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80-464: Comparative Politics is the systematic study and comparison of the diverse Political Systems in the world. Comparative Politics analyzes differences in political regimes, governance structures, electoral systems, policy outcomes, and public administration across countries, regions, or time periods. It is comparative in searching to explain why different Political Systems have similarities or differences and how developmental changes came to be between them. It

160-495: A substantive focus in itself, but rather a methodological one: it focuses on "the how but does not specify the what of the analysis." Peter Mair and Richard Rose advance a slightly different definition, arguing that Comparative Politics is defined by a combination of a substantive focus on the study of countries' Political Systems and a method of identifying and explaining similarities and differences between these countries using common concepts. Sometimes, especially in

240-601: A 2022 study in the American Political Science Review , Acemoglu and Robinson argue that the nature of the relationship between elites and society determine whether stable democracy emerges. When elites are overly dominant, despotic states emerge. When society is overly dominant, weak states emerge. When elites and society are evenly balance, inclusive states emerge. Research shows that oil wealth lowers levels of democracy and strengthens autocratic rule. According to Michael Ross, petroleum

320-417: A country goes to a war or whether its economy grows. The opposite process is known as democratic backsliding or autocratization. Theories of democratization seek to explain a large macro-level change of a political regime from authoritarianism to democracy. Symptoms of democratization include reform of the electoral system , increased suffrage and reduced political apathy . Democracy indices enable

400-698: A country, especially in case of trade with other democracies. A 2020 study found increased trade between democracies reduces democratic backsliding , while trade between democracies and autocracies reduces democratization of the autocracies. Trade and capital mobility often involve international organizations, such as the International Money Fund (IMF), World Bank , and World Trade Organization (WTO), which can condition financial assistance or trade agreements on democratic reforms. Sociologist Barrington Moore Jr. , in his influential Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (1966), argues that

480-462: A country. Relatedly, there has been a growing discussion of what Richard O. Snyder calls the "subnational comparative method." In recent years, the field of Comparative Politics has evolved to address new challenges and developments in global and domestic political landscapes. Scholars have increasingly focused on the following trends: The interconnectedness of nations has transformed Political Systems and governance structures. Globalization has led to

560-425: A government may be more likely to democratize. James C. Scott argues that governments may find it difficult to claim a sovereignty over a population when that population is in motion. Scott additionally asserts that exit may not solely include physical exit from the territory of a coercive state, but can include a number of adaptive responses to coercion that make it more difficult for states to claim sovereignty over

640-625: A link between economics and politics that is not conditional on institutions and culture and that presumes a definite endpoint—for example, an 'end of history'." A meta-analysis by Gerardo L. Munck of research on Lipset's argument shows that a majority of studies do not support the thesis that higher levels of economic development leads to more democracy. A 2024 study linked industrialization to democratization, arguing that large-scale employment in manufacturing made mass mobilization easier to occur and harder to repress. Theories on causes to democratization such as economic development focus rather on

720-836: A majority of the males get the vote. In September 1847, violent riots inspired by Liberals broke out in Reggio Calabria and in Messina in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies , which were put down by the military. On 12 January 1848 a rising in Palermo spread throughout the island and served as a spark for the Revolutions of 1848 all over Europe. After similar revolutionary outbursts in Salerno , south of Naples , and in

800-544: A more democratic political regime , including substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction. Whether and to what extent democratization occurs can be influenced by various factors, including economic development, historical legacies, civil society, and international processes. Some accounts of democratization emphasize how elites drove democratization, whereas other accounts emphasize grassroots bottom-up processes. How democratization occurs has also been used to explain other political phenomena, such as whether

880-609: A period of crisis and turmoil, the Italian fascist dictatorship was established. During World War II , Italy was first part of the Axis until it surrendered to the Allied powers (1940–1943) and then, as part of its territory was occupied by Nazi Germany with fascist collaboration , a co-belligerent of the Allies during the Italian resistance and the subsequent Italian Civil War , and

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960-401: A population. These responses can include planting crops that are more difficult for states to count, or tending livestock that are more mobile. In fact, the entire political arrangement of a state is a result of individuals adapting to the environment, and making a choice as to whether or not to stay in a territory. If people are free to move, then the exit, voice, and loyalty model predicts that

1040-549: A relatively strong federal national government that included an executive , a national judiciary , and a bicameral Congress that represented states in the Senate and the population in the House of Representatives . In many fields, it was a success ideologically in the sense that a true republic was established that never had a single dictator, but voting rights were initially restricted to white male property owners (about 6% of

1120-495: A state will have to be of that population representative, and appease the populace in order to prevent them from leaving. If individuals have plausible exit options then they are better able to constrain a government's arbitrary behaviour through threat of exit. Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson argued that the relationship between social equality and democratic transition is complicated: People have less incentive to revolt in an egalitarian society (for example, Singapore ), so

1200-647: A strong Parliament that passed the Bill of Rights 1689 , which codified certain rights and liberties for individuals. It set out the requirement for regular parliaments, free elections, rules for freedom of speech in Parliament and limited the power of the monarch, ensuring that, unlike much of the rest of Europe, royal absolutism would not prevail. Only with the Representation of the People Act 1884 did

1280-755: A wide franchise. The French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars lasted for more than twenty years. The French Directory was more oligarchic. The First French Empire and the Bourbon Restoration restored more autocratic rule. The French Second Republic had universal male suffrage but was followed by the Second French Empire . The Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) resulted in the French Third Republic . Germany established its first democracy in 1919 with

1360-520: A written democratic constitution , resulting from the work of a Constituent Assembly formed by the representatives of all the anti-fascist forces that contributed to the defeat of Nazi and Fascist forces during the liberation of Italy and the Italian Civil War , and coming into force on 1 January 1948. In Japan , limited democratic reforms were introduced during the Meiji period (when

1440-537: Is because development may entrench the incumbent leader but make it more difficult for him deliver the state to a son or trusted aide when he exits. However, the debate about whether democracy is a consequence of wealth, a cause of it, or both processes are unrelated, is far from conclusive. Another study suggests that economic development depends on the political stability of a country to promote democracy. Clark, Robert and Golder, in their reformulation of Albert Hirschman's model of Exit, Voice and Loyalty , explain how it

1520-580: Is crucial, as they encompass super regions within them, vast territories that share many similarities. For example, Latin America shares a common culture and language. Within super regions are smaller regions consisting of groups of individual countries that exhibit more closely related similarities. While the name of the subfield suggests one methodological approach ( the comparative method ), political scientists in Comparative Politics use

1600-403: Is insufficient evidence to conclude that development causes democratization (turning an authoritarian state into a democracy). Economic development can boost public support for authoritarian regimes in the short-to-medium term. Andrew J. Nathan argues that China is a problematic case for the thesis that economic development causes democratization. Michael Miller finds that development increases

1680-408: Is not the increase of wealth in a country per se which influences a democratization process, but rather the changes in the socio-economic structures that come together with the increase of wealth. They explain how these structure changes have been called out to be one of the main reasons several European countries became democratic. When their socioeconomic structures shifted because modernization made

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1760-707: Is systematic in that it looks for trends, patterns, and regularities among these Political Systems. The research field takes into account Political Systems throughout the globe, focusing on themes such as democratization , globalization , and integration. New theories and approaches have been used in Political Science in the last 40 years thanks to Comparative Politics. Some of these focus on political culture , dependency theory , developmentalism , corporatism , indigenous theories of change, comparative political economy, state-society relations, and new institutionalism. Some examples of Comparative Politics are studying

1840-400: Is the sole resource that has "been consistently correlated with less democracy and worse institutions" and is the "key variable in the vast majority of the studies" identifying some type of resource curse effect. A 2014 meta-analysis confirms the negative impact of oil wealth on democratization. Thad Dunning proposes a plausible explanation for Ecuador's return to democracy that contradicts

1920-523: Is with the idea of waves of democratization A wave of democratization refers to a major surge of democracy in history. And Samuel P. Huntington identified three waves of democratization that have taken place in history. The first one brought democracy to Western Europe and Northern America in the 19th century. It was followed by a rise of dictatorships during the Interwar period . The second wave began after World War II , but lost steam between 1962 and

2000-662: The Cilento region which were backed by the majority of the intelligentsia of the Kingdom, on 29 January 1848 King Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies was forced to grant a constitution, using for a pattern the French Charter of 1830 . This constitution was quite advanced for its time in liberal democratic terms, as was the proposal of a unified Italian confederation of states. On 11 February 1848, Leopold II of Tuscany , first cousin of Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria , granted

2080-455: The history of democracy , enduring democracy advocates succeed almost always through peaceful means when there is a window of opportunity. One major type of opportunity include governments weakened after a violent shock. The other main avenue occurs when autocrats are not threatened by elections, and democratize while retaining power. The path to democracy can be long with setbacks along the way. The French Revolution (1789) briefly allowed

2160-541: The liberation of Italy (1943–1945). The aftermath of World War II left Italy also with an anger against the monarchy for its endorsement of the Fascist regime for the previous twenty years. These frustrations contributed to a revival of the Italian republican movement. Italy became a republic after the 1946 Italian institutional referendum held on 2 June, a day celebrated since as Festa della Repubblica . Italy has

2240-493: The mechanization of agriculture : as landed elites became less reliant on the repression of agricultural workers, they became less hostile to democracy. According to political scientist David Stasavage , representative government is "more likely to occur when a society is divided across multiple political cleavages." A 2021 study found that constitutions that emerge through pluralism (reflecting distinct segments of society) are more likely to induce liberal democracy (at least, in

2320-607: The unification of Italy in 1861, was a constitutional monarchy . The new kingdom was governed by a parliamentary constitutional monarchy dominated by liberals. The Italian Socialist Party increased in strength, challenging the traditional liberal and conservative establishment. From 1915 to 1918, the Kingdom of Italy took part in World War I on the side of the Entente and against the Central Powers . In 1922, following

2400-468: The "family tree" of Comparative Politics has two main traditions: one, invented by Aristotle, that he calls "sociological constitutionalism"; a second, that he traced back to Plato, that he calls "legal constitutionalism"". Schmitter places various scholars under each tradition: Gerardo L. Munck offers the following periodization for the evolution of modern Comparative Politics, as a field of Political Science - understood as an academic discipline - in

2480-624: The 18th century to the Arab Spring (2011–2012), 13 democratic waves can be identified. The V-Dem Democracy Report identified for the year 2023 9 cases of stand-alone democratization in East Timor, The Gambia, Honduras, Fiji, Dominican Republic, Solomon Islands, Montenegro, Seychelles, and Kosovo and 9 cases of U-Turn Democratization in Thailand, Maldives, Tunisia, Bolivia, Zambia, Benin, North Macedonia, Lesotho, and Brazil. Throughout

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2560-490: The Constitution, with the general approval of his subjects. The Habsburg example was followed by Charles Albert of Sardinia ( Albertine Statute ; later became the constitution of the unified Kingdom of Italy and remained in force, with changes, until 1948 ) and by Pope Pius IX (Fundamental Statute). However, only King Charles Albert maintained the statute even after the end of the riots. The Kingdom of Italy , after

2640-537: The Paris Accord to localized initiatives. Comparative studies analyze how Political Systems and cultures influence the effectiveness of environmental policies. Issues of identity, including race, gender, and ethnicity, have gained prominence in political discourse and policy debates. Comparative Politics explores how social movements advocating for equality and justice shape political outcomes, as well as how governments respond to these movements. Institutions like

2720-665: The Transition ' ) or la Transición española ( ' the Spanish Transition ' ), is a period of modern Spanish history encompassing the regime change that moved from the Francoist dictatorship to the consolidation of a parliamentary system , in the form of constitutional monarchy under Juan Carlos I . The American Revolution (1765–1783) created the United States. The new Constitution established

2800-554: The United Nations, World Trade Organization, and regional bodies such as the European Union have gained importance in shaping domestic policies. Comparative Politics studies how states interact with these organizations and the implications for national sovereignty and governance. Democratization Democratization , or democratisation , is the structural government transition from an authoritarian government to

2880-690: The United States Army in World War II , where he served in the Pacific War and attained the rank of master sergeant. His parents did not survive the war. He taught at Harvard and then for 20 years at Princeton , after which he moved to the University of California, Irvine in 1980, where he held the title of Distinguished Research Professor of Political Science at his death. He taught at UC Irvine's School of Social Sciences and

2960-577: The United States are majority-rule nations; nonetheless, the U.S. has a liberal vote-based presidential system contrasted with the parliamentary system used in India. Even the political decision measure is more diverse in the United States when found in light of the Indian popular government . The United States has a president as their leader, while India has a prime minister . Relative legislative issues encourage us to comprehend these central contracts and how

3040-498: The United States, the term "Comparative Politics" is used to refer to "the politics of foreign countries." This usage of the term is disputed. Comparative Politics is essential for understanding the nature and functions of Political Systems worldwide, political structures around the world vary significantly across countries due to historical, social, ethical, and racial differences. Even political organizations that are similar operate differently from one another. For instance, India and

3120-548: The United States: Since the turn of the century, several trends in the field can be detected. By some definitions, Comparative Politics can be traced back to Greek philosophy , as Plato 's Republic and Aristotle 's The Politics . As a modern sub-discipline, Comparative Politics is constituted by research across a range of substantive areas, including the study While many researchers, research regimes, and research institutions are identified according to

3200-531: The above categories or foci, it is not uncommon to claim geographic or country specialization as the differentiating category. The division between Comparative Politics and international relations is artificial, as processes within nations shape international processes, and international processes shape processes within states. Some scholars have called for an integration of the fields. Comparative Politics does not have similar "isms" as international relations scholarship. Comparative Politics examines various parts of

3280-400: The agriculture sector more efficient, bigger investments of time and resources were used for the manufacture and service sectors. In England, for example, members of the gentry began investing more in commercial activities that allowed them to become economically more important for the state. This new kind of productive activities came with new economic power were assets became more difficult for

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3360-433: The aspect of gaining capital, capital mobility focuses on the movement of money and the across borders of countries and different financial instruments and the corresponding restrictions. Over the past decades they have been multiple theories as to what the relationship is between capital mobility and democratization. The “doomsway view” is that capital mobility is an inherent threat to underdeveloped democracies by worsening

3440-435: The conventional wisdom that natural resource rents encourage authoritarian governments. Dunning proposes that there are situations where natural resource rents, such as those acquired through oil, reduce the risk of distributive or social policies to the elite because the state has other sources of revenue to finance this kind of policies that is not the elite wealth or income. And in countries plagued with high inequality, which

3520-416: The country's re-democratization. Ecuador's re-democratization can then be attributed, as argued by Dunning, to the large increase of oil rents, which enabled not only a surge in public spending but placated the fears of redistribution that had grappled the elite circles. The exploitation of Ecuador's resource rent enabled the government to implement price and wage policies that benefited citizens at no cost to

3600-656: The creation of the Weimar Republic , a parliamentary republic created following the German Empire 's defeat in World War I . The Weimar Republic lasted only 14 years before it collapsed and was replaced by Nazi dictatorship . Historians continue to debate the reasons why the Weimar Republic's attempt at democratization failed. After Germany was militarily defeated in World War II , democracy

3680-493: The differences between presidential and parliamentary systems , democracies and dictatorships , parliamentary systems in different countries, multi-party systems such as Canada and two-party systems such as the United States . Comparative Politics must be conducted at a specific point in time, usually the present. A researcher cannot compare systems from different periods of time; it must be static. While historically

3760-674: The diffusion of democratic norms, the rise of international organizations, and the increasing influence of transnational actors. At the same time, it has sparked debates over sovereignty and the backlash against global integration, exemplified by the rise of nationalist movements and populist leaders in various countries. The rapid proliferation of digital technology has revolutionized political communication, campaigning, and governance. Social media platforms have become crucial tools for political mobilization and grassroots activism. However, they have also been exploited for disinformation campaigns and cyber interference in elections, raising concerns about

3840-537: The discipline explored broad questions in political science through between-country comparisons, contemporary comparative political science primarily uses subnational comparisons. More recently, there has been a significant increase in the interest of subnational comparisons and the benefit it has on Comparative Politics. We would know far less about major credible issues within political science if it weren't for subnational research. Subnational research contributes important methodological, theoretical, and substantive ideas to

3920-412: The distribution of power among classes – the peasantry, the bourgeoise and the landed aristocracy – and the nature of alliances between classes determined whether democratic, authoritarian or communist revolutions occurred. Moore also argued there were at least "three routes to the modern world" – the liberal democratic, the fascist, and the communist – each deriving from the timing of industrialization and

4000-602: The early cases being those of Colombia in 1810, Paraguay and Venezuela in 1811, and Chile in 1818. Adam Przeworski shows that some experiments with representative institutions in Latin America occurred earlier than in most European countries. Mass democracy, in which the working class had the right to vote, become common only in the 1930s and 1940s. The Spanish transition to democracy , known in Spain as la Transición ( IPA: [la tɾansiˈθjon] ; '

4080-548: The economic inequalities and favoring the interests of powerful elites and external actors over broader societal, which might lead to depending on money from outside, therefore affected by the economic situation in other countries. Sylvia Maxfield argues that a bigger demand for transparency in both the private and public sectors by some investors can contribute to a strengthening of democratic institutions and can encourage democratic consolidation. A 2016 study found that preferential trade agreements can increase democratization of

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4160-553: The effect of worldwide approaches and frameworks on homegrown political conduct and working. Harry H. Eckstein traces the history of the field of Comparative Politics back to Aristotle, and sees a string of thinkers from Machiavelli and Montesquieu , to Gaetano Mosca and Max Weber , Vilfredo Pareto and Robert Michels , on to James Bryce – with his Modern Democracies (1921) – and Carl Joachim Friedrich – with his Constitutional Government and Democracy (1937) – contributing to its history. Philippe C. Schmitter argues that

4240-497: The effects of the Great Depression. There is also the general observation that democracy was very rare before the industrial revolution. Empirical research thus led many to believe that economic development either increases chances for a transition to democracy, or helps newly established democracies consolidate. One study finds that economic development prompts democratization but only in the medium run (10–20 years). This

4320-450: The elite and allowed for a smooth transition and growth of democratic institutions. The thesis that oil and other natural resources have a negative impact on democracy has been challenged by historian Stephen Haber and political scientist Victor Menaldo in a widely cited article in the American Political Science Review (2011). Haber and Menaldo argue that "natural resource reliance is not an exogenous variable" and find that when tests of

4400-705: The idea of a political party took form with groups debating rights to political representation during the Putney Debates of 1647. Subsequently, the Protectorate (1653–59) and the English Restoration (1660) restored more autocratic rule although Parliament passed the Habeas Corpus Act in 1679, which strengthened the convention that forbade detention lacking sufficient cause or evidence. The Glorious Revolution in 1688 established

4480-642: The impact of technology on democratic processes. While democracy has spread in many regions, there has been a concurrent resurgence of authoritarianism in others. Authoritarian regimes have employed sophisticated techniques, such as surveillance technology and media manipulation, to consolidate power. Comparative Politics now examines how such regimes adapt to global pressures while maintaining domestic control. Climate change and environmental crises have become central concerns in Comparative Politics. Governments worldwide are addressing these issues through diverse policy approaches, ranging from international agreements like

4560-654: The industrial modernization of Japan began), the Taishō period (1912–1926), and the early Shōwa period. Despite pro-democracy movements such as the Freedom and People's Rights Movement (1870s and 1880s) and some proto-democratic institutions, Japanese society remained constrained by a highly conservative society and bureaucracy. Historian Kent E. Calder notes that writers that "Meiji leadership embraced constitutional government with some pluralist features for essentially tactical reasons" and that pre-World war II Japanese society

4640-609: The likelihood of "democratization in regimes that are fragile and unstable, but makes this fragility less likely to begin with." There is research to suggest that greater urbanization, through various pathways, contributes to democratization. Numerous scholars and political thinkers have linked a large middle class to the emergence and sustenance of democracy, whereas others have challenged this relationship. In "Non-Modernization" (2022), Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson argue that modernization theory cannot account for various paths of political development "because it posits

4720-406: The likelihood of democratization is lower. In a highly unequal society (for example, South Africa under Apartheid ), the redistribution of wealth and power in a democracy would be so harmful to elites that these would do everything to prevent democratization. Democratization is more likely to emerge somewhere in the middle, in the countries, whose elites offer concessions because (1) they consider

4800-531: The likelihood of democratization. Initially argued by Lipset in 1959, this subsequently been referred to as modernization theory . According to Daniel Treisman, there is "a strong and consistent relationship between higher income and both democratization and democratic survival in the medium term (10–20 years), but not necessarily in shorter time windows." Robert Dahl argued that market economies provided favorable conditions for democratic institutions. A higher GDP/capita correlates with democracy and some claim

4880-769: The mid-1970s. The latest wave began in 1974 and is still ongoing. Democratization of Latin America and the former Eastern Bloc is part of this third wave . Waves of democratization can be followed by waves of de-democratization. Thus, Huntington, in 1991, offered the following depiction. • First wave of democratization, 1828–1926 • First wave of de-democratization, 1922–42 • Second wave of democratization, 1943–62 • Second wave of de-democratization, 1958–75 • Third wave of democratization, 1974– The idea of waves of democratization has also been used and scrutinized by many other authors, including Renske Doorenspleet, John Markoff , Seva Gunitsky , and Svend-Erik Skaaning. According to Seva Gunitsky, from

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4960-1038: The population). Slavery was not abolished in the Southern states until the constitutional Amendments of the Reconstruction era following the American Civil War (1861–1865). The provision of Civil Rights for African-Americans to overcome post-Reconstruction Jim Crow segregation in the South was achieved in the 1960s. There is considerable debate about the factors which affect (e.g., promote or limit) democratization. Factors discussed include economic, political, cultural, individual agents and their choices, international and historical. Scholars such as Seymour Martin Lipset ; Carles Boix and Susan Stokes , and Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Stephens , and John Stephens argue that economic development increases

5040-447: The quantitative assessment of democratization. Some common democracy indices are Freedom House , Polity data series , V-Dem Democracy indices and Democracy Index . Democracy indices can be quantitative or categorical. Some disagreements among scholars concern the concept of democracy and how to measure democracy – and what democracy indices should be used. One way to summarize the outcome theories of democratization seek to account

5120-550: The relationship between natural resources and democracy take this point into account "increases in resource reliance are not associated with authoritarianism." Harry H. Eckstein Harry H. Eckstein (January 26, 1924 in Schotten, Germany – June 22, 1999) was an American political scientist . He was an influential scholar of comparative politics and political culture , as well as qualitative research methods . Eckstein

5200-600: The role of the bourgeoisie in democratization. Eva Bellin argues that under certain circumstances, the bourgeoise and labor are more likely to favor democratization, but less so under other circumstances. Samuel Valenzuela argues that, counter to Moore's view, the landed elite supported democratization in Chile. A comprehensive assessment conducted by James Mahoney concludes that "Moore's specific hypotheses about democracy and authoritarianism receive only limited and highly conditional support." A 2020 study linked democratization to

5280-461: The same diversity of social scientific methods as scientists elsewhere in the field, including experiments, comparative historical analysis, case studies, survey methodology , and ethnography. Researchers choose a methodological approach in Comparative Politics driven by two concerns: ontological orientation and the type of question or phenomenon of interest. Since the turn of the century, many students of comparative politics have compared units within

5360-468: The short term). Robert Bates and Donald Lien, as well as David Stasavage, have argued that rulers' need for taxes gave asset-owning elites the bargaining power to demand a say on public policy, thus giving rise to democratic institutions. Montesquieu argued that the mobility of commerce meant that rulers had to bargain with merchants in order to tax them, otherwise they would leave the country or hide their commercial activities. Stasavage argues that

5440-460: The small size and backwardness of European states, as well as the weakness of European rulers, after the fall of the Roman Empire meant that European rulers had to obtain consent from their population to govern effectively. According to Clark, Golder, and Golder, an application of Albert O. Hirschman 's exit, voice, and loyalty model is that if individuals have plausible exit options, then

5520-512: The social structure at the time of transition. Thus, Moore challenged modernization theory, by stressing that there was not one path to the modern world and that economic development did not always bring about democracy. Many authors have questioned parts of Moore's arguments. Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Stephens , and John D. Stephens, in Capitalist Development and Democracy (1992), raise questions about Moore's analysis of

5600-551: The state to count and hence more difficult to tax. Because of this, predation was no longer possible and the state had to negotiate with the new economic elites to extract revenue. A sustainable bargain had to be reached because the state became more dependent of its citizens remaining loyal and, with this, citizens had now leverage to be taken into account in the decision making process for the country. Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi argue that while economic development makes democracies less likely to turn authoritarian, there

5680-471: The study of politics. Important developments often obscured by a national-level focus are easier to decipher through subnational research. An example could be regions inside countries where the presence of state institutions have been reduced in effect or value. The name C omparative Politics refers to the discipline's historical association with the comparative method , described in detail below . Arend Lijphart argues that Comparative Politics does not have

5760-445: The threat of a revolution credible and (2) the cost of the concessions is not too high. This expectation is in line with the empirical research showing that democracy is more stable in egalitarian societies. Other approaches to the relationship between inequality and democracy have been presented by Carles Boix , Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, and Ben Ansell and David Samuels . In their 2019 book The Narrow Corridor and

5840-430: The two nations are altogether different regardless of being majority rule. This field of study is critical for the fields of international relations and conflict resolution. Near politics encourages international relations to clarify worldwide legislative issues and the present winning conditions worldwide. Although both are subfields of Political Science, Comparative Politics examines the causes of international strategy and

5920-531: The wealthiest democracies have never been observed to fall into authoritarianism. The rise of Hitler and of the Nazis in Weimar Germany can be seen as an obvious counter-example, but although in early 1930s Germany was already an advanced economy, by that time, the country was also living in a state of economic crisis virtually since the first World War (in the 1910s), a crisis which was eventually worsened by

6000-450: The world. Political scientists reference super regions and the key countries within them. Understanding which region is being referenced and what key nations the scientists are conducting research on is an essential part of comparative politics. however discussing comparative politics is a difficult topic. The American education system has failed to educate its students on geography in recent years. In political studies, identifying continents

6080-690: Was born on January 26, 1924, in Schotten , Germany, to a Jewish family, that was persecuted during the Holocaust . He came to the United States without his family at age 12, living in Columbus, Ohio . He was educated at Harvard University on a scholarship, earning a bachelor's degree summa cum laude in 1948, a master's degree in 1950, and a doctorate in 1953, all in Government. His undergraduate years at Harvard were interrupted by service in

6160-935: Was dominated by a "loose coalition" of "landed rural elites, big business, and the military" that was averse to pluralism and reformism. While the Imperial Diet survived the impacts of Japanese militarism , the Great Depression , and the Pacific War , other pluralistic institutions, such as political parties , did not. After World War II, during the Allied occupation , Japan adopted a much more vigorous, pluralistic democracy. Countries in Latin America became independent between 1810 and 1825, and soon had some early experiences with representative government and elections. All Latin American countries established representative institutions soon after independence,

6240-668: Was reestablished in West Germany during the U.S.-led occupation which undertook the denazification of society. In Great Britain, there was renewed interest in Magna Carta in the 17th century. The Parliament of England enacted the Petition of Right in 1628 which established certain liberties for subjects. The English Civil War (1642–1651) was fought between the King and an oligarchic but elected Parliament, during which

6320-421: Was the case of Ecuador in the 1970s, the result would be a higher likelihood of democratization. In 1972, the military coup had overthrown the government in large part because of the fears of elites that redistribution would take place. That same year oil became an increasing financial source for the country. Although the rents were used to finance the military, the eventual second oil boom of 1979 ran parallel to

6400-400: Was the university's first faculty member with the title of Distinguished Professor. In 1988, the journal Comparative Political Studies devoted a special issue to Eckstein. According to Gabriel A. Almond , "Few political scientists can claim to have made significant substantive as well as methodological contributions as has Harry Eckstein." Eckstein's 1975 essay on "crucial case studies"

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