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73-440: Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas de Caritat, Marquis of Condorcet ( French: [maʁi ʒɑ̃ ɑ̃twan nikɔla də kaʁita maʁki də kɔ̃dɔʁsɛ] ; 17 September 1743 – 29 March 1794), known as Nicolas de Condorcet , was a French political economist and mathematician . His ideas, including support for free markets , public education , constitutional government, and equal rights for women and people of all races, have been said to embody

146-544: A 5-year renovation project known as Metalmetamorphose, the museum at the Monnaie de Paris – known as the Musée du Conti (11 Conti Museum) – was reopened on 30 September 2017. Notes Sources 48°51′24″N 2°20′21″E  /  48.85667°N 2.33917°E  / 48.85667; 2.33917 This coin-related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This French museum-related article

219-566: A biography which spoke fondly of Turgot and advocated Turgot's economic theories. Condorcet continued to receive prestigious appointments: in 1777, he became Permanent Secretary of the Académie des Sciences , holding the post until the abolition of the Académie in 1793; and, in 1782, secretary of the Académie française . In 1785, Condorcet published one of his most important works, Essay on

292-490: A candidate preferred by a majority of voters. In 1781, Condorcet anonymously published a pamphlet entitled Reflections on Negro Slavery ( Réflexions sur l'esclavage des nègres ), in which he denounced slavery . In 1786, Condorcet worked on ideas for the differential and integral calculus , giving a new treatment of infinitesimals – a work which apparently was never published. In 1789, he published Vie de Voltaire (1789) , which agreed with Voltaire in his opposition to

365-484: A conservative notion of denying women education and equal rights on account of keeping them tied to the domestic sphere where [according to him] they belonged, Condorcet refused to acquit the inequality between men and women to natural disposition. Instead, he believed that the provision of education to women on par with the education provided to men was the pathway to establishing gender equality. He stated: "I believe that all other differences between men and women are simply

438-505: A generic Condorcet method , designed to simulate pair-wise elections between all candidates in an election. He disagreed strongly with the alternative method of aggregating preferences put forth by Jean-Charles de Borda (based on summed rankings of alternatives ). Condorcet was one of the first to systematically apply mathematics in the social sciences . He also considered the instant-runoff voting elimination method, as early as 1788, though only to condemn it, for its ability to eliminate

511-619: A key contribution to the French Enlightenment , particularly his work on the Idea of Progress. Condorcet believed that through the use of our senses and communication with others, knowledge could be compared and contrasted as a way of analyzing our systems of belief and understanding. None of Condorcet's writings refer to a belief in a religion or a god who intervenes in human affairs. Condorcet instead frequently had written of his faith in humanity itself and its ability to progress with

584-636: A large interior courtyard . It remains open to the public and includes a numismatics museum, located within what was once the main foundry . The Monnaie de Paris employs 500 people (in 2010) on two sites: the Hôtel de la Monnaie in Paris (55% of the workforce) and the monetary establishment in Pessac, in Gironde (45%). In 2019, turnover amounted to 134 million euros for a workforce of 489 employees. Following

657-686: A lasting contribution to the pre-feminist debate. Condorcet's Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Spirit (1795) was perhaps the most influential formulation of the idea of progress ever written. It made the Idea of Progress a central concern of Enlightenment thought. He argued that expanding knowledge in the natural and social sciences would lead to an ever more just world of individual freedom, material affluence, and moral compassion. He argued for three general propositions: that

730-863: A member of the French Société des Amis des Noirs (Society of the Friends of the Blacks) . He wrote a set of rules for the Society of the Friends of the Blacks which detailed the reasoning and goals behind the organization along with describing the injustice of slavery and put in a statement calling for the abolition of the slave trade as the first step to true abolition. Condorcet was also a strong proponent of women's civil rights. He claimed that women were equal to men in nearly every aspect and asked why then should they be debarred from their fundamental civil rights;

803-432: A proponent of mathematical methods applied to the subject, advocated economics for brevity and with the hope of the term becoming "the recognised name of a science". Citation measurement metrics from Google Ngram Viewer indicate that use of the term economics began to overshadow political economy around roughly 1910, becoming the preferred term for the discipline by 1920. Today, the term economics usually refers to

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876-595: A revised edition between 1847 and 1849. Condorcet's work was mainly focused on a quest for a more egalitarian society. This path led him to think and write about gender equality in the Revolutionary context. In 1790, he published " Sur l'admission des femmes au droit de cité " ("On the Admission of Women to the Rights of Citizenship") in which he strongly advocated for women's suffrage in the new Republic as well as

949-459: A view, ascribed to earlier mainstream economists, of government officials trying to maximize individual utilities from some kind of social welfare function . As such, economists and political scientists often associate political economy with approaches using rational-choice assumptions, especially in game theory and in examining phenomena beyond economics' standard remit, such as government failure and complex decision making in which context

1022-435: Is more truth in this observation, but it still proves nothing since this difference is caused, not by nature, but by education and society..." His views on rights that must be afforded to women were not limited to education and citizenship but also social freedoms and protections that included the right for women to plan their own pregnancies, provision of access to birth control, and men's obligation to take responsibility for

1095-557: Is not a unified discipline, there are studies using the term that overlap in subject matter, but have radically different perspectives: Monnaie de Paris The Monnaie de Paris ( French pronunciation: [mɔnɛ də paʁi] , Paris Mint ) is a government-owned institution responsible for producing France's coins . Founded in AD 864 with the Edict of Pistres , it is the oldest continuously running minting institution and one of

1168-417: Is that his friend Pierre Jean George Cabanis gave him a poison which he eventually used. However, some historians believe that he may have been murdered (perhaps because he was too loved and respected to be executed). Jean-Pierre Brancourt (in his work L'élite, la mort et la révolution ) claims that Condorcet was killed with a mixture of Datura stramonium and opium. Condorcet was symbolically interred in

1241-614: The Muqaddimah . In Al-Muqaddimah Khaldun states, "Civilization and its well-being, as well as business prosperity, depend on productivity and people's efforts in all directions in their own interest and profit" – seen as a modern precursor to Classical Economic thought. Leading on from this, the French physiocrats were the first major exponents of political economy, although the intellectual responses of Adam Smith , John Stuart Mill , David Ricardo , Henry George and Karl Marx to

1314-831: The American Philosophical Society (1775), the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (1785), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1792) and also in Prussia and Russia. His political ideas, many in congruity with Turgot's, were criticized heavily in the English-speaking world, however, most notably by John Adams who wrote two of his principal works of political philosophy to oppose Turgot's and Condorcet's unicameral legislature and radical democracy. In 1774, Condorcet

1387-582: The Church . In the same year he was elected as president of the Society of the Friends of the Blacks and lived in an apartment at Hôtel des Monnaies, Paris , across the Louvre. In 1791, Condorcet, along with Sophie de Grouchy, Thomas Paine , Etienne Dumont , Jacques-Pierre Brissot , and Achilles Duchastellet published a brief journal titled Le Républicain , its main goal being the promotion of republicanism and

1460-586: The East India Company College , Haileybury, Hertfordshire . At present, political economy refers to different yet related approaches to studying economic and related behaviours, ranging from the combination of economics with other fields to the use of different, fundamental assumptions challenging earlier economic assumptions. Political economy most commonly refers to interdisciplinary studies drawing upon economics , sociology and political science in explaining how political institutions,

1533-595: The Panthéon in 1989, in honour of the bicentennial of the French Revolution and Condorcet's role as a central figure in the Enlightenment. His coffin, however, was empty as his remains, originally interred in the common cemetery of Bourg-la-Reine , were lost during the nineteenth century. In 1786 Condorcet married Sophie de Grouchy , who was more than twenty years his junior. Sophie, reckoned one of

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1606-502: The oldest extant companies in the world. In 1973, the mint relocated its primary production to a facility in Pessac , and today the original facility in Paris , while still operational, functions primarily as a museum and is home to a collection of many ancient coins. Monnaie de Paris acquired its autonomy and was granted legal personality by law no. 2006–1666 in 2007. In 2012, it was

1679-595: The political business cycles , central-bank independence and the politics of excessive deficits. An interesting example would be the publication in 1954 of the first manual of Political Economy in the Soviet Union, edited by Lev Gatovsky , which mixed the classic theoretical approach of the time with the soviet political discourse. A rather recent focus has been put on modeling economic policy and political institutions concerning interactions between agents and economic and political institutions , including

1752-408: The 1790s as the embodiment of the cold, rational Enlightenment. However she suggests his writings on economic policy, voting, and public instruction indicate different views both of Condorcet and of the Enlightenment. Condorcet was concerned with individual diversity; he was opposed to proto-utilitarian theories; he considered individual independence, which he described as the characteristic liberty of

1825-520: The Application of Analysis to the Probability of Majority Decisions ( Essai sur l'application de l'analyse à la probabilité des décisions rendues à la pluralité des voix ). It described several now-famous results, including Condorcet's jury theorem , which states that if each member of a voting group is more likely than not to make a correct decision, the probability that the highest vote of

1898-598: The Assembly. Condorcet was not affiliated with any political party but counted many friends among the Girondins . He distanced himself from them during the National Convention , however, due to his distaste for their factionalism. In April 1792 Condorcet presented a project for the reformation of the education system, aiming to create a hierarchical system, under the authority of experts, who would work as

1971-559: The British scholars Adam Smith , Thomas Malthus , and David Ricardo , although they were preceded by the work of the French physiocrats , such as François Quesnay and Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot . In the late 19th century, the term economics gradually began to replace the term political economy with the rise of mathematical modeling coinciding with the publication of the influential textbook Principles of Economics by Alfred Marshall in 1890. Earlier, William Stanley Jevons ,

2044-729: The Convention – he proposed to send the king to work as a slave rower on galley ships . Condorcet was on the Constitution Committee and was the main author of the Girondin constitutional project . This constitution was not put to a vote. When the Montagnards gained control of the Convention, they wrote their own, the French Constitution of 1793 . Condorcet criticized the new work, and as a result, he

2117-623: The Greek oikos (meaning "home") and nomos (meaning "law" or "order"). Political economy was thus meant to express the laws of production of wealth at the state level, quite like economics concerns putting home to order. The phrase économie politique (translated in English to "political economy") first appeared in France in 1615 with the well-known book by Antoine de Montchrétien , Traité de l'economie politique . Other contemporary scholars attribute

2190-610: The Principle of Population (1798) partly in response to Condorcet's views on the " perfectibility of society ." Condorcet took a leading role when the French Revolution swept France in 1789, hoping for a rationalist reconstruction of society, and championed many liberal causes . As a result, in 1791 he was elected as a Paris representative in the Legislative Assembly , and then became the secretary of

2263-518: The constitutional drafting process, his convictions did not translate into concrete political action and he made limited efforts to push these issues on the agenda. Some scholars on the other hand, believe that this lack of action is not due to the weakness of his commitment but rather to the political atmosphere at the time and the absence of political appetite for gender equality on the part of decision-makers. Along with authors such as Mary Wollstonecraft , d'Alembert or Olympe de Gouges , Condorcet made

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2336-473: The denial of the aforementioned rights is an "act of tyranny" constituted by the newly formed French nation. About Islam and China he wrote: "the religion of Mohammed, the simplest in its dogmas, the least absurd in its practices, the most tolerant in its principles, seems to condemn to eternal slavery, to incurable stupidity, this entire vast portion of the Earth where it has extended its empire; while we will see

2409-574: The economic impacts of international relations ; and (3) economic models of political or exploitative class processes. Within the field of political science, there is generally a distinction between international political economy (studied by international relations scholars) and comparative political economy (studied by comparative politics scholars). Public choice theory is a microfoundations theory closely intertwined with political economy. Both approaches model voters, politicians and bureaucrats as behaving in mainly self-interested ways, in contrast to

2482-433: The enlargement of basic political and social rights to include women. One of the most famous Enlightenment thinkers at the time, he was one of the first to make such a radical proposal. 'The rights of men stem exclusively from the fact that they are sentient beings, capable of acquiring moral ideas and of reasoning upon them. Since women have the same qualities, they necessarily also have the same rights. Either no member of

2555-405: The few differences that existed were due to the fact that women were limited by their lack of rights. Condorcet even mentioned several women who were more capable than average men, such as Queen Elizabeth and Maria-Theresa . Furthermore, as he argues for the civil, political, and educational rights of women, Condorcet boldly challenges that unless women's natural inferiority to men could be proven,

2628-658: The first public institution to obtain the Living Heritage Company label. At the end of September 2017, Monnaie de Paris reopened after renovation work. A Neoclassical edifice , the Hôtel de la Monnaie was designed by Jacques-Denis Antoine and built from 1767–1775 on the Left Bank of the Seine . The Monnaie was the first major civic monument undertaken by Antoine, yet shows a high level of ingenuity on

2701-402: The foundation of universal values. His difficulties call into question some familiar distinctions, for example between French, German, and English-Scottish thought, and between the Enlightenment and the counter-Enlightenment. There was substantial continuity between Condorcet's criticism of the economic ideas of the 1760s and the liberal thought of the early 19th century. The Lycée Condorcet in

2774-407: The genius of science and freedom shine beneath the most absurd superstitions, in the midst of the most barbaric intolerance. China offers us the same phenomenon, although the effects of this stupefying poison have been less fatal." For Condorcet's republicanism the nation needed enlightened citizens and education needed democracy to become truly public. Democracy implied free citizens, and ignorance

2847-410: The group is the correct decision increases as the number of members of the group increases, and Condorcet's paradox , which shows that majority preferences can become intransitive with three or more options – it is possible for a certain electorate to express a preference for A over B, a preference for B over C, and a preference for C over A , all from the same set of ballots. The paper also outlines

2920-702: The guardians of the Enlightenment and who, independent of power, would be the guarantors of public liberties. The project was judged to be contrary to republican and egalitarian virtues, handing the education of the Nation over to an aristocracy of savants, and Condorcet's proposal was not taken up by the Assembly. Several years later, in 1795, when the Thermidorians had gained in strength, the National Convention would adopt an educational plan based on Condorcet's proposal. He advocated women's suffrage for

2993-405: The help of philosophers such as Aristotle. Through this accumulation and sharing of knowledge he believed it was possible for anybody to comprehend all the known facts of the natural world. The enlightenment of the natural world spurred the desire for enlightenment of the social and political world. Condorcet believed that there was no definition of the perfect human existence and thus believed that

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3066-633: The house of Jean-Baptiste Suard , a friend of his with whom he had resided in 1772, but he was refused on the basis that he would be betrayed by one of their residents. Two days later, he was arrested in Clamart and imprisoned in Bourg-la-Reine (or, as it was known during the Revolution, Bourg-l'Égalité , "Equality Borough" rather than "Queen's Borough") where, after another two days, he was found dead in his cell. The most widely accepted theory

3139-416: The human race has any true rights, or else they all have the same ones; and anyone who votes against the rights of another, whatever his religion, colour or sex, automatically forfeits his own.' Like fellow Enlightenment thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau in his book Emile ou De l'Education (1762), Condorcet identified education as crucial to the emancipation of individuals. However, where Rousseau endorsed

3212-483: The ideals embodied by the newly formed United States, and proposed projects of political, administrative and economic reforms intended to transform France. In 1776, Turgot was dismissed as Controller General. Consequently, Condorcet submitted his resignation as Inspector General of the Monnaie , but the request was refused, and he continued serving in this post until 1791. Condorcet later wrote Vie de M. Turgot (1786),

3285-652: The ideals of the Age of Enlightenment , of which he has been called the "last witness", and Enlightenment rationalism . A critic of the constitution proposed by Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles in 1793, the Convention Nationale — and the Jacobin faction in particular — voted to have Condorcet arrested. He died in prison after a period of hiding from the French Revolutionary authorities. Condorcet

3358-421: The importance of institutions , backwardness , reform and transition economies , the role of culture , ethnicity and gender in explaining economic outcomes, macroeconomic policy , the environment , fairness and the relation of constitutions to economic policy , theoretical and empirical. Other important landmarks in the development of political economy include: Because political economy

3431-439: The loving hopes he has for his daughter as a father, but also for his egalitarian vision of the rights and opportunities for women in society. Condorcet was survived by his widow and four-year-old Eliza. Sophie died in 1822, never having remarried, and having published all her husband's works between 1801 and 1804. Her work was carried on by Eliza, wife of former United Irishman Arthur O'Connor . The Condorcet-O'Connors published

3504-479: The major texts of the Enlightenment and of historical thought. It narrates the history of civilization as one of progress in the sciences, claims an intimate connection between scientific progress and the development of human rights and justice, and outlines the features of a future rational society entirely shaped by scientific knowledge. On 25 March 1794 Condorcet, convinced he was no longer safe, left his hideout and attempted to flee Paris. He went to seek refuge at

3577-406: The moderns, to be of central political importance; and he opposed the imposition of universal and eternal principles. His efforts to reconcile the universality of some values with the diversity of individual opinions are of continuing interest. He emphasizes the institutions of civilized or constitutional conflict, recognizes conflicts or inconsistencies within individuals, and sees moral sentiments as

3650-465: The most beautiful women of the day, became an accomplished salon hostess as Madame de Condorcet, and also an accomplished translator of Thomas Paine and Adam Smith . She was intelligent and well educated, fluent in both English and Italian. The marriage was a strong one, and Sophie visited her husband regularly while he remained in hiding. Although she began proceedings for divorce in January 1794, it

3723-407: The narrow study of the economy absent other political and social considerations while the term political economy represents a distinct and competing approach. Originally, political economy meant the study of the conditions under which production or consumption within limited parameters was organized in nation-states. In that way, political economy expanded the emphasis on economics, which comes from

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3796-563: The new government, writing an article for Journal de la Société de 1789 , and by publishing De l'admission des femmes au droit de cité ("For the Admission to the Rights of Citizenship For Women") in 1790. At the Trial of Louis XVI in December 1792, Condorcet, who opposed the death penalty albeit supporting the trial itself, spoke out against the execution of the King during the public vote at

3869-549: The part of the architect. Today it is considered a key example of French Neoclassicism in pre-Revolutionary Paris. The building is typified by its heavy external rustication and severe decorative treatment. It boasts one of the longest façades on the Seine; its appearance has been likened to the Italian palazzo tradition. The building, which housed mint workshops, administrative rooms, and residential quarters, wraps around

3942-453: The past revealed an order that could be understood in terms of the progressive development of human capabilities, showing that humanity's "present state, and those through which it has passed, are a necessary constitution of the moral composition of humankind"; that the progress of the natural sciences must be followed by progress in the moral and political sciences "no less certain, no less secure from political revolutions"; that social evils are

4015-533: The physiocrats generally receive much greater attention. The world's first professorship in political economy was established in 1754 at the University of Naples Federico II in southern Italy . The Neapolitan philosopher Antonio Genovesi was the first tenured professor. In 1763, Joseph von Sonnenfels was appointed a Political Economy chair at the University of Vienna , Austria. Thomas Malthus , in 1805, became England's first professor of political economy, at

4088-415: The political environment, and the economic system — capitalist , socialist , communist , or mixed —influence each other. The Journal of Economic Literature classification codes associate political economy with three sub-areas: (1) the role of government and/or class and power relationships in resource allocation for each type of economic system ; (2) international political economy , which studies

4161-403: The progression of the human race would inevitably continue throughout the course of our existence. He envisioned man as continually progressing toward a perfectly utopian society. He believed in the great potential towards growth that man possessed. However, Condorcet stressed that for this to be a possibility man must unify regardless of race, religion, culture or gender. To this end, he became

4234-565: The rejection of constitutional monarchy. The journal's theme was that any sort of monarchy is a threat to freedom no matter who is leading and that liberty is freedom from domination. In 1795, Condorcet's book Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind was published after his death by his wife Sophie de Grouchy. It dealt with theoretical thought on perfecting the human mind and analyzing intellectual history based on social arithmetic. Thomas Malthus wrote An Essay on

4307-412: The result of education". Condorcet's whole plea for gender equality is founded on the belief that the attribution of rights and authority comes from a false assumption that men possess reason and women do not. He even goes on to argue that women possess their own form of reason that is different from their male compatriots but by no means lesser however this is nonetheless an artificial difference: "There

4380-433: The result of ignorance and error rather than an inevitable consequence of human nature. He was innovative in suggesting that scientific medicine might in the future significantly extend the human life span, perhaps even indefinitely, such that future humans only die of accident, murder and suicide rather than simply old age or disease. Nick Bostrom has thus described him as an early transhumanist . Condorcet's writings were

4453-403: The roots of this study to the 13th Century Tunisian Arab Historian and Sociologist , Ibn Khaldun , for his work on making the distinction between "profit" and "sustenance", in modern political economy terms, surplus and that required for the reproduction of classes respectively. He also calls for the creation of a science to explain society and goes on to outline these ideas in his major work,

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4526-492: The rue du Havre, in the 9th arrondissement of Paris , is named in his honour, as are streets in many French cities. Political economy Political economy originated within 16th century western moral philosophy , with theoretical works exploring the administration of states' wealth; political signifying the Greek word polity and economy signifying the Greek word οἰκονομία ; household management. The earliest works of political economy are usually attributed to

4599-476: The seeming discrepancy of economic policy and economist's recommendations through the lens of transaction costs . From the mid-1990s, the field has expanded, in part aided by new cross-national data sets allowing tests of hypotheses on comparative economic systems and institutions. Topics have included the breakup of nations, the origins and rate of change of political institutions in relation to economic growth , development , financial markets and regulation,

4672-409: The term "positive political economy" is common. Other "traditional" topics include analysis of such public policy issues as economic regulation , monopoly , rent-seeking , market protection , institutional corruption and distributional politics. Empirical analysis includes the influence of elections on the choice of economic policy, determinants and forecasting models of electoral outcomes,

4745-427: The welfare of children they have fathered, both legitimate and illegitimate and women's right to seek divorce. He also advocated for the criminalization of rape, declaring that it “violates the property which everyone has in her person”. Scholars often disagree on the true impact that Condorcet's work had on pre-modern feminist thinking. His detractors point out that, when he was eventually given some responsibilities in

4818-416: Was appointed inspector general of the Paris mint by Turgot. From this point on, Condorcet shifted his focus from the purely mathematical to philosophy and political matters. In the following years, he took up the defense of human rights in general, and of women's and Blacks' rights in particular (an abolitionist , he became active in the Society of the Friends of the Blacks in the 1780s). He supported

4891-418: Was at the insistence of Condorcet and Cabanis, who wished to protect their property from expropriation and to provide financially for Sophie and their young daughter, Louise 'Eliza' Alexandrine. During his time in hiding, Condorcet penned a poignant letter to his daughter, who was then a toddler, offering his advice and wisdom to her as she grows to become an adult. The letter stands as a testament, not only for

4964-809: Was born in Ribemont (in present-day Aisne ), descended from the ancient family of Caritat, who took their title from the town of Condorcet in Dauphiné , of which they were long-time residents. Fatherless at a young age, he was taken care of by his devoutly religious mother who dressed him as a girl till age eight. He was educated at the Jesuit College in Reims and at the Collège de Navarre in Paris, where he quickly showed his intellectual ability and gained his first public distinctions in mathematics . When he

5037-413: Was branded a traitor. On 3 October 1793, a warrant was issued for Condorcet's arrest. The warrant forced Condorcet into hiding. He hid for some months in the house of Mme. Vernet in Paris, where he wrote Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrès de l'esprit humain ( Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Spirit ), which was published posthumously in 1795 and is considered one of

5110-544: Was elected to the Académie royale des Sciences . In 1772, he published another paper on integral calculus . Soon after, he met Jacques Turgot , a French economist, and the two became friends. Turgot became an administrator under King Louis XV in 1772 and Controller-General of Finance under Louis XVI in 1774. Condorcet worked with Leonhard Euler and Benjamin Franklin . He soon became an honorary member of many foreign academies and philosophic societies, including

5183-425: Was not made to last and that revolutionary institutions were not intended to prolong the revolutionary experience but to establish political rules and legal mechanisms that would insure future changes without revolution. In a democratic city there would be no Bastille to be seized. Public education would form free and responsible citizens, not revolutionaries. Rothschild (2001) argues that Condorcet has been seen since

5256-422: Was sixteen, his analytical abilities gained the praise of Jean le Rond d'Alembert and Alexis Clairaut ; soon, Condorcet would study under d'Alembert. From 1765 to 1774, he focused on science. In 1765, he published his first work on mathematics, entitled Essai sur le calcul intégral , which was well received, launching his career as a mathematician. He went on to publish more papers, and on 25 February 1769, he

5329-430: Was the source of servitude. Citizens had to be provided with the necessary knowledge to exercise their freedom and understand the rights and laws that guaranteed their enjoyment. Although education could not eliminate disparities in talent, all citizens, including women, had the right to free education. In opposition to those who relied on revolutionary enthusiasm to form the new citizens, Condorcet maintained that revolution

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