Misplaced Pages

#768231

128-519: CTE's first office in Spain was in Santander in the 19th century. Its head office was transferred to Barcelona after Antonio López y López , the owner of the company, married Catalan, Dona Lluïsa Bru Lassús. "La Trasatlántica" was established in colonial Cuba in 1850 as "Compañia de Vapores Correos A. López" by Spanish businessman and slave trader Don Antonio López y López. It began operations with

256-821: A Compañía Transatlántica allegory on one side of the monument "A López y López" in Barcelona. This work was made by the Catalan sculptor Rossend Nobas . Spain – in Europe  (green & dark grey) – in the European Union  (green) Spain , formally the Kingdom of Spain , is a country in Southwestern Europe with territories in North Africa . Featuring

384-420: A James Bond film. Another variation on the helicopter was the gyrodyne , which added a conventional propeller for forward thrust and only powered the main rotor for vertical flight. None entered production. The convertiplane has a conventional wing for lift in forward flight and a rotary wing which acts as a lifting rotor for vertical flight and then tilts forward to act as a propeller in forward flight. In

512-590: A constitution for universal representation under a constitutional monarchy was declared, but after the fall of the Bonapartist regime, the Spanish king dismissed the Cortes Generales, set on ruling as an absolute monarch . The French occupation of mainland Spain created an opportunity for overseas criollo elites who resented the privilege towards Peninsular elites and demanded retroversion of

640-709: A mine sank the CTE liner Carlos de Eizaguirre off Robben Island , killing 134 people. CTE claimed that the UK had planted the mine. The UK Admiralty denied it, and alleged that the German raider SMS  Wolf had planted the mine. After the First World War CTE continued to modernise its fleet. The Spanish-based shipbuilder Sociedad Española de Construcción Naval (SECN) was now able to build ocean liners as large as those CTE had previously bought from abroad, and

768-585: A 400-ton sail- steamer . In 1878 Antonio López was ennobled with the title of Marquess of Comillas . His company changed its name to "Compañía Transatlántica Española", its present name, after being registered as a joint stock company in 1881. After the Marquess of Comillas's death in 1883, his fourth son, Don Claudio López Bru , took charge of the company. By 1894 the Compañía Transatlántica Española fleet reached 33 vessels with

896-589: A female figure with a rabbit at her feet, and Strabo called it the "land of the rabbits". The word in question actually means " Hyrax ", possibly due to the Phoenicians confusing the two animals. There is also the claim that "Hispania" derives from the Basque word Ezpanna , meaning "edge" or "border", another reference to the fact that the Iberian Peninsula constitutes the southwest corner of

1024-459: A large measure of regional autonomy. Post-war aviation#Civil aviation The period between 1945 and 1979 is sometimes called the post-war era or the period of the post-war political consensus . During this period, aviation was dominated by the arrival of the Jet Age . In civil aviation the jet engine allowed a huge expansion of commercial air travel, while in military aviation it led to

1152-595: A larger amount of air to a lower velocity. The overall gain in efficiency increases the range and lowers the cost of operation for a given aircraft. Development had begun in both Britain and Germany during the war but the first production version, the Rolls-Royce Conway did not come into use until around 1960. Attempts were made to develop a supersonic airliner, with the Anglo-French Concorde and Soviet Tupolev Tu-144 entering service during

1280-645: A larger size to give better lifting power at the expense of forward speed. No convertiplane entered production during the post-war years, however the Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey tiltrotor would eventually fly in 1989, finally entering service 18 years after that. Tail-sitters were otherwise conventional aeroplanes which sat pointing vertically up while on the ground and, after takeoff, tilted the whole aircraft horizontal to fly forwards. Early designs used propellers for thrust, while later ones used jet thrust. Problems with pilot attitude and visibility made

1408-645: A longer period. The first supersonic jet to enter service was the North American F-100 Super Sabre , in 1954. The delta wing was found to offer several advantages for supersonic flight and became commonplace, with or without a tail, alongside the more conventional swept wing. It offered a high fineness ratio with good structural strength for low weight, and the Dassault Mirage III and Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 series of delta-winged fighters were used in large numbers. By

SECTION 10

#1732790252769

1536-481: A loud shock wave or "sonic boom," which can disturb or damage anything it passes over, while the high drag results in high fuel consumption and consequent pollution. These issues became highlighted with the introduction of the Concorde supersonic transport. The propeller powered by a piston engine, in radial or inline form, still dominated aviation at the close of World War Two, and its simplicity and low cost mean it

1664-469: A pitching-down tendency known as Mach tuck . Supersonic aircraft had to be made capable of adjusting sufficiently, in order to maintain adequate control at all stages of flight. Above speeds of around Mach 2.2 the airframe starts to heat up with the friction of the air, causing both thermal expansion and loss of strength in the cheap, easily workable light alloys used for lower speeds. Also, jet engines begin to reach their limits. The Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird

1792-404: A popular choice, with or without a tailplane. But the plain delta wing proved less manoeuvrable in combat than a more conventional tapered wing, and as time progressed became more heavily modified, with tailed, cropped, double-delta, canard and other forms appearing. As speed increases and becomes fully supersonic, the wing centre of lift moves backwards, causing a change in longitudinal trim and

1920-615: A puppet kingdom satellite to the French Empire was installed with Joseph Bonaparte as king. The 2 May 1808 revolt was one of many uprisings across the country against the French occupation. These revolts marked the beginning of a devastating war of independence against the Napoleonic regime. Further military action by Spanish armies, guerrilla warfare and an Anglo-Portuguese allied army, combined with Napoleon's failure on

2048-532: A reaction against the gallicised elites and following defeat in the field, peace was made with France in 1795 at the Peace of Basel in which Spain lost control over two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola . In 1807, a secret treaty between Napoleon and the unpopular prime minister led to a new declaration of war against Britain and Portugal. French troops entered the country to invade Portugal but instead occupied Spain's major fortresses. The Spanish king abdicated and

2176-761: A resolution in favour of democracy. With Franco's death in November 1975, Juan Carlos succeeded to the position of King of Spain and head of state in accordance with the Francoist law. With the approval of the new Spanish Constitution of 1978 and the restoration of democracy , the State devolved much authority to the regions and created an internal organisation based on autonomous communities . The Spanish 1977 Amnesty Law let people of Franco's regime continue inside institutions without consequences, even perpetrators of some crimes during transition to democracy like

2304-523: A rudimentary form of VTOL, taking off vertically under rocket power and the pilot later landing vertically by parachute while the craft fell to bits and crashed, but this was not a practical post-war solution. Many approaches were experimented with in the post-war period, in the attempt to combine the high speed of the conventional aeroplane with the VTOL convenience of the helicopter. Only three would eventually enter production and of these only two did so during

2432-458: A separate country socially, politically, legally, and in currency and language. Habsburg Spain was one of the leading world powers throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions and became the world's leading maritime power . It reached its apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs— Charles V/I (1516–1556) and Philip II (1556–1598). This period saw

2560-744: A series of victories against England in the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604 . However, during the middle decades of the 17th century Spain's maritime power went into a long decline with mounting defeats against the Dutch Republic ( Battle of the Downs ) and then England in the Anglo-Spanish War of 1654–1660 ; by the 1660s it was struggling to defend its overseas possessions from pirates and privateers. The Protestant Reformation increased Spain's involvement in religiously charged wars, forcing ever-expanding military efforts across Europe and in

2688-479: A single day's travel for the first time. As demand grew, airliners became larger, further reducing the cost of air travel. People from a greater range of social classes could afford to travel outside of their own countries. The use of mass-production techniques similar to those of the motor industry lowered the cost of private aircraft, with types such as the Cessna 172 and Beechcraft Bonanza seeing widespread use,

SECTION 20

#1732790252769

2816-600: A specific course rather than to simply maintain the present altitude and heading. Radio communications became more sophisticated, in large part to cope with increasing use as the skies became increasingly crowded. In the military arena, Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) systems were developed, enabling military aircraft to identify each other when within firing range of their missiles but beyond visual range. Weapons aiming systems developed into fire-control systems capable of arming, launching, tracking and controlling multiple missiles at different targets. The Head-Up Display (HUD)

2944-811: A total of 93,500 registered tons. In the 1898 Spanish–American War the Spanish Navy used 21 CTE ships as auxiliary vessels. They tried to break the blockade that the United States imposed on Cuba and the Philippines , the last great colonies of the Spanish crown, but were mostly unsuccessful. After that war CTE's fleet became increasingly obsolescent, and its largest liners were small by international standards. It began to renew its fleet with two new technologically advanced sister ships launched in 1912: Reina Victoria-Eugenia from England and Infanta Isabel de Borbon from Scotland . In 1917

3072-593: Is bordered to the north by France , Andorra , and the Bay of Biscay ; to the east and south by the Mediterranean Sea and Gibraltar ; and to the west by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean. Spain's capital and largest city is Madrid , and other major urban areas include Barcelona , Valencia , Seville , Zaragoza , Málaga , Murcia and Palma de Mallorca . In early antiquity, the Iberian Peninsula

3200-532: Is still in use today for less demanding applications. Some early attempts to achieve high speeds, such as the Bell X-1 , used rocket engines. However a rocket engine requires an oxidant as well as a fuel, making these aircraft dangerous to handle and short-ranged. Hybrid dual-motor types such as the Saunders-Roe SR.53 used the rocket to boost speed for a "supersonic dash." In the event the development of

3328-873: The Reconquista , repelling Islamic rule in Iberia, which culminated with the Christian seizure of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada in 1492. The dynastic union of the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon in 1479 under the Catholic Monarchs is often considered the de facto unification of Spain as a nation-state . During the Age of Discovery , Spain pioneered the exploration of the New World , made

3456-681: The Siglo de Oro , Spanish art , architecture , music , poetry , painting , literature , and cuisine have been influential worldwide, particularly in Western Europe and the Americas . As a reflection of its large cultural wealth , Spain is the world's second-most visited country , has one of the world's largest numbers of World Heritage Sites , and it is the most popular destination for European students. Its cultural influence extends to over 600 million Hispanophones , making Spanish

3584-596: The 12 April 1931 municipal elections . These gave a resounding victory to the Republican-Socialist candidacies in large cities and provincial capitals, with a majority of monarchist councilors in rural areas. The king left the country and the proclamation of the Republic on 14 April ensued, with the formation of a provisional government. A constitution for the country was passed in October 1931 following

3712-602: The Basque Country and the creation of a mass tourism industry. Franco's rule was also characterised by authoritarianism , promotion of a unitary national identity , National Catholicism , and discriminatory language policies . In 1962, a group of politicians involved in the opposition to Franco's regime inside the country and in exile met in the congress of the European Movement in Munich, where they made

3840-605: The Bourbons , was installed. The Crowns of Castile and Aragon had been long united only by the Monarchy and the common institution of the Inquisition's Holy Office . A number of reform policies (the so-called Bourbon Reforms ) were pursued by the Monarchy with the overarching goal of centralized authority and administrative uniformity. They included the abolishment of many of the old regional privileges and laws, as well as

3968-756: The Cuban War of Independence and the Philippine Revolution broke out and eventually the United States became involved. The Spanish–American War was fought in the spring of 1898 and resulted in Spain losing the last of its once vast colonial empire outside of North Africa. El Desastre (the Disaster), as the war became known in Spain, gave added impetus to the Generation of '98 . Although

Compañía Transatlántica Española - Misplaced Pages Continue

4096-530: The DC-8 , VC10 and Il-62 . The Boeing 747 , the "Jumbo jet", was the first widebody aircraft that reduced the cost of flying and further accelerated the Jet Age. One exception to the domination by turbofan engines was the turboprop-powered Tupolev Tu-114 (first flight 1957). This airliner was able to match or even exceed the performance of contemporary jets, however the use of such powerplants in large airframes

4224-1092: The Italian Wars , the Schmalkaldic War , the Dutch Revolt , the War of the Portuguese Succession , clashes with the Ottomans , intervention in the French Wars of Religion and the Anglo-Spanish War . Through exploration and conquest or royal marriage alliances and inheritance, the Spanish Empire expanded across vast areas in the Americas, the Indo-Pacific, Africa as well as the European continent (including holdings in

4352-588: The June 1931 Constituent general election , and a series of cabinets presided by Manuel Azaña supported by republican parties and the PSOE followed. In the election held in 1933 the right triumphed and in 1936, the left. During the Second Republic there was a great political and social upheaval, marked by a sharp radicalization of the left and the right. Instances of political violence during this period included

4480-633: The Massacre of 3 March 1976 in Vitoria or 1977 Massacre of Atocha . In the Basque Country, moderate Basque nationalism coexisted with a radical nationalist movement led by the armed organisation ETA until the latter's dissolution in May 2018. The group was formed in 1959 during Franco's rule but had continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy and the return of

4608-707: The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 and North American F-86 Sabre soon introduced swept wings to reduce drag at transonic speeds, and saw combat in the Korean War . Bombers also adopted the new technologies. The increasing availability of nuclear weapons led to the introduction of nuclear-armed long-range strategic bombers such as the American Boeing B-52 and the British V-bombers . Soviet bombers continued to use turboprops for

4736-788: The World Trade Organization (WTO). The name of Spain ( España ) comes from Hispania , the name used by the Romans for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces during the Roman Empire . The etymological origin of the term Hispania is uncertain, although the Phoenicians referred to the region as i-shphan-im , possibly meaning "Land of Rabbits" or "Land of Metals". Jesús Luis Cunchillos  [ es ] and José Ángel Zamora, experts in Semitic philology at

4864-401: The afterburner allowed jet engines to provide similar levels of thrust and rocket power became confined to missiles. As the jet turbine developed, distinct types emerged. The basic jet turbine appeared in two forms, with axial or centrifugal compressors. Axial flow is theoretically more efficient and physically slimmer but requires higher technology to achieve. Consequently, early jets were of

4992-443: The de Havilland DH.108 Swallow broke up in the air, killing their pilots. while another survived only because he lowered the seat so that, when violent oscillations developed, he did not bang his head on the canopy and break his neck. The triangular delta wing has a swept leading edge while maintaining a sufficiently deep wing root for structural stiffness, and from the introduction of the French Dassault Mirage fighter it became

5120-435: The first circumnavigation of the globe and formed one of the largest empires in history . The Spanish Empire reached a global scale and spread across all continents, underpinning the rise of a global trading system fueled primarily by precious metals . In the 18th century, the Bourbon reforms centralized mainland Spain. In the 19th century, after the Napoleonic occupation and the victorious Spanish War of independence ,

5248-419: The southernmost point of continental Europe , it is the largest country in Southern Europe and the fourth-most populous European Union member state. Spanning across the majority of the Iberian Peninsula , its territory also includes the Canary Islands , in the Atlantic Ocean, the Balearic Islands , in the Mediterranean Sea, and the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla , in Africa. Peninsular Spain

Compañía Transatlántica Española - Misplaced Pages Continue

5376-449: The tiltwing variant the whole wing-rotor assembly tilts while in the tiltrotor the wing remains fixed and only the engine-rotor assembly tilts. The requirements for a lifting rotor and a propulsive propeller differ, and the rotors for a convertiplane must be a compromise between the two. Some designs used what were effectively propellers rather than rotors, having a smaller diameter and being optimised for forward flight, while others chose

5504-400: The 11th century, the Caliphate of Córdoba collapsed, fracturing into a series of petty kingdoms ( Taifas ), often subject to the payment of a form of protection money ( Parias ) to the Northern Christian kingdoms, which otherwise undertook a southward territorial expansion. The capture of the strategic city of Toledo in 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of

5632-557: The 172 eclipsing even wartime production levels. Aircraft came to be used increasingly in specialist roles such as crop spraying, policing, fire fighting, air ambulances and many others. As helicopter technology developed, they also came into widespread use, dominated by Sikorsky's approach of a single main rotor plus tail counter-torque rotor. Sport flying also developed, with both powered aeroplanes and gliders becoming more sophisticated. The introduction of glass fibre construction allowed sailplanes to achieve new levels of performance. In

5760-405: The 1960s the re-introduction of the hang-glider, now using the flexible Rogallo wing , ushered in a new era of ultralight aircraft . The development of safe gas burners led to the re-introduction of hot air ballooning and it became a popular sport. The introduction of the Concorde supersonic transport (SST) airliner to regular service in 1976 was expected to bring similar social changes, but

5888-599: The 1960s, but these projects were eventually abandoned for various developmental, cost, and other practical reasons. The years immediately following World War II saw the widespread design and introduction of military jets. Early types, such as the Gloster Meteor and Saab J 21R , were little more than WWII technology adapted for the jet engine. However the higher speeds achieved by jet-powered aircraft led to many progressive advances in design and sophistication. Machine guns and cannon were difficult to use effectively at high speed and missile armament became more common. Jets such as

6016-410: The 1970s, but they proved uneconomic in practice due to the high fuel consumption at supersonic speeds. The associated pollution and sonic boom from these aircraft also raised awareness of the Environmental impact of aviation , making it difficult to find countries prepared to tolerate them. Many other advances took place during this period, such as the introduction of the helicopter , development of

6144-403: The Christian kingdoms. The arrival from North Africa of the Islamic ruling sects of the Almoravids and the Almohads achieved temporary unity upon the Muslim-ruled territory, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, and partially reversed some Christian territorial gains. The Kingdom of León was the strongest Christian kingdom for centuries. In 1188, the first form (restricted to

6272-503: The Comet 4 and Boeing 707 entered service). The plane was operated by Aeroflot (from 1956) and Czech Airlines ČSA (from 1957). ČSA became the first airline in the world to fly jet-only routes, using the Tu-104A variant. The first western jet airliner with significant commercial success was the Boeing 707 . It began service on the New York to London route in 1958, the first year that more trans-Atlantic passengers traveled by air than by ship. Comparable long-range airliner designs were

6400-431: The European Union, the eurozone , North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a permanent guest of the G20 , and is part of many other international organizations such as the Council of Europe (CoE), the Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI), the Union for the Mediterranean , the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and

6528-496: The European continent. Archaeological research at Atapuerca indicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated by hominids 1.3 million years ago. Modern humans first arrived in Iberia from the north on foot about 35,000 years ago. The best-known artefacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the paintings in the Altamira cave of Cantabria in northern Iberia, which were created from 35,600 to 13,500 BCE by Cro-Magnon . Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that

SECTION 50

#1732790252769

6656-425: The Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the last ice age . The two largest groups inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula before the Roman conquest were the Iberians and the Celts . The Iberians inhabited the Mediterranean side of the peninsula. The Celts inhabited much of the interior and Atlantic sides of the peninsula. Basques occupied

6784-411: The Italian Peninsula, the Low Countries and the Franche-Comté ). The so-called Age of Discovery featured explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of new trade routes across oceans, conquests and the beginnings of European colonialism . Precious metals , spices, luxuries, and previously unknown plants brought to the metropole played a leading part in transforming the European understanding of

6912-441: The Marquess of Comillas owned 30 percent of SECN, so CTE commissioned SECN to supply the 10,500  GRT turbine steamships Alfonso XIII and Cristóbal Colón , both launched in 1923. Claudio López Bru, second Marquess of Comillas, died in 1925. A new 9,922  GRT ship launched in 1928 was named Marques de Comillas after him. After the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic in 1931, CTE renamed ships that had borne

7040-413: The Mediterranean. By the middle decades of a war- and plague -ridden 17th-century Europe, the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in continent-wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of the Holy Roman Empire reverse a large part of

7168-400: The Russian front , led to the retreat of French imperial armies from the Iberian Peninsula in 1814, and the return of King Ferdinand VII . During the war, in 1810, a revolutionary body, the Cortes of Cádiz , was assembled to coordinate the effort against the Bonapartist regime and to prepare a constitution. It met as one body, and its members represented the entire Spanish empire. In 1812,

7296-438: The Second World War, although it was sympathetic to the Axis and provided the Nazi Wehrmacht with Spanish volunteers in the Eastern Front . The only legal party under Franco's dictatorship was the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS (FET y de las JONS), formed in 1937 upon the merging of the Fascist Falange Española de las JONS and the Carlist traditionalists and to which the rest of right-wing groups supporting

7424-467: The Spanish National Research Council ( Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas , CSIC), conducted a comparative philological study between several Semitic languages and hypothesize that the Phoenician name translates as "land where metals are forged", having determined that the name originated in reference to the gold mines of the Iberian Peninsula. There have been a number of accounts and hypotheses about its origin: Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that

7552-642: The Strait of Gibraltar. Upon the conclusion of the Granada War , the Nasrid Sultanate of Granada (the remaining Muslim-ruled polity in the Iberian Peninsula after 1246) capitulated in 1492 to the military strength of the Catholic Monarchs , and it was integrated from then on in the Crown of Castile. In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united by the marriage of their monarchs, Isabella I and Ferdinand II, respectively. In 1492, Jews were forced to choose between conversion to Catholicism or expulsion; as many as 200,000 Jews were expelled from Castile and Aragon . The year 1492 also marked

7680-468: The US to establish a military presence on the Iberian Peninsula as a counter to any possible move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. US Cold War strategic priorities included the dissemination of American educational ideas to foster modernization and expansion. In the 1960s, Spain registered an unprecedented rate of economic growth which was propelled by industrialisation , a mass internal migration from rural areas to Madrid , Barcelona and

7808-407: The VTOL Harrier motivated the USSR to introduce a counterpart using a combination of exhaust thrust vectoring and additional forward lift jets, the Yakovlev Yak-36 flew in 1971, later evolving into the operational Yakovlev Yak-38 . Entering service in 1978, the Yak-38 was limited in both payload capability and hot-and-high performance, and saw only limited deployment. The British de Havilland Comet

SECTION 60

#1732790252769

7936-542: The advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to recognise the separation of Portugal and the United Provinces (Dutch Republic), and eventually suffered some serious military reverses to France in the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wide Thirty Years' War . In the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual decline, during which it surrendered several small territories to France and England; however, it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until

8064-461: The ailing company lost investors. In 1960, at one of CTE's shareholders' meetings it was proposed to transform CTE into an airline, but funds were not forthcoming. Between the mid-1960s and 1974, CTE liquidated practically all its fleet. One of the last luxury ocean-liners of the company was ship Virginia de Churruca , sold to Trasmediterránea which used it for ferry services to the Balearic Islands . The profits from sales like these, undertaken "at

8192-539: The aircraft never found commercial success. After several years of service, a fatal crash near Paris in July 2000 and other factors eventually caused Concorde flights to be discontinued in 2003. This was the only loss of an SST in civilian service. Only one other SST design was used in a civilian capacity, the Soviet era Tu-144 , but it was soon withdrawn due to high maintenance and other issues. McDonnell Douglas, Lockheed and Boeing were three U.S. manufacturers that had originally planned to develop various SST designs since

8320-400: The arrival of Christopher Columbus in the New World , during a voyage funded by Isabella. Columbus's first voyage crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean Islands, beginning the European exploration and conquest of the Americas. The Treaty of Granada guaranteed religious tolerance towards Muslims, for a few years before Islam was outlawed in 1502 in Castile and 1527 in Aragon, leading

8448-419: The beginning of the 19th century. The decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which consumed the first years of the 18th century. The War of the Spanish Succession was a wide-ranging international conflict combined with a civil war, and was to cost the kingdom its European possessions and its position as a leading European power. During this war, a new dynasty originating in France,

8576-409: The bishops, the magnates, and 'the elected citizens of each city') of modern parliamentary session in Europe was held in León ( Cortes of León ). The Kingdom of Castile , formed from Leonese territory, was its successor as strongest kingdom. The kings and the nobility fought for power and influence in this period. The example of the Roman emperors influenced the political objective of the Crown, while

8704-473: The burning of churches, the 1932 failed coup d'état led by José Sanjurjo , the Revolution of 1934 and numerous attacks against rival political leaders. On the other hand, it is also during the Second Republic when important reforms to modernize the country were initiated: a democratic constitution, agrarian reform, restructuring of the army, political decentralization and women's right to vote . The Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936: on 17 and 18 July, part of

8832-406: The bypass turbofan , in which a larger-diameter fan at the front passes some air into the compressor and the rest around a bypass, where it flows past the engine at slower speed than the jet exhaust. The fan and compressor need to spin at different speeds, leading to the two-spool turbofan, in which two sets of turbines are mounted on concentric shafts spinning at different speeds to drive the fan and

8960-408: The centrifugal type. It was not long before axial-flow types came to dominate. A variation on the turbine theme is the turbo-prop. Here, the turbine drives not only the compressor but also the main propeller. At lower speeds and altitudes this design is more efficient and economical than the jet turbine, while having greater power for less weight than a piston engine. It therefore found a niche between

9088-428: The conflict between progressives and moderates ended in a weak early constitutional period. The 1868 Glorious Revolution was followed by the 1868–1874 progressive Sexenio Democrático (including the short-lived First Spanish Republic ), which yielded to a stable monarchic period, the Restoration (1875–1931). In the late 19th century nationalist movements arose in the Philippines and Cuba. In 1895 and 1896

9216-545: The customs barrier between the Crowns of Aragon and Castile in 1717, followed by the introduction of new property taxes in the Aragonese kingdoms. The 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The predominant economic policy was an interventionist one, and the State also pursued policies aiming towards infrastructure development as well as the abolition of internal customs and

9344-436: The democratic system of the constitutional monarchy of a two-parties system. The July 1909 Tragic Week events and repression exemplified the social instability of the time. The La Canadiense strike in 1919 led to the first law limiting the working day to eight hours. After a period of Crown-supported dictatorship from 1923 to 1931, the first elections since 1923, largely understood as a plebiscite on Monarchy, took place:

9472-564: The development of railways and incipient capitalism developed in several areas of the country, particularly in Barcelona , as well as labour movement and socialist and anarchist ideas. The 1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress and the 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition are good examples of this. In 1879, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party was founded. A trade union linked to this party, Unión General de Trabajadores ,

9600-540: The early eighth century, most of the peninsula was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate , and during early Islamic rule, Al-Andalus became a dominant peninsular power centred on Córdoba . Several Christian kingdoms emerged in Northern Iberia, chief among them Asturias , León , Castile , Aragon , Navarre , and Portugal ; made an intermittent southward military expansion and repopulation, known as

9728-416: The engine exhaust, upstream of a divergent nozzle similar to that seen on a rocket engine. As the fuel burned it expanded, reacting against the nozzle to drive the exhaust backwards and the engine forwards. Turbojet engines have a high fuel consumption, and afterburning even more so. One way to make an engine more efficient is to make it pass a larger mass of air at slower speed. This led to the development of

9856-487: The fabric Rogallo wing for sport flying and the reintroduction of the canard or "tail-first" configuration by the Swedish Saab Viggen jet fighter. Designers already knew that as an aircraft approaches the speed of sound (Mach 1), in the transonic region, shock waves begin forming, causing a large increase in drag. Wings, already thin, had to become thinner and finer. Fineness is a measure of how thin

9984-712: The following political divisions between liberals and absolutists led to the breakaway of most of the American colonies . These political divisions finally converged in the 20th century with the Spanish Civil War , giving rise to the Francoist dictatorship that lasted until 1975. With the restoration of democracy and its entry into the European Union, the country experienced an economic boom that profoundly transformed it socially and politically. Since

10112-606: The following years. For general use, the configuration developed in the US by Igor Sikorsky quickly came to dominate. Control was achieved by an articulated rotor head with cyclic and collective pitch controls, while rotor torque was counteracted by a sideways-facing tail rotor. Helicopters entered widespread use in many diverse roles including air observation, search and rescue, medical evacuation, fire fighting, construction and general transport to otherwise inaccessible locations such as mountain sides and oil rigs. In heavy-lift applications,

10240-569: The globe. The cultural efflorescence witnessed during this period is now referred to as the Spanish Golden Age . The expansion of the empire caused immense upheaval in the Americas as the collapse of societies and empires and new diseases from Europe devastated American indigenous populations. The rise of humanism , the Counter-Reformation and new geographical discoveries and conquests raised issues that were addressed by

10368-426: The high-pressure compressor respectively. Taking the principle a step further, the high-bypass turbofan is even more efficient, having typically three spools each spinning at a different speed. Another way to improve efficiency is to increase the combustion temperature. This requires improved materials able to retain their strength at high temperature, and the development of engine cores has largely followed advances in

10496-407: The idea impractical. To use jet power for lift, the impracticality of tail-sitting meant it was necessary for the aircraft to take off and land vertically while still in a horizontal attitude. Solutions tried included lifting fans (typically buried in the wings), swivelling engine pods similar in concept to the convertiplane, dedicated lightweight lift jets or turbofans, thrust-vectoring by deflecting

10624-741: The initial invasion. The Kingdom of Asturias-León consolidated upon this territory. Other Christian kingdoms, such as Navarre and Aragon in the mountainous north, eventually surged upon the consolidation of counties of the Carolingian Marca Hispanica . For several centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the Muslim and Christian-controlled areas of the peninsula was along the Ebro and Douro valleys. Conversion to Islam proceeded at an increasing pace. The muladíes (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have formed

10752-658: The intellectual movement now known as the School of Salamanca , which developed the first modern theories of what are now known as international law and human rights. Spain's 16th-century maritime supremacy was demonstrated by the victory over the Ottoman Empire at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 and over Portugal at the Battle of Ponta Delgada in 1582, and then after the setback of the Spanish Armada in 1588, in

10880-517: The introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. Emperors Hadrian , Trajan , Theodosius I , and the philosopher Seneca were born in Hispania. Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century CE, and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd century. Most of Spain's present languages and religions, as well as the basis of its laws, originate from this period. Starting in 170 CE, incursions of North-African Mauri in

11008-589: The jet exhaust as needed, and various combinations of these. Only thrust-vectoring stood the test of time, with the introduction of the Rolls-Royce Pegasus bypass turbofan engine having separate vectoring nozzles for the cold fan (bypass) and hot exhaust flows, which first flew in the Hawker P.1127 VTOL research aircraft of 1960. The success of the P.1127 and its successor the Kestrel led directly to

11136-411: The lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens from the country. On 1 April 1939, five months before the beginning of World War II , the rebel side led by Franco emerged victorious, imposing a dictatorship over the whole country. Thousands were imprisoned after the civil war in Francoist concentration camps . The regime remained nominally "neutral" for much of

11264-471: The low-cost piston engine and the high-performance jet engine. The Rolls-Royce Dart powered the Vickers Viscount airliner, which first flew in 1948, and turboprops remain in production today. The next development of the jet engine was the afterburner . Pure turbojets were found to fly little faster than the speed of sound. In order to increase speed for supersonic flight, fuel was injected into

11392-557: The majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century. A series of Viking incursions raided the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula in the 9th and 10th centuries. The first recorded Viking raid on Iberia took place in 844; it ended in failure with many Vikings killed by the Galicians' ballistas ; and seventy of the Vikings' longships captured on the beach and burned by the troops of King Ramiro I of Asturias . In

11520-614: The maritime section of the 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition . It designed by Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí , better known for the Sagrada Família . The CTE pavilion was demolished only a few years after its completion to make way for the Passeig Marítim , Barcelona's harbor promenade. Models of this now-demolished structure can be seen at the Sagrada Família museum. There is a sculptural relief representing

11648-761: The materials available, for example through the development of precision-made ceramic parts and single-crystal metal turbine blades. Rolls-Royce developed a carbon composite fan for the Rolls-Royce RB211 turbofan but in the event found the material did not have sufficient damage tolerance and they reverted to the more conventional titanium metal. The advent of reliable electronics led to a progressive development of avionic systems for flight control, navigation, communication, engine control and military purposes such as target identification and weapons aiming. New radio location systems provided navigation information which could be used to control an autopilot pre-set to fly

11776-651: The meseta; however, due to the bellicose inland tribes, the Carthaginians settled on the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula. During the Second Punic War , roughly between 210 and 205 BCE, the expanding Roman Republic captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast. Although it took the Romans nearly two centuries to complete the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula , they retained control of it for over six centuries. Roman rule

11904-668: The military carried out a coup d'état that triumphed in only part of the country. The situation led to a civil war, in which the territory was divided into two zones: one under the authority of the Republican government , that counted on outside support from the Soviet Union and Mexico (and from International Brigades ), and the other controlled by the putschists (the Nationalist or rebel faction ), most critically supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy . The Republic

12032-627: The names of members of the Spanish royal family . Alfonso XIII became Habana , after Havana in Cuba. Reina Victoria-Eugenia and Infanta Isabel de Borbon operated the mail ship service between Spain and the Río de la Plata , so they were renamed Argentina and Uruguay respectively. The Spanish government had subsidised CTE to provide the mail service. In 1932 the Republican government withdrew

12160-604: The nobles benefited from feudalism . Muslim strongholds in the Guadalquivir Valley such as Córdoba (1236) and Seville (1248) fell to Castile in the 13th century. The County of Barcelona and the Kingdom of Aragon entered in a dynastic union and gained territory and power in the Mediterranean. In 1229, Majorca was conquered, so was Valencia in 1238. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the North-African Marinids established some enclaves around

12288-480: The only American colonies Spain held were Cuba and Puerto Rico . The Napoleonic War left Spain economically ruined, deeply divided and politically unstable. In the 1830s and 1840s, Carlism (a reactionary legitimist movement supportive of an alternative Bourbon branch), fought against the government forces supportive of Queen Isabella II 's dynastic rights in the Carlist Wars . Government forces prevailed, but

12416-411: The period around the turn of the century was one of increasing prosperity, the 20th century brought little social peace. Spain played a minor part in the scramble for Africa . It remained neutral during World War I . The heavy losses suffered by the colonial troops in conflicts in northern Morocco against Riffians forces brought discredit to the government and undermined the monarchy. Industrialisation,

12544-587: The period. The Hawker Siddeley Harrier "jump jet" achieved significant success, being manufactured in several versions and operated by the UK, USA, Spain and India, and seeing significant action in the UK-Argentina Falklands War . The Yakovlev Yak-36 went through troubling, long and expensive development, never reaching its design performance but eventually emerging as the operational Yak-38. The first practical helicopters were developed during World War II, and many more designs appeared in

12672-564: The point of death", were minimal. In 1978 a non-functional Compañía Transatlántica Española was integrated into the Instituto Nacional de Industria (INI), a Spanish state entity that absorbed failed companies in order to service debt, among other purposes. In 1994 CTE became a private company after being acquired by Naviera del Odiel. CTE managed to survive, but was only engaged minor shipping operations using chartered ships, as well as in real-estate business. In its last days CTE

12800-756: The program was overtaken by the Boeing 707 on the trans-Atlantic run. The Comet 4 was developed into the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod which retired in June 2011. Following the grounding of the Comet 1, the Tu-104 became the first jet airliner to provide a sustained and reliable service, its introduction having been delayed pending the outcome of investigations into the Comet crashes. It was the world's only jet airliner in operation between 1956 and 1958 (after which

12928-591: The province of Baetica took place. The Germanic Suebi and Vandals , together with the Sarmatian Alans , entered the peninsula after 409, weakening the Western Roman Empire's jurisdiction over Hispania. The Suebi established a kingdom in north-western Iberia, whereas the Vandals established themselves in the south of the peninsula by 420 before crossing over to North Africa in 429. As

13056-581: The rebels also added. The name of " Movimiento Nacional ", sometimes understood as a wider structure than the FET y de las JONS proper, largely imposed over the later's name in official documents along the 1950s. After the war Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United Nations. This changed in 1955, during the Cold War period, when it became strategically important for

13184-460: The reduction of export tariffs. Projects of agricultural colonisation with new settlements took place in the south of mainland Spain. Enlightenment ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy. In 1793, Spain went to war against the revolutionary new French Republic as a member of the first Coalition . The subsequent War of the Pyrenees polarised the country in

13312-589: The remaining Muslim population to become nominally Christian Moriscos . About four decades after the War of the Alpujarras (1568–1571), over 300,000 moriscos were expelled , settling primarily in North Africa. The unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage of their sovereigns laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire, although each kingdom of Spain remained

13440-537: The root of the term span is the Phoenician word spy , meaning "to forge metals ". Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean "the land where metals are forged". It may be a derivation of the Phoenician I-Shpania , meaning "island of rabbits", "land of rabbits" or "edge", a reference to Spain's location at the end of the Mediterranean; Roman coins struck in the region from the reign of Hadrian show

13568-640: The service introduction of the subsonic Hawker Siddeley Harrier "Jump jet" in 1969. The type was produced in several variants, notably the Sea Harrier and the McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II "big-wing" Harrier. Examples saw operational service with the UK, USA, Spain and India. The Harrier's most notable exploit was the use of Royal Navy carrier-borne Sea Harriers in the 1982 UK-Argentina Falklands War , operating in both air-to-air and air-to-ground roles. The success of

13696-553: The small, experimental piston-engined MiG-8 Utka pusher , which flew with slightly swept-back wings only months after V-E Day . Supersonic flight was achieved in 1947 by the American Bell X-1 rocket plane, however the use of rocket engines would prove short lived. The development of the afterburner soon allowed jet engines to provide similar levels of thrust and longer range, while needing no oxidant and being safer to handle. The first supersonic jet to enter service

13824-652: The sovereignty to the people . Starting in 1809 the American colonies began a series of revolutions and declared independence, leading to the Spanish American wars of independence that put an end to the metropole's grip over the Spanish Main . Attempts to re-assert control proved futile with opposition not only in the colonies but also in the Iberian peninsula and army revolts followed. By the end of 1826,

13952-584: The subsidy, so CTE withdrew the service and laid up Argentina and Uruguay at Barcelona. The Spanish Civil War between 1936 and 1939 destroyed much of CTE's fleet, and left much of the remainder in disrepair. The Spanish Republican Navy requisitioned some CTE ships and used them to evacuate refugees from coastal cities besieged by the Nationalist armies . In 1939 Nationalist air raids sank Argentina and Uruguay in Barcelona. Between 1950 and 1960 CTE slowly recovered, but post-war advances in civil aviation overtook its passenger business. CTE shares fell and

14080-491: The tandem rotor configuration was also used with some success, for example in the Boeing Chinook series. Other twin-rotor configurations, such as intermeshing, co-axial or side-by-side also saw some use. The autogyro , used significantly during the late 1930s and throughout the war, became relegated to private aviation and never saw wide acceptance. A Wallis example, "Little Nellie", became famous for its appearance in

14208-453: The western area of the Pyrenees mountain range and adjacent areas; Phoenician-influenced Tartessians flourished in the southwest; and Lusitanians and Vettones occupied areas in the central west. Several cities were founded along the coast by Phoenicians , and trading outposts and colonies were established by Greeks in the East. Eventually, Phoenician- Carthaginians expanded inland towards

14336-419: The western empire disintegrated, the social and economic base became greatly simplified; the successor regimes maintained many of the institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity and assimilation into the evolving Roman culture. The Byzantines established an occidental province, Spania , in the south, with the intention of reviving Roman rule throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania

14464-575: The widespread introduction of supersonic aircraft . By the end of the Second World War Germany and Britain already had operational jet aircraft in military service. The next few years saw jet engines being developed by all the major powers and military jet aircraft entering service with their air forces. The Soviets' most important design bureau for future jet fighter development in the decades to come, Mikoyan-Gurevich , started preparing for building swept-winged jet aircraft with

14592-541: The wing is compared to its front-to-back chord. A small, highly loaded wing has less drag and so some early types used this type, including the Bell X-1 rocket plane and the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter . But these craft had high takeoff speeds, the Starfighter causing significant pilot deaths during takeoff, and small wings fell out of use. An approach pioneered by German designers during the war

14720-468: The world's second-most spoken native language and the world's most widely spoken Romance language . Spain is a secular parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy , with King Felipe VI as head of state . A developed country , it is a major advanced capitalist economy, with the world's fifteenth-largest by both nominal GDP and PPP . Spain is a member of the United Nations ,

14848-656: Was bound together by law, language, and the Roman road . The cultures of the pre-Roman populations were gradually Romanised (Latinised) at different rates depending on what part of the peninsula they lived in, with local leaders being admitted into the Roman aristocratic class. Hispania (the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula) served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbours exported gold, wool , olive oil , and wine. Agricultural production increased with

14976-438: Was constructed of titanium alloy, had a special corrugated skin to absorb thermal expansion and dual-cycle turbofan-ramjet engines which ran on a special temperature-tolerant fuel. Mach tuck was reduced through the use of long "chine" extensions of the wing along the fuselage, which contributed greater lift at supersonic speeds. Another problem with supersonic flight proved to be its environmental impact. A large aircraft creates

15104-524: Was developed from the wartime reflector gunsight to provide key flight information to the pilot without needing to lower the eyes to the instrument panel. The increasing capability - and vulnerability - of avionics led to the development of airborne Early Warning (EW) and Electronic Countermeasures (ECM) systems. The helicopter and autogyro had both seen service in the war. Although capable of VTOL operation, rotorcraft are inefficient, expensive and slow. The Bachem Natter point-defence interceptor had used

15232-509: Was founded in 1888. In the anarcho-syndicalist trend of the labour movement in Spain, Confederación Nacional del Trabajo was founded in 1910 and Federación Anarquista Ibérica in 1927. Catalanism and Vasquism, alongside other nationalisms and regionalisms in Spain, arose in that period: the Basque Nationalist Party formed in 1895 and Regionalist League of Catalonia in 1901. Political corruption and repression weakened

15360-604: Was inhabited by Celts , Iberians , and other pre-Roman peoples . With the Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula , the province of Hispania was established. Following the Romanization and Christianization of Hispania, the fall of the Western Roman Empire ushered in the inward migration of tribes from Central Europe, including the Visigoths , who formed the Visigothic Kingdom centred on Toledo . In

15488-405: Was not a commercial success. These types and their descendants contributed to an era of great social change, typified by popular phrases such as "the jet set " and introducing new medical syndromes such as jet lag . The propulsive efficiency of jet engines is inversely related to the exhaust velocity. The turbofan engine improves on the propulsive efficiency of the turbojet by accelerating

15616-570: Was not even a shadow of the transoceanic shipping company it was in its heyday, when its luxury passenger liners cruised the World's oceans. Following the strengthening of the Euro currency between 2005 and 2006, as well as higher fuel costs, CTE found it increasingly difficult to service the debts to its creditors. Finally, in September 2012 it entered an insolvency procedure. CTE had a pavilion in

15744-562: Was not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of non-intervention . General Francisco Franco was sworn in as the supreme leader of the rebels on 1 October 1936. An uneasy relationship between the Republican government and the grassroots anarchists who had initiated a partial social revolution also ensued. The civil war was viciously fought and there were many atrocities committed by all sides . The war claimed

15872-406: Was restricted to the military after 1976. Jet airliners are able to fly much higher, faster, and further than piston ‑powered propliners , making transcontinental and intercontinental travel considerably faster and easier than in the past. Aircraft making long transcontinental and trans-oceanic flights could now fly to their destinations non-stop, making much of the world accessible within

16000-679: Was reunited under Visigothic rule . From 711 to 718, as part of the expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate which had conquered North Africa from the Byzantine Empire , nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Muslims from across the Strait of Gibraltar, resulting in the collapse of the Visigothic Kingdom. Only a small area in the mountainous north of the peninsula stood out of the territory seized during

16128-498: Was the North American F-100 Super Sabre , in 1954. Meanwhile, commercial jetliners were being developed with the first of these, the British de Havilland Comet , first flying in 1949 and entering service in 1952. The Comet suffered from a new and unexpected problem now known as metal fatigue , several examples crashed and by the time a new version was introduced, American types such as the Boeing 707 had overtaken its design and it

16256-410: Was the first jet airliner to fly (1949), the first in service (1952), and the first to offer a regular jet-powered transatlantic service (1958). One hundred and fourteen of all versions were built but the Comet 1 had serious design problems, and out of nine original aircraft, four crashed (one at takeoff and three broke up in flight), which grounded the entire fleet. The Comet 4 solved these problems but

16384-539: Was to sweep the wing at an angle, delaying the buildup of shock waves. But this made the wing structure longer and more flexible, making the aircraft more likely to suffer from bending or aeroelasticity and even causing a reversal in the action of the flight controls. Stall behaviour of the swept wing was also poorly understood and could be extremely sharp. Other problems included divergent oscillations which could build up lethal forces. In researching these effects, many pilots lost their lives, for example all three examples of

#768231