108-529: Noah Webster 's 1833 limited revision of the King James Version , (more commonly called Webster Bible ) focused mainly on replacing archaic words and making simple grammatical changes. For example: "why" instead of "wherefore", "its" instead of "his" when referring to nonliving things, "male child" instead of "manchild", etc. He also introduced euphemisms to remove words which he found to be offensive: "whore" becomes "lewd woman". He changed some of
216-646: A Federalist Party newspaper. He became a prolific author, publishing newspaper articles, political essays, and textbooks. He returned to Connecticut in 1798 and served in the Connecticut House of Representatives . Webster founded the Connecticut Society for the Abolition of Slavery in 1791 but later became somewhat disillusioned with the abolitionist movement. In 1806, Webster published his first dictionary, A Compendious Dictionary of
324-518: A liberal arts education "disqualifies a man for business". He taught school briefly in Glastonbury, but the working conditions were harsh and the pay low. He resigned to study law. While studying law under future U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice Oliver Ellsworth , Webster also taught full-time in Hartford—a grueling experience that ultimately proved unsustainable. He quit his legal studies for
432-558: A Federalist majority, submitted to the states a series of amendments to guarantee specific freedoms and rights; once ratified, these would become the first ten amendments to the Constitution. Upon taking office in 1789, President Washington nominated his wartime chief of staff Alexander Hamilton to the new office of Secretary of the Treasury . Hamilton wanted a strong national government with financial credibility, and he proposed
540-411: A complex problem into its component parts and had each pupil master one part before moving to the next. Ellis argues that Webster anticipated some of the insights currently associated with Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development . Webster said that children pass through distinctive learning phases in which they master increasingly complex or abstract tasks. Therefore, teachers must not try to teach
648-628: A facilitated access to the government itself through the channels of party passions. Thus the policy and the will of one country are subjected to the policy and will of another. Washington never considered himself a member of any party, but broadly supported most Federalist policies. The spoils system helped finance Federalist printers until 1801 and Republican editors after that. Federalist Postmasters General , Timothy Pickering (1791–94) and Joseph Habersham (1795–1801) appointed and removed local postmasters to maximize party funding. Numerous printers were appointed as postmasters. They did not deliver
756-538: A few days after he had completed making more specific definitions to the second edition, and with much of his efforts with the dictionary still unrecognized, Noah Webster died. His last words were, "I am entirely submissive to the will of God." He died later that evening. The rights to his dictionary were acquired by Charles and George Merriam in 1843 from Webster's estate and all contemporary Merriam-Webster dictionaries trace their lineage to that of Webster, although many others have adopted his name, attempting to share in
864-441: A grammar book and a reader for elementary schools. Proceeds from continuing sales of the popular blue-backed speller enabled Webster to spend many years working on his famous dictionary. Webster was by nature a revolutionary, seeking American independence from the cultural thralldom to Europe. He aimed to create a utopian America, free from luxury and ostentation, and a champion of freedom. By 1781, Webster had an expansive view of
972-648: A highly visible celebration of the nation's new civil religion. The Fourth of July became a semi-sacred day—a status it has maintained for much of American history. Its celebration in Boston emphasized national over local patriotism and included orations, dinners, militia musters, parades, marching bands, floats and fireworks. By 1800, the Fourth of July was closely identified with the Federalist Party. Republicans were annoyed and staged their own celebrations on
1080-669: A key element of Federalism. He was also one of the few early American thinkers who applied the theories of the French theorist Jean-Jacques Rousseau in America. He relied heavily on Rousseau's Social Contract while writing Sketches of American Policy , one of the earliest, widely-published arguments for a strong central government in America. He also wrote two "fan-fiction" sequels to Rousseau's Emile, or On Education (1762) and included them in his Reader for schoolchildren. Webster's Reader also contains an idealized word-portrait of Sophie,
1188-467: A local book society, a precursor to the public library. After American independence, he was appointed a justice of the peace. Webster's father never attended college, but he was intellectually curious and prized education. Webster's mother spent long hours teaching her children spelling, mathematics, and music. At age six, Webster began attending a dilapidated one-room primary school built by West Hartford's Ecclesiastical Society. Years later, he described
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#17327730591131296-498: A national coalition of bankers and businessmen in support of Hamilton's fiscal policies . These supporters worked in every state to build an organized party committed to a fiscally sound and nationalistic government. The only Federalist president was John Adams . George Washington was broadly sympathetic to the Federalist program, but he remained officially non-partisan during his entire presidency. The Federalist Party controlled
1404-519: A new capital stock of several millions of dollars, which, with that before existing, is directed into every branch of business, giving life and vigor to industry in its infinitely diversified operation. The enemies of the general government, the funding act and the National Bank may bellow tyranny, aristocracy, and speculators through the Union and repeat the clamorous din as long as they please; but
1512-604: A portrait of Rousseau's character, Sophie, and a tribute to Juliana Smith who had recently rejected Webster's romantic advances. Webster also included excerpts from Tom Paine 's The Crisis and an essay by Thomas Day calling for the abolition of slavery in accord with the Declaration of Independence. Webster's Speller was relatively secular. It ended with two pages of important dates in American history, beginning with Columbus's discovery of America in 1492 and ending with
1620-484: A sense different from that which they had when the translation was made, present a wrong signification or false ideas. Whenever words are understood in a sense different from that which they had been introduced, and different from that of the original languages, they do not present to the reader the Word of God." The problem with the older books was confusion on the part of readers as the language styles had been evolving over
1728-539: A stronger central government. The critiques of the Constitution raised by the Anti-Federalists influenced the creation of the Bill of Rights . Federalists responded to these objections by promising to add a bill of rights as amendments to the Constitution to satisfy these concerns, which aided in securing acceptance and ratification of the Constitution by the states. The new United States Congress , initially with
1836-542: A three-year-old how to read; they could not do it until age five. He organized his speller accordingly, beginning with the alphabet and moving systematically through the different sounds of vowels and consonants, then syllables, then simple words, then more complex words, then sentences. The speller was originally titled The First Part of the Grammatical Institute of the English Language . Over
1944-544: A year and lapsed into a depression ; he then found another practicing attorney to tutor him, and completed his studies and passed the bar examination in 1781. With the American Revolutionary War still ongoing, Webster was unable to find work as a lawyer. He received a master’s degree from Yale by delivering an oral dissertation to the graduating class. Later that year, he opened a small private school in western Connecticut, which initially succeeded but
2052-551: Is already too strong for the republican parts of the Constitution; and therefore in equivocal cases they incline to the legislative powers: the former of these are called federalists, sometimes aristocrats or monocrats, and sometimes tories, after the corresponding sect in the English Government of exactly the same definition: the latter are stiled republicans, whigs, jacobins, anarchists, disorganizers, etc. these terms are in familiar use with most persons. In New England,
2160-637: Is not to be confused with the Common Bible of 1973, an ecumenical edition of the Revised Standard Version ). Modern critics are surprised by just how little Webster changed the King James Version. His revision was very light, as he did not want to make the language wholly contemporary, but rather wanted to correct flaws he disagreed with as an educator. Other, less orthodox Americans were bringing out their own versions of
2268-605: The American civil religion . George Washington was always their hero and after his death he became viewed as a sort of demigod looking down from heaven to bestow his blessings on the party. At first, the Federalists focused on commemorating the ratification of the Constitution and organized parades to demonstrate widespread popular support for the new Federalist Party. The parade organizers incorporated secular versions of traditional religious themes and rituals, thereby fostering
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#17327730591132376-715: The Episcopalians in the larger cities supported the Federalists, while other minority denominations tended toward the Republican camp. Catholics in Maryland were generally Federalists. The state networks of both parties began to operate in 1794 or 1795, and patronage became a factor. The winner-takes-all election system opened a wide gap between winners, who got all the patronage, and losers who got none. Hamilton had many lucrative Treasury jobs to dispense—there were 1,700 of them by 1801. Jefferson had one part-time job in
2484-496: The McGuffey Eclectic Readers of William Holmes McGuffey , which sold over 120 million copies. Vincent P. Bynack (1984) examines Webster in relation to his commitment to the idea of a unified American national culture that would stave off the decline of republican virtues and solidarity. Webster acquired his perspective on language from such theorists as Maupertuis , Michaelis , and Herder . There he found
2592-695: The New Testament , but he had no interest in theologically motivated changes. One notable change that was beyond just revising language flaws was a correction changing the word "Easter" in Acts 12:4 to the word "Passover". Throughout Webster's Revision of the King James Bible, the lexicographer replaced "Holy Ghost" with "Holy Spirit". Webster did so because he knew that in the Christians' Scriptures this expression did not mean "an apparition". In
2700-867: The Reign of Terror , when thousands were guillotined, though it was at this point that many began backing away from their pro-France leanings. Many of those executed had been friends of the United States, such as the Comte D'Estaing , whose fleet had fought alongside the Americans in the Revolution ( Lafayette had already fled into exile, and Thomas Paine went to prison in France). The republicans denounced Hamilton, Adams and even Washington as friends of Britain, as secret monarchists , aristocrats and as enemies of
2808-565: The battle of Yorktown in 1781. "Let sacred things be appropriated for sacred purposes," Webster wrote. As Ellis explains, "Webster began to construct a secular catechism to the nation-state. Here was the first appearance of 'civics' in American schoolbooks. In this sense, Webster's speller becoming what was to be the secular successor to The New England Primer with its explicitly biblical injunctions." Later in life, Webster became more religious and incorporated religious themes into his work. However, after 1840, Webster's books lost market share to
2916-445: The re to er in words such as center . He also changed tongue to the older spelling tung , but this did not catch on. Part three of his Grammatical Institute (1785) was a reader designed to uplift the mind and "diffuse the principles of virtue and patriotism." "In the choice of pieces", he explained, "I have not been inattentive to the political interests of America. Several of those masterly addresses of Congress, written at
3024-482: The war between France and Great Britain . Hamilton proposed to fund the national and state debts, and Madison and John J. Beckley began organizing a party to oppose it. This " Anti-Administration " faction became what is now called the Democratic-Republican Party , led by Madison and Thomas Jefferson. This party attracted many Anti-Federalists who were wary of a centralized government. By
3132-521: The "Father of American Scholarship and Education". His "Blue-Backed Speller" books taught generations of American children how to spell and read. Webster's name has become synonymous with "dictionary" in the United States, especially the modern Merriam-Webster dictionary that was first published in 1828 as An American Dictionary of the English Language . Born in West Hartford, Connecticut , Webster graduated from Yale College in 1778. He passed
3240-457: The "Lexicon" was her "only companion" for years. One biographer said, "The dictionary was no mere reference book to her; she read it as a priest his breviary—over and over, page by page, with utter absorption." Nathan Austin has explored the intersection of lexicographical and poetic practices in American literature, and attempts to map out a "lexical poetics" using Webster's definitions as his base. Poets mined his dictionaries, often drawing upon
3348-604: The American Revolution (2008), John Algeo notes: "It is often assumed that characteristically American spellings were invented by Noah Webster. He was very influential in popularizing certain spellings in America, but he did not originate them. Rather ... he chose already existing options such as center, color and check on such grounds as simplicity, analogy or etymology." He also added American words, like "skunk", that did not appear in British dictionaries. At
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3456-618: The Bible and Excellence of the Christian Religion , an apologetic book in defense of the Bible and Christianity itself. Initially supportive of the abolitionist movement , Webster helped found the Connecticut Society for the Abolition of Slavery in 1791. However, by the 1830's he began to disagree with the movement's arguments that Americans who did not actively oppose the institution of slavery were complicit in
3564-597: The Constitution. The Democratic-Republicans led by Jefferson denounced most of the Federalist policies, especially the bank and implied powers, and vehemently attacked the Jay Treaty as a sell-out of republican values to the British monarchy. The Jay Treaty passed and the Federalists won most of the major legislative battles in the 1790s. They held a strong base in the nation's cities and in New England. They factionalized when President Adams secured peace with France, to
3672-408: The English Language . By 1807, he began work on a more extensive dictionary, An American Dictionary of the English Language , which took twenty-six years to complete. To evaluate the etymology of words, Webster learned twenty-eight languages, including Old English , Gothic, German, Greek, Latin, Italian, Spanish, French, Dutch, Welsh, Russian, Hebrew, Aramaic, Persian, Arabic, and Sanskrit . His goal
3780-499: The English Language . The following year, he started working on an expanded and comprehensive dictionary, finally publishing it in 1828. He was influential in popularizing certain American spellings. He played a role in advocating for copyright reform, contributing to the Copyright Act of 1831 , the first major statutory revision of U.S. copyright law . While working on a second volume of his dictionary, Webster died in 1843, and
3888-467: The English language had been corrupted by the British aristocracy, which set its own standard for proper spelling and pronunciation. Webster rejected the notion that the study of Greek and Latin must precede the study of English grammar. The appropriate standard for the American language, argued Webster, was "the same republican principles as American civil and ecclesiastical constitutions." This meant that
3996-521: The Federalist Party was closely linked to the Congregational church . When the party collapsed, the church was disestablished. In 1800 and other elections, the Federalists targeted infidelity in any form. They repeatedly charged that Republican candidates were atheistic or anti-religious, especially Jefferson, Paine, and Franklin. Conversely, the Baptists, Methodists, and other dissenters favored
4104-585: The Federalists to dominate. The Jay Treaty battle in 1794–1795 was the effort by Washington, Hamilton and John Jay to resolve numerous difficulties with Britain. Some of these issues dated to the Revolution, such as boundaries, debts owed in each direction and the continued presence of British forts in the Northwest Territory . In addition, the United States hoped to open markets in the British Caribbean and end disputes stemming from
4212-463: The Hamiltonian program had restored national prosperity, as shown in one 1792 anonymous newspaper essay: To what physical, moral, or political energy shall this flourishing state of things be ascribed? There is but one answer to these inquiries: Public credit is restored and established. The general government, by uniting and calling into action the pecuniary resources of the states, has created
4320-742: The Republican cause. Jefferson told the Baptists of Connecticut that there should be a "wall of separation" between church and state, alluding to the writings of Rhode Island's Roger Williams. International affairs—the French Revolution and the subsequent war between royalist Britain and republican France—decisively shaped American politics in 1793–1800 and threatened to entangle the country in wars that "mortally threatened its very existence". The French revolutionaries guillotined King Louis XVI in January 1793, and subsequently declared war on Britain. The French king had been decisive in helping
4428-638: The Republicans after the Treaty fight and in the South the Federalists lost most of the support they had among planters. The excise tax of 1791 caused grumbling from the frontier including threats of tax resistance . Corn, the chief crop on the frontier, was too bulky to ship over the mountains to market unless it was first distilled into whiskey. This was profitable as the United States population consumed per capita relatively large quantities of liquor. After
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4536-649: The State Department, which he gave to journalist Philip Freneau to attack the Federalists. In New York, George Clinton won the election for governor and used the vast state patronage fund to help the Republican cause. Washington tried and failed to moderate the feud between his two top cabinet members. He was re-elected without opposition in 1792 . The Democratic-Republicans nominated New York's Governor Clinton to replace Federalist John Adams as vice president, but Adams won. The balance of power in Congress
4644-524: The United States achieve independence, but now he was dead and many of the pro-American aristocrats in France were exiled or executed. Federalists warned that American republicans threatened to replicate the horrors of the French Revolution and successfully mobilized most conservatives and many clergymen. The Republicans, some of whom had been strong Francophiles, responded with support even through
4752-560: The United States and Britain. As a result, he was repeatedly denounced by the Jeffersonian Republicans as "a pusillanimous, half-begotten, self-dubbed patriot", "an incurable lunatic", and "a deceitful newsmonger ... Pedagogue and Quack." For decades, he was one of the most prolific authors in the new nation, publishing textbooks, political essays, a report on infectious diseases, and newspaper articles for his Federalist party. In 1799 Webster wrote two massive volumes on
4860-488: The West Hartford Historical Society. His father, Noah Webster Sr. (1722–1813), was a descendant of Connecticut Governor John Webster ; his mother Mercy (Steele) Webster (1727–1794) was a descendant of Governor William Bradford of Plymouth Colony . His father was primarily a farmer, though he was also deacon of the local Congregational church , captain of the town's militia, and a founder of
4968-716: The Whiskey Rebellion and Madison in an attempt to save the White House during the War of 1812 ). The rebels dispersed and there was no fighting. Federalists were relieved that the new government proved capable of overcoming rebellion while Republicans, with Gallatin their new hero, argued there never was a real rebellion and the whole episode was manipulated in order to accustom Americans to a standing army . Angry petitions flowed in from three dozen Democratic-Republican Societies created by Citizen Genêt. Washington attacked
5076-423: The abolitionist movement, writing that "slavery is a great sin and a general calamity—but it is not our sin, though it may prove to be a terrible calamity to us in the north. But we cannot legally interfere with the South on this subject. To come north to preach and thus disturb our peace, when we can legally do nothing to effect this object, is, in my view, highly criminal and the preachers of abolitionism deserve
5184-412: The actual state of agriculture and commerce, the peace, the contentment and satisfaction of the great mass of people, give the lie to their assertions. Jefferson wrote on 12 February 1798: Two political Sects have arisen within the U. S. the one believing that the executive is the branch of our government which the most needs support; the other that like the analogous branch in the English Government, it
5292-455: The administrations of George Washington and John Adams , especially their policy of neutrality between Britain and France, and he especially criticized the excesses of the French Revolution and its Reign of Terror . When French ambassador Citizen Genêt set up a network of pro-Jacobin " Democratic-Republican Societies " that entered American politics and attacked President Washington, he condemned them. He later defended Jay's Treaty between
5400-413: The age of seventy, Webster published his dictionary in 1828, registering the copyright on April 14. Despite its significant place in the history of American English, Webster's first dictionary sold only 2,500 copies. He was forced to mortgage his home to develop a second edition, and for the rest of his life he had debt problems. In 1840, the second edition was published in two volumes. On May 28, 1843,
5508-409: The ambitious Hamiltonian economic program that involved the assumption of the state debts incurred during the American Revolution. This created a national debt and the means to pay it off, and it set up a national bank along with tariffs, with James Madison playing major roles in the program. Parties were considered to be divisive and harmful to republicanism, and no similar parties existed anywhere in
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#17327730591135616-681: The anger of Hamilton's larger faction. The Jeffersonians won the presidential election of 1800 , and the Federalists never returned to power. They recovered some strength through their intense opposition to the War of 1812, but they practically vanished during the Era of Good Feelings that followed the end of the war in 1815. The Federalists left a lasting legacy in the form of a strong federal government. After losing executive power, they decisively shaped Supreme Court policy for another three decades through Chief Justice John Marshall . The term " Federalist "
5724-797: The bar examination after studying law under Oliver Ellsworth and others, but was unable to find work as a lawyer. He found some financial success by opening a private school and writing a series of educational books, including the "Blue-Backed Speller". A strong supporter of the American Revolution and the ratification of the United States Constitution , Webster later criticized American society as being in need of an intellectual foundation. He believed American nationalism had distinctive qualities that differed from European values. In 1793, Alexander Hamilton recruited Webster to move to New York City and become an editor for
5832-426: The belief that a nation's linguistic forms and the thoughts correlated with them shaped individuals' behavior. Thus, the etymological clarification and reform of American English promised to improve citizens' manners and thereby preserve republican purity and social stability. This presupposition animated Webster's Speller and Grammar . In 1806, Webster published his first dictionary , A Compendious Dictionary of
5940-646: The causes of “epidemics and pestilential diseases”. Medical historians have considered him as “America’s first epidemiologist”. He was so prolific that a modern bibliography of his works spans 655 pages. He moved back to New Haven in 1798, and was elected as a Federalist to the Connecticut House of Representatives in 1800 and 1802–1807. Webster was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1799. He moved to Amherst, Massachusetts in 1812, where he helped to found Amherst College . In 1822, his family moved back to New Haven, where Webster
6048-561: The commencement of the late Revolution, contain such noble, just, and independent sentiments of liberty and patriotism, that I cannot help wishing to transfuse them into the breasts of the rising generation." Students received the usual quota of Plutarch , Shakespeare , Swift , and Addison, as well as such Americans as Joel Barlow 's Vision of Columbus , Timothy Dwight 's Conquest of Canaan , and John Trumbull 's poem M'Fingal . The Reader included two, original, fan-fiction sequels to Emile or On Education by Jean-Jacques Rousseau ,
6156-470: The course of 385 editions in his lifetime, the title was changed in 1786 to The American Spelling Book , and again in 1829 to The Elementary Spelling Book . Most people called it the "Blue-Backed Speller" because of its blue cover and, for the next one hundred years, Webster's book taught children how to read, spell, and pronounce words. It was the most popular American book of its time; by 1837, it had sold 15 million copies, and some 60 million by 1890—reaching
6264-472: The debts owed to France. Acting aggressively, Genêt outfitted privateers that sailed with American crews under a French flag and attacked British shipping. He tried to organize expeditions of Americans to invade Spanish Louisiana and Spanish Florida. When Secretary of State Jefferson told Genêt he was pushing American friendship past the limit, Genêt threatened to go over the government's head and rouse public opinion on behalf of France. Even Jefferson agreed this
6372-445: The dictionaries as a nationalizing device to separate America from Britain, calling his project a "federal language", with competing forces towards regularity on the one hand and innovation on the other. Austin suggests that the contradictions of Webster's lexicography were part of a larger play between liberty and order within American intellectual discourse, with some pulled toward Europe and the past, and others pulled toward America and
6480-550: The early 1790s, newspapers started calling Hamilton supporters "Federalists" and their opponents "Republicans", "Jeffersonians", or "Democratic-Republicans". Jefferson's supporters usually called themselves "Republicans" and their party the "Republican Party". The Federalist Party became popular with businessmen and New Englanders, as Republicans were mostly farmers who opposed a strong central government. Cities were usually Federalist strongholds, whereas frontier regions were heavily Republican. The Congregationalists of New England and
6588-517: The excise tax, the backwoodsmen complained the tax fell on them rather than on the consumers. Cash poor, they were outraged that they had been singled out to pay off the "financiers and speculators" back in the East and to pay the salaries of the federal revenue officers who began to swarm the hills looking for illegal stills. Insurgents in western Pennsylvania shut the courts and hounded federal officials, but Jeffersonian leader Albert Gallatin mobilized
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#17327730591136696-697: The girl in Rousseau's Emile, and Webster used Rousseau's theories in Emile to argue for the civic necessity of broad-based female education. Noah Webster married Rebecca Greenleaf (1766–1847) on October 26, 1789, in New Haven, Connecticut . They had eight children: Webster joined the elite in Hartford, Connecticut , but did not have substantial financial resources. In 1793, Alexander Hamilton lent him $ 1,500 (~$ 34,171 in 2023) to move to New York City to edit
6804-579: The idea of universal toleration: She admits all religions into her bosom; She secures the sacred rights of every individual; and (astonishing absurdity to Europeans!) she sees a thousand discordant opinions live in the strictest harmony ... it will finally raise her to a pitch of greatness and lustre, before which the glory of ancient Greece and Rome shall dwindle to a point, and the splendor of modern Empires fade into obscurity. Webster dedicated his Speller and Dictionary to providing an intellectual foundation for American nationalism. From 1787 to 1789, Webster
6912-574: The leading Federalist Party newspaper. In December, he founded New York's first daily newspaper American Minerva , later renamed the Commercial Advertiser , which he edited for four years, writing the equivalent of 20 volumes of articles and editorials. He also published the semi-weekly publication The Herald, A Gazette for the country , later known as the New-York Spectator . As a Federalist spokesman, Webster defended
7020-494: The lexicography in order to express word play. Austin explicates key definitions from both the Compendious (1806) and American (1828) dictionaries, and finds a range of themes such as the politics of "American" versus "British" English and issues of national identity and independent culture. Austin argues that Webster's dictionaries helped redefine Americanism in an era of highly flexible cultural identity. Webster himself saw
7128-464: The mail, but they did collect fees from mail users and obtained free delivery of their own newspapers and business mail. To strengthen their coalitions and hammer away constantly at the opposition, both parties sponsored newspapers in the capital ( Philadelphia ) and other major cities. On the Republican side, Philip Freneau and Benjamin Franklin Bache blasted the administration with all
7236-410: The maintenance of the American social order. As he grew older, Webster's attitudes changed from those of an optimistic revolutionary in the 1780s to those of a pessimistic critic of man and society by the 1820s. His 1828 American Dictionary contained the greatest number of Biblical definitions given in any reference volume. Webster said of education, Education is useless without the Bible. The Bible
7344-490: The majority of young students in the nation's first century. Its royalty of a half-cent per copy was enough to sustain Webster in his other endeavors. It also helped create the popular contests known as spelling bees . As time went on, Webster changed the spellings in the book to more phonetic ones. Most of them already existed as alternative spellings. He chose spellings such as defense , color , and traveler , and changed
7452-607: The most popular and influential newspapers of the period, The Farmer's Weekly Museum , the Gazette of the United States and The Port Folio . The Federalists were conscious of the need to boost voter identification with their party. Elections remained of central importance, but the rest of the political calendar was filled with celebrations, parades, festivals, and visual sensationalism. The Federalists employed multiple festivities, exciting parades, and even quasi-religious pilgrimages and "sacred" days that became incorporated into
7560-445: The national capital to get his plans through Congress brought strong responses across the country. In the process, what began as a capital faction soon assumed status as a national faction and then as the new Federalist Party. The Federalist Party supported Hamilton's vision of a strong centralized government and agreed with his proposals for a national bank and heavy government subsidies. In foreign affairs, they supported neutrality in
7668-579: The national government under Alexander Hamilton from 1789 to 1801. The party was defeated by the Democratic-Republican Party in 1800, and it became a minority party while keeping its stronghold in New England . It made a brief resurgence by opposing the War of 1812 , then collapsed with its last presidential candidate in 1816. Remnants lasted for a few years afterwards. The party appealed to businesses who favored banks, national over state government, manufacturing, and an army and navy. In world affairs,
7776-530: The national government until 1801, when it was overwhelmed by the Democratic-Republican opposition led by President Thomas Jefferson . Federalist policies called for a national bank, tariffs, and good relations with Great Britain as expressed in the Jay Treaty negotiated in 1794. Hamilton developed the concept of implied powers and successfully argued the adoption of that interpretation of
7884-540: The naval war between Britain and France. Most of all the goal was to avert a war with Britain—a war opposed by the Federalists, that some historians claim the Jeffersonians wanted. As a neutral party, the United States argued it had the right to carry goods anywhere it wanted. The British nevertheless seized American ships carrying goods from the French West Indies . The Federalists favored Britain in
7992-680: The new future. In 1850 Blackie and Son in Glasgow published the first general dictionary of English that relied heavily upon pictorial illustrations integrated with the text. Its The Imperial Dictionary, English, Technological, and Scientific, Adapted to the Present State of Literature, Science, and Art; On the Basis of Webster's English Dictionary used Webster's for most of their text, adding some additional technical words that went with illustrations of machinery. In his early years, Webster
8100-497: The new nation. American nationalism was superior to European nationalism due to the perceived superiority of American values. America sees the absurdities—she observes the kingdoms of Europe, disturbed by wrangling sectaries, or their commerce, population and improvements of every kind cramped and retarded, because the human mind like the body is fettered 'and bound fast by the chords of policy and superstition': She laughs at their folly and shuns their errors: She founds her empire upon
8208-537: The party preferred Great Britain and strongly opposed involvement in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars . The party favored centralization, federalism , modernization, industrialization, and protectionism. The Federalists called for a strong national government that promoted economic growth and fostered friendly relationships with Great Britain in opposition to Revolutionary France. The Federalist Party came into being between 1789 and 1790 as
8316-467: The penitentiary." Webster advocated for the expansion of copyright protections. The Copyright Act of 1831 was the first major statutory revision of U.S. copyright law , a result of intensive lobbying by Noah Webster and his agents in Congress. Webster also played a critical role lobbying individual states throughout the country during the 1780s to pass the first American copyright laws, which were expected to have distinct nationalistic implications for
8424-515: The people-at-large must control the language; popular sovereignty in government must be accompanied by popular usage in language. The Speller was designed to be easily taught to students, progressing according to age. From his own experiences as a teacher, Webster thought that the Speller should be simple and gave an orderly presentation of words and the rules of spelling and pronunciation. He believed that students learned most readily when he broke
8532-652: The popularity. He is buried in New Haven's Grove Street Cemetery . Lepore (2008) illustrates Webster's paradoxical views on language and politics and explains why his work was initially poorly received. Culturally conservative Federalists denounced the work as radical—too inclusive in its lexicon and even bordering on vulgar. Meanwhile, Webster's old foes the Republicans attacked the man, labeling him mad for such an undertaking. Scholars have long seen Webster's 1844 dictionary to be an important resource for reading poet Emily Dickinson 's life and work; she once commented that
8640-426: The preface of his Bible, Webster wrote: "Some words have fallen into disuse; and the signification of others, in current popular use, is not the same now as it was when they were introduced into the version. The effect of these changes is, that some words are not understood by common readers, who have no access to commentaries, and who will always compose a great proportion of readers; while other words, being now used in
8748-422: The republican values. The level of rhetoric reached a fever pitch. In 1793, Paris sent a new minister, Edmond-Charles Genêt (known as Citizen Genêt ), who systematically mobilized pro-French sentiment and encouraged Americans to support France's war against Britain and Spain. Genêt funded local Democratic-Republican Societies that attacked Federalists. He hoped for a favorable new treaty and for repayment of
8856-548: The rights to the dictionary were acquired by George and Charles Merriam . Webster was born on October 16, 1758, in the Noah Webster House in western Hartford , Connecticut Colony , during the colonial-era. The area of his birth later became West Hartford, Connecticut . He was born into an established family, and the Noah Webster House continues to highlight his life and serves as the headquarters of
8964-631: The rising north–south sectionalism and party spirit in politics that threatened national unity: The party spirits serves always to distract the Public Councils, and enfeeble the Public Administration. It agitates the Community with ill-founded jealousies and false alarms; kindles the animosity of one part against another, foments occasionally riot and insurrection. It opens the door to foreign influence and corruption, which find
9072-493: The scurrility at their command. Bache in particular targeted Washington himself as the front man for monarchy who must be exposed. To Bache, Washington was a cowardly general and a money-hungry baron who saw the Revolution as a means to advance his fortune and fame; Adams was a failed diplomat who never forgave the French their love of Benjamin Franklin and who craved a crown for himself and his descendants; and Alexander Hamilton
9180-529: The societies as illegitimate and many disbanded. Federalists now ridiculed Republicans as "democrats" (meaning in favor of mob rule ) or " Jacobins " (a reference to the Reign of Terror in France). Washington refused to run for a third term, establishing a two-term precedent that was to stand until 1940 and eventually to be enshrined in the Constitution as the 22nd Amendment . He warned in his Farewell Address against involvement in European wars and lamented
9288-462: The spelling of the 1611 version, some of which had been changed by British usage since 1611 and others that he himself had deliberately changed in his dictionary to reflect an American identity over a British one. Overall, very few changes were made, and the result is a book which is almost indistinguishable from the King James Version. It has sometimes been called the Common Version (which
9396-430: The system. In 1832, Webster wrote and published a history textbook titled History of the United States , which omitted any reference to the role of slavery in American history and included racist characterizations of African Americans . The textbook also "spoke of whiteness as the supreme race and declared Anglo Saxons as the only true Americans." In 1837, Webster criticized his daughter Eliza for her support for
9504-511: The teachers as the "dregs of humanity" and complained that the instruction was mainly in religion. Webster's experiences there motivated him to improve the educational experience of future generations. At age fourteen, his church pastor began tutoring him in Latin and Greek to prepare him for entering Yale College . Webster enrolled at Yale just before his 16th birthday, and during his senior year studied with Ezra Stiles , Yale's president. He
9612-442: The three volume compendium A Grammatical Institute of the English Language . The work consisted of a speller (published in 1783), a grammar (published in 1784), and a reader (published in 1785). His aim was to provide a uniquely American approach to education. His most important improvement, he claimed, was to rescue "our native tongue" from "the clamour of pedantry" that surrounded English grammar and pronunciation. He complained that
9720-408: The treaty and organized their supporters. The Federalists realized they had to mobilize their popular vote, so they mobilized their newspapers, held rallies, counted votes and especially relied on the prestige of President Washington. The contest over the Jay Treaty marked the first flowering of grassroots political activism in the United States, directed and coordinated by two national parties. Politics
9828-516: The war and by far most of America's foreign trade was with Britain, hence a new treaty was called for. The British agreed to evacuate the western forts, open their West Indies ports to American ships, allow small vessels to trade with the French West Indies and set up a commission that would adjudicate American claims against Britain for seized ships and British claims against Americans for debts incurred before 1775. One possible alternative
9936-418: The western moderates and thus forestalled a serious outbreak. Washington, seeing the need to assert federal supremacy, called out 13,000 state militia and marched toward Washington, Pennsylvania to suppress this Whiskey Rebellion . The rebellion evaporated in late 1794 as Washington approached, personally leading the army (only two sitting Presidents have directly led American military forces, Washington during
10044-412: The world. By 1789, Hamilton started building a nationwide coalition (a "Pro-Administration" faction), realizing the need for vocal political support in the states. He formed connections with like-minded nationalists and used his network of treasury agents to link together friends of the government, especially merchants and bankers, in the new nation's dozen major cities. His attempts to manage politics in
10152-478: The years and a lot of meaning of the text in this Bible was being lost on the average reader. Some passages were misunderstood. Grammar had evolved as well and the above changes made an easier read while purifying the language and making it more delicate. Noah Webster Noah Webster (October 16, 1758 – May 28, 1843) was an American lexicographer , textbook pioneer, English-language spelling reformer , political writer , editor, and author. He has been called
10260-424: The young nation. Federalist Party Defunct Newspapers Journals TV channels Websites Other Economics Gun rights Identity politics Nativist Religion Watchdog groups Youth/student groups Miscellaneous Other The Federalist Party was a conservative and nationalist American political party and the first political party in the United States. It dominated
10368-643: Was America's basic text book in all fields. God's Word, contained in the Bible, has furnished all necessary rules to direct our conduct. Webster released his own edition of the Bible in 1833, called the Common Version . He used the King James Version (KJV) as a base and consulted the Hebrew and Greek along with various other versions and commentaries. Webster molded the KJV to correct grammar, replaced words that were no longer used, and removed words and phrases that could be seen as offensive. In 1834, he published Value of
10476-418: Was a freethinker, but in 1808 he became a convert to Calvinistic orthodoxy, and thereafter became a devout Congregationalist who preached the need to Christianize the nation. Webster viewed language as a means to control disruptive thoughts. His American Dictionary emphasized the virtues of social control over human passions and individualism, submission to authority, and fear of God; they were necessary for
10584-626: Was also a member of Brothers in Unity , a secret society at Yale. His four years at Yale overlapped the American Revolutionary War and, because of food shortages and the possibility of a British invasion, many classes were held in other towns. Webster served in the Connecticut Militia. His father mortgaged the farm to send Webster to Yale, but after graduating, Webster had little contact with his family. Webster lacked clear career plans after graduating from Yale in 1779, later writing that
10692-643: Was an outspoken supporter of the new Constitution. In October 1787, he wrote a pamphlet entitled "An Examination into the Leading Principles of the Federal Constitution Proposed by the Late Convention Held at Philadelphia", published under the pen name "A Citizen of America". The pamphlet was influential, particularly outside New York State. In political theory, Webster emphasized widespread property ownership,
10800-589: Was awarded an honorary degree from Yale the following year. In 1827, Webster was elected to the American Philosophical Society . As a teacher, Webster grew dissatisfied with American elementary schools. They could be overcrowded, with up to seventy children of all ages crammed into one-room schoolhouses .They suffered from poorly paid staff, lacked desks, and used unsatisfactory textbooks imported from England. Webster thought that Americans should learn from American books, so he began writing
10908-430: Was blatant foreign interference in domestic politics. Genêt's extremism seriously embarrassed the Jeffersonians and cooled popular support for promoting the French Revolution and getting involved in its wars. Recalled to Paris for execution, Genêt kept his head and instead went to New York, where he became a citizen and married the daughter of Governor Clinton. Jefferson left office, ending the coalition cabinet and allowing
11016-574: Was close, with some members still undecided between the parties. In early 1793, Jefferson secretly prepared resolutions introduced by Virginia Congressman William Branch Giles designed to repudiate Hamilton and weaken the Washington Administration. Hamilton defended his administration of the nation's complicated financial affairs, which none of his critics could decipher until the arrival in Congress of Republican Albert Gallatin in 1793. Federalists counterattacked by claiming that
11124-542: Was eventually closed, possibly due to a failed romance. Turning to literary work as a way to overcome his losses and channel his ambitions, he began writing a series of well-received articles for a prominent New England newspaper justifying and praising the American Revolution and arguing that the separation from Britain would be a permanent state of affairs. He then founded a private school catering to wealthy parents in Goshen, New York and, by 1785, he had written his speller,
11232-452: Was no longer the domain of politicians as every voter was called on to participate. The new strategy of appealing directly to the public worked for the Federalists as public opinion shifted to support the Jay Treaty. The Federalists controlled the Senate and they ratified it by exactly the necessary ⅔ vote (20–10) in 1795. However, the Republicans did not give up and public opinion swung toward
11340-554: Was previously used to refer to a somewhat different coalition of nationalists led by Washington, which advocated replacing the weaker national government under the Articles of Confederation with a new Constitution in 1789. This early coalition included Hamilton and James Madison . The Federalists of this time were rivaled by the Anti-Federalists , who opposed the ratification of the Constitution and objected to creating
11448-573: Was the most inveterate monarchist of them all. The Federalists, with twice as many newspapers at their command, slashed back with equal vituperation. John Fenno and "Peter Porcupine" ( William Cobbett ) were their nastiest penmen and Noah Webster their most learned. Hamilton subsidized the Federalist editors, wrote for their papers and in 1801 established his own paper, the New York Evening Post . Though his reputation waned considerably following his death, Joseph Dennie ran three of
11556-549: Was to standardize American English, which varied widely across the country. They also spelled, pronounced, and used English words differently. Webster completed his dictionary during his year abroad in January 1825 in a boarding house in Cambridge , England. His book contained seventy thousand words, of which twelve thousand had never appeared in a published dictionary before. As a spelling reformer , Webster preferred spellings that matched pronunciation better. In A Companion to
11664-609: Was war with Britain, a war that the United States was ill-prepared to fight. The Republicans wanted to pressure Britain to the brink of war (and assumed that the United States could defeat a weak Britain). Therefore, they denounced the Jay Treaty as an insult to American prestige, a repudiation of the American-French alliance of 1777 and a severe shock to Southern planters who owed those old debts and who would now be never compensated for their escaped slaves who fled to British lines for their freedom. Republicans protested against
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