin of the Arabian plate, then part of the African landmass, collided with Eurasia; as a result, the Tethys seaway continued to shrink and then disappeared as Africa collided with Eurasia in the Turkish – Arabian region. The first step of this closure occurred 20 Ma, reducing water mass exchange by 90%, while the second step occurred around 13.8 Ma, coincident with

6527-430: The central cavity, where it deposits nutrients, and leaves through a hole called the osculum . Many sponges have internal skeletons of spongin and/or spicules of calcium carbonate or silicon dioxide . All sponges are sessile aquatic animals. Although there are freshwater species, the great majority are marine (salt water) species, ranging from tidal zones to depths exceeding 8,800 m (5.5 mi). While most of

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6634-488: The climate slowly cooled towards a series of ice ages . The Miocene boundaries are not marked by distinct global events but by regionally defined transitions from the warmer Oligocene to the cooler Pliocene Epoch. During the Early Miocene, Afro-Arabia collided with Eurasia, severing the connection between the Mediterranean and Indian Oceans, and allowing the interchange of fauna between Eurasia and Africa, including

6741-689: The cnidarians. The small shelly fauna are a very mixed collection of fossils found between the Late Ediacaran and Middle Cambrian periods. The earliest, Cloudina , shows signs of successful defense against predation and may indicate the start of an evolutionary arms race . Some tiny Early Cambrian shells almost certainly belonged to molluscs, while the owners of some "armor plates," Halkieria and Microdictyon , were eventually identified when more complete specimens were found in Cambrian lagerstätten that preserved soft-bodied animals. In

6848-577: The course of this epoch . The youngest representatives of Choristodera , an extinct order of aquatic reptiles that first appeared in the Middle Jurassic , are known from the Miocene of Europe, belonging to the genus Lazarussuchus , which had been the only known surviving genus of the group since the beginning of the Eocene. The last known representatives of the archaic primitive mammal order Meridiolestida , which dominated South America during

6955-577: The discovery of body plans can be seen as a movement from a worldview centred on vertebrates, to seeing the vertebrates as one body plan among many. Among the pioneering zoologists , Linnaeus identified two body plans outside the vertebrates; Cuvier identified three; and Haeckel had four, as well as the Protista with eight more, for a total of twelve. For comparison, the number of phyla recognised by modern zoologists has risen to 35 . Historically body plans were thought of as having evolved in rapidly during

7062-579: The dispersal of proboscideans and hominoids into Eurasia. During the late Miocene, the connections between the Atlantic and Mediterranean closed, causing the Mediterranean Sea to almost completely evaporate. This event is referred to as the " Messinian salinity crisis ". Then, at the Miocene–Pliocene boundary, the Strait of Gibraltar opened, and the Mediterranean refilled. That event is referred to as

7169-595: The early to mid Miocene (23–15 Ma). Oceans cooled partly due to the formation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current , and about 15 million years ago the ice cap in the southern hemisphere started to grow to its present form. The Greenland ice cap developed later, in the Middle Pliocene time, about 3 million years ago. Marine invertebrate Marine invertebrates are the invertebrates that live in marine habitats . Invertebrate

7276-514: The end of the Miocene due to increased habitat uniformity. The expansion of grasslands in North America also led to an explosive radiation among snakes. Previously, snakes were a minor component of the North American fauna, but during the Miocene, the number of species and their prevalence increased dramatically with the first appearances of vipers and elapids in North America and the significant diversification of Colubridae (including

7383-422: The end of the Miocene. The Paratethys underwent a significant transgression during the early Middle Miocene. Around 13.8 Ma, during a global sea level drop, the Eastern Paratethys was cut off from the global ocean by the closure of the Bârlad Strait, effectively turning it into a saltwater lake. From 13.8 to 13.36 Ma, an evaporite period similar to the later Messinian salinity crisis in the Mediterranean ensued in

7490-637: The enigmatic Saint Bathans Mammal . Microbial life in the igneous crust of the Fennoscandian Shield shifted from being dominated by methanogens to being primarily composed of sulphate-reducing prokaryotes . The change resulted from fracture reactivation during the Pyrenean-Alpine orogeny, enabling sulphate-reducing microbes to permeate into the Fennoscandian Shield via descending surficial waters. Diatom diversity

7597-461: The evolution of both groups into modern representatives. The early Miocene Saint Bathans Fauna is the only Cenozoic terrestrial fossil record of the landmass, showcasing a wide variety of not only bird species, including early representatives of clades such as moa , kiwi and adzebills , but also a diverse herpetofauna of sphenodontians , crocodiles and turtles as well as a rich terrestrial mammal fauna composed of various species of bats and

7704-404: The evolutionary "aunts" or "sisters" of other cnidarians, and the most closely related to bilaterians. Cnidarians are the simplest animals in which the cells are organised into tissues. The starlet sea anemone is used as a model organism in research. It is easy to care for in the laboratory and a protocol has been developed which can yield large numbers of embryos on a daily basis. There

7811-499: The expansion of grasslands not to a CO 2 drop but to the increasing seasonality and aridity, coupled with a monsoon climate, which made wildfires highly prevalent compared to before. The Late Miocene expansion of grasslands had cascading effects on the global carbon cycle, evidenced by the imprint it left in carbon isotope records. Cycads between 11.5 and 5 million years ago began to rediversify after previous declines in variety due to climatic changes, and thus modern cycads are not

7918-718: The extinction of the last-surviving members of the hyaenodonts . Islands began to form between South and North America in the Late Miocene, allowing ground sloths like Thinobadistes to island-hop to North America. The expansion of silica-rich C 4 grasses led to worldwide extinctions of herbivorous species without high-crowned teeth . Mustelids diversified into their largest forms as terrestrial predators like Ekorus , Eomellivora , and Megalictis and bunodont otters like Enhydriodon and Sivaonyx appeared. Eulipotyphlans were widespread in Europe, being less diverse in Southern Europe than farther north due to

8025-442: The farther west they went, the older the lavas. Although scientists are still gathering evidence, a probable explanation is that a hot spot , an extremely hot plume of deep mantle material, is rising to the surface beneath the Columbia Plateau Province. Beneath Hawaii and Iceland , a temperature instability develops (for reasons not yet well understood) at the boundary between the core and mantle . The concentrated heat triggers

8132-629: The findings of marine invertebrate fossils of both Atlantic and Pacific affinity in La Cascada Formation . Connection would have occurred through narrow epicontinental seaways that formed channels in a dissected topography . The Antarctic Plate started to subduct beneath South America 14 million years ago in the Miocene, forming the Chile Triple Junction . At first the Antarctic Plate subducted only in

8239-500: The geological environment. They were the most used species in regenerative research in the 19th and 20th centuries. Further, it is held by some scientists that the radiation of echinoderms was responsible for the Mesozoic Marine Revolution . Aside from the hard-to-classify Arkarua (a Precambrian animal with echinoderm-like pentamerous radial symmetry), the first definitive members of the phylum appeared near

8346-464: The human lineage) appeared in Africa at the very end of the Miocene, including Sahelanthropus , Orrorin , and an early form of Ardipithecus ( A. kadabba ). The chimpanzee–human divergence is thought to have occurred at this time. The evolution of bipedalism in apes at the end of the Miocene instigated an increased rate of faunal turnover in Africa. In contrast, European apes met their end at

8453-502: The internal organs of arthropods are generally built of repeated segments. Their nervous system is "ladder-like", with paired ventral nerve cords running through all segments and forming paired ganglia in each segment. Their heads are formed by fusion of varying numbers of segments, and their brains are formed by fusion of the ganglia of these segments and encircle the esophagus . The respiratory and excretory systems of arthropods vary, depending as much on their environment as on

8560-606: The lake levels of the Eastern Paratethys dropped as it once again became a sea. The Fram Strait opened during the Miocene and acted as the only throughflow for Atlantic Water into the Arctic Ocean until the Quaternary period. Due to regional uplift of the continental shelf, this water could not move through the Barents Seaway in the Miocene. The modern day Mekong Delta took shape after 8 Ma. Geochemistry of

8667-701: The marine nemertean worm ( bootlace worm ). Some marine worms occupy a small variety of parasitic niches, living inside the bodies of other animals, while others live more freely in the marine environment or by burrowing underground. Different groups of marine worms are related only distantly, so they are found in several different phyla such as the Annelida (segmented worms), Chaetognatha (arrow worms), Hemichordata , and Phoronida (horseshoe worms). Many of these worms have specialized tentacles used for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide and also may be used for reproduction. Some marine worms are tube worms , such as

8774-553: The modern phyla had evolved very rapidly in the Cambrian explosion and that the Burgess Shale's "weird wonders" showed that the Early Cambrian was a uniquely experimental period of animal evolution. Later discoveries of similar animals and the development of new theoretical approaches led to the conclusion that many of the "weird wonders" were evolutionary "aunts" or "cousins" of modern groups —for example that Opabinia

8881-472: The most advanced of the invertebrates. About 800 living species of marine cephalopods have been identified, and an estimated 11,000 extinct taxa have been described. There are no fully freshwater cephalopods. Molluscs have such diverse shapes that many textbooks base their descriptions of molluscan anatomy on a generalized or hypothetical ancestral mollusc . This generalized mollusc is unsegmented and bilaterally symmetrical with an underside consisting of

8988-445: The most numerous molluscs in terms of classified species, accounting for 80% of the total. Bivalves include clams , oysters , cockles , mussels , scallops , and numerous other families . There are about 8,000 marine bivalves species (including brackish water and estuarine species), and about 1,200 freshwater species. Cephalopod include octopus , squid and cuttlefish . They are found in all oceans, and neurologically are

9095-547: The north, increasing precipitation over southern China whilst simultaneously decreasing it over Indochina during the EASM. Western Australia was at this time characterised by exceptional aridity. In Antarctica, average summer temperatures on land reached 10 °C. In the oceans, the lysocline shoaled by approximately half of a kilometre during warm phases that corresponded to orbital eccentricity maxima. The MMCO ended around 14 million years ago, when global temperatures fell in

9202-554: The oceans, from the seashores to the abyssal zone , but some form a significant part of the freshwater fauna and the terrestrial ecosystems . The mollusc phylum is divided into 9 or 10 taxonomic classes , two of which are extinct . These classes include gastropods , bivalves and cephalopods , as well as other lesser-known but distinctive classes. Gastropods with protective shells are referred to as snails ( sea snails ), whereas gastropods without protective shells are referred to as slugs ( sea slugs ). Gastropods are by far

9309-470: The order Algae . For a long time thereafter sponges were assigned to a separate subkingdom, Parazoa (meaning beside the animals ). They are now classified as a paraphyletic phylum from which the higher animals have evolved. Cnidarians (Greek for nettle ) are distinguished by the presence of stinging cells , specialized cells that they use mainly for capturing prey. Cnidarians include corals , sea anemones , jellyfish and hydrozoans . They form

9416-523: The origin of many modern genera such as Nerodia , Lampropeltis , Pituophis and Pantherophis ). Arthropods were abundant, including in areas such as Tibet where they have traditionally been thought to be undiverse. Neoisopterans diversified and expanded into areas they previously were absent from, such as Madagascar and Australia. In the oceans, brown algae , called kelp , proliferated, supporting new species of sea life, including otters , fish and various invertebrates . Corals suffered

9523-463: The possible herpetotheriid Morotodon from the late Early Miocene of Uganda. Approximately 100 species of apes lived during this time , ranging throughout Africa, Asia and Europe and varying widely in size, diet, and anatomy. Due to scanty fossil evidence it is unclear which ape or apes contributed to the modern hominid clade, but molecular evidence indicates this ape lived between 18 and 13 million years ago. The first hominins ( bipedal apes of

9630-846: The preceding Oligocene and following Pliocene Epochs: Continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Of the modern geologic features, only the land bridge between South America and North America was absent, although South America was approaching the western subduction zone in the Pacific Ocean , causing both the rise of the Andes and a southward extension of the Meso-American peninsula. Mountain building took place in western North America , Europe , and East Asia . Both continental and marine Miocene deposits are common worldwide with marine outcrops common near modern shorelines. Well studied continental exposures occur in

9737-472: The rate and direction of plate motion. Part of the Columbia Plateau is associated with the Columbia Plateau ecoregion , part of the "Nearctic temperate and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands" ecoregion of the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome . Washington cities in the Columbia Plateau include: Oregon cities in the Columbia Plateau include: Idaho cities in

9844-537: The relationships between various arthropod groups are still actively debated. There are a number of marine invertebrates that use minerals that are present in the sea in such minute quantities that they were undetectable until the advent of spectroscopy . Vanadium is concentrated by some tunicates for use in their blood cells to a level ten million times that of the surrounding seawater. Other tunicates similarly concentrate niobium and tantalum . Lobsters use copper in their respiratory pigment hemocyanin , despite

9951-430: The sediment. Their taxonomic affinities are presently unknown, but their mode of growth is consistent with a bilaterian affinity. Apart from Dickinsonia , the earliest widely accepted animal fossils are the rather modern-looking cnidarians (the group that includes jellyfish , sea anemones and Hydra ), possibly from around 580 Ma The Ediacara biota , which flourished for the last 40 million years before

10058-714: The southernmost tip of Patagonia, meaning that the Chile Triple Junction lay near the Strait of Magellan . As the southern part of Nazca Plate and the Chile Rise became consumed by subduction the more northerly regions of the Antarctic Plate begun to subduct beneath Patagonia so that the Chile Triple Junction advanced to the north over time. The asthenospheric window associated to the triple junction disturbed previous patterns of mantle convection beneath Patagonia inducing an uplift of ca. 1 km that reversed

10165-432: The space left by the rising lava. The Columbia River Basalt Group consists of seven formations: The Steens Basalt, Imnaha Basalt , Grande Ronde Basalt, Picture Gorge Basalt, Prineville Basalt, Wanapum Basalt, and Saddle Mountains Basalt. Many of these formations are subdivided into formal and informal members and flows. The subsidence of the crust produced a large, slightly depressed lava plateau. The ancient Columbia River

10272-428: The start of the Cambrian , were the first animals more than a very few centimetres long. Like Dickinsonia , many were flat with a "quilted" appearance, and seemed so strange that there was a proposal to classify them as a separate kingdom , Vendozoa . Others, however, have been interpreted as early molluscs ( Kimberella ), echinoderms ( Arkarua ), and arthropods ( Spriggina , Parvancorina ). There

10379-452: The start of the Cambrian . Molluscs (Latin for soft ) form a phylum with about 85,000 extant recognized species . By species count they are the largest marine phylum, comprising about 23% of all the named marine organisms . Molluscs have more varied forms than other invertebrate phyla. They are highly diverse, not just in size and in anatomical structure, but also in behaviour and in habitat. The majority of species still live in

10486-529: The well-known living and fossil forms are still subjects of vigorous debate among scientists. Arthropods (Greek for jointed feet ) have an exoskeleton (external skeleton ), a segmented body, and jointed appendages (paired appendages). They form a phylum which includes insects , arachnids , myriapods , and crustaceans . Arthropods are characterized by their jointed limbs and cuticle made of chitin , often mineralised with calcium carbonate . The arthropod body plan consists of segments , each with

10593-604: The west coast of South America are thought to be caused by a regional phenomenon while the steadily rising central segment of the Andes represents an exception. While there are numerous registers of Oligocene–Miocene transgressions around the world it is doubtful that these correlate. It is thought that the Oligocene–Miocene transgression in Patagonia could have temporarily linked the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, as inferred from

10700-423: Was Allodesmus . A ferocious walrus , Pelagiarctos may have preyed upon other species of pinnipeds including Allodesmus . Furthermore, South American waters witnessed the arrival of Megapiranha paranensis , which were considerably larger than modern age piranhas . New Zealand 's Miocene fossil record is particularly rich. Marine deposits showcase a variety of cetaceans and penguins , illustrating

10807-624: Was a gradual and progressive trend of increasing aridification, though it was not unidirectional, and wet humid episodes continued to occur. Between 7 and 5.3 Ma, temperatures dropped sharply again in the Late Miocene Cooling (LMC), most likely as a result of a decline in atmospheric carbon dioxide and a drop in the amplitude of Earth's obliquity, and the Antarctic ice sheet was approaching its present-day size and thickness. Ocean temperatures plummeted to near-modern values during

10914-438: Was a member of the lobopods , a group which includes the ancestors of the arthropods, and that it may have been closely related to the modern tardigrades . Nevertheless, there is still much debate about whether the Cambrian explosion was really explosive and, if so, how and why it happened and why it appears unique in the history of animals. Invertebrates are grouped into different phyla . Informally phyla can be thought of as

11021-464: Was arid, particularly so during the Middle Miocene. Climates remained moderately warm, although the slow global cooling that eventually led to the Pleistocene glaciations continued. Although a long-term cooling trend was well underway, there is evidence of a warm period during the Miocene when the global climate rivalled that of the Oligocene . The climate of the Miocene has been suggested as

11128-413: Was forced into its present course by the northwesterly advancing lava. The lava, as it flowed over the area, first filled the stream valleys, forming dams that in turn caused impoundments or lakes. Entities found in these lake beds include fossil leaf impressions, petrified wood , fossil insects, and bones of vertebrate animals. Evidence suggests that some concentrated heat source is melting rock beneath

11235-688: Was inversely correlated with carbon dioxide levels and global temperatures during the Miocene. Most modern lineages of diatoms appeared by the Late Miocene. There is evidence from oxygen isotopes at Deep Sea Drilling Program sites that ice began to build up in Antarctica about 36 Ma during the Eocene . Further marked decreases in temperature during the Middle Miocene at 15 Ma probably reflect increased ice growth in Antarctica. It can therefore be assumed that East Antarctica had some glaciers during

11342-646: Was most intense there. Around this time the Mi3b glacial event (a massive expansion of Antarctic glaciers) occurred. The East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) markedly stabilised following the MMCT. The intensification of glaciation caused a decoherence of sediment deposition from the 405 kyr eccentricity cycle. The MMWI ended about 11 Ma, when the Late Miocene Cool Interval (LMCI) started. A major but transient warming occurred around 10.8-10.7 Ma. During

11449-509: Was named by Scottish geologist Charles Lyell ; the name comes from the Greek words μείων ( meíōn , "less") and καινός ( kainós , "new") and means "less recent" because it has 18% fewer modern marine invertebrates than the Pliocene has. The Miocene followed the Oligocene and preceded the Pliocene. As Earth went from the Oligocene through the Miocene and into the Pliocene,

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