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169-524: The South African Wars , including but also known as the Confederation Wars , were a series of wars that occurred in the southern portion of the African continent between 1879 and 1915. Ethnic, political, and social tensions between European colonial powers and indigenous Africans led to increasing hostilities, culminating in a series of wars and revolts, which had lasting repercussions on

338-634: A British-ruled confederation. This led the British Governor and High Commissioner for Southern Africa , Henry Bartle Frere (in office 1877–1880) to use the outbreak of fighting to overthrow both the Gcaleka Xhosa state (1877–1878) and the Cape Government (February 1878). The outbreak initially involved tensions and violence between Gcaleka Xhosa and Cape Mfengu police. The conflict rapidly escalated when Bartle Frere declared

507-663: A bit of manoeuvring, Jameson told Lobengula that he was going to inform Rhodes of his decision to keep the "road" closed. Lobengula's reply to this was that he had "not refused you the road, but let Rhodes come." Using this and reports that the Boers were making expeditions into Mashonaland, the High Commissioner could not prevent the force from moving into the territory. Johnson had his "pioneers" at camp, preparing to cross. Rhodes insisted that he take prominent Cape members with him in case they were cut off, his reason being that

676-587: A bitter dispute with the Liberals, who sought to institute a system of responsible government modeled on that of Britain. Bismarck, who strongly opposed that demand, managed to deflect the pressure by embarking energetically and successfully on the unification of Germany . The Liberals, who were also strong German nationalists, backed Bismarck's unification efforts and tacitly accepted that the Constitution of Imperial Germany, crafted by Bismarck, did not include

845-591: A captured royal widow, Nyamabezana, to the rebels, stating that if they waved a white flag, it would be a sign for peace, for the cost of the war was becoming too much for the British South Africa Company. Ultimately, Rhodes rode with several others to meet the rebels. After meeting with them and compromising to meet their demands Rhodes met with other Ndebele leaders, and the details of the agreement were finished in October. The exact causes of

1014-603: A far larger continuous wave of change and conflict in the region, beginning with the Confederation Wars of the 1870s and 80s, escalating with the rise of Cecil Rhodes and the struggle for control of southern Africa's gold and diamonds and more, and leading up to the Second Anglo-Boer War and the establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910. As European powers – particularly Dutch Boers and

1183-462: A former viceregal consort of Canada , penned a piece for The Globe and Mail on 11 March 2023 lamenting that the country does not celebrate that date in 1848, which Saul regards as "the day on which we became a democracy—a continuous democracy" and such lack of observance perpetuates the misconceived identity of Canada as a new country. Prior to European colonisation, the Australian continent

1352-638: A large number of French Huguenot refugees who resettled there after fleeing religious persecution at home. Some of the existing colonists had become semi-nomadic pastoralists known as trekboers who frequently ventured beyond the Cape's frontier. This led to an expansion of the colony's borders and clashes with the Xhosa people over pastureland in the vicinity of the Great Fish River . Beginning in 1818, thousands of British immigrants were introduced by

1521-633: A merging of populations in East and South Africa . Homo naledi likely coexisted with modern humans in Africa about 300,000 years ago. The Kingdom of Mapungubwe (c. 1075–c. 1220) was one of the earliest state in the South African region. It was located at between the Shashe and Limpopo Rivers. The name is derived from either TjiKalanga and Tshivenda . The kingdom is thought to have existed as

1690-600: A military coup d'état known as the Rum Rebellion deposed Governor Bligh and briefly established military rule over the Colony of New South Wales until a new Governor ( Lachlan Macquarie ) was appointed and sent from Britain. This did not aid in establishing responsible or representative government. The early colonists, coming mostly from the United Kingdom (which by 1801 included Ireland), were familiar with

1859-407: A military success. By this time Kitchener had built an army of 250,000 troops, built 8000 blockhouses, and had 3,700 miles (6,000 km) of commandos (???). He also changed his tactics towards women and children. Rather than packing them off to concentration camps, he told his troops to leave them where they found them, so that the burden of taking care of them fell on the Boers. This further pushed

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2028-761: A more balanced representation of members of the Legislative Assembly to the Executive Council and ceded more powers to that body. In the Province of Canada , responsible government was introduced when Elgin swore-in the ministry of Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine and Robert Baldwin on 11 March 1848. It was put to the test in the following year, when Reformers in the legislature passed the Rebellion Losses Bill , which provided compensation to French-Canadians who suffered losses during

2197-490: A more restrictive political system than the neighboring Cape Colony and its small (mostly British) white population had an uneasy relationship with the powerful independent Zulu Kingdom on their northern border. The Anglo-Zulu War (1879) led to the later annexation of Zululand to Natal in 1897. At the close of the South African Wars, the colony became part of the 1910 Union, and is now known as Kwazulu-Natal ,

2366-603: A policy of avoiding further annexations so as to concentrate on internal development, but the South African Wars saw it annex several surrounding regions: Griqualand East , 1874; Griqualand West , 1880; and Southern Bechuanaland , 1895. At the end of the South African Wars, the Cape Colony, Natal, Orange Free State, and the Transvaal were united. The Cape Colony became a member of the Union of South Africa in 1910, and today

2535-468: A province of South Africa. The land of indigenous Khoi and Sotho people , Basutoland was positioned between the Cape Colony, Orange Free State, and Natal. Basutoland was annexed to Britain in 1868 as Moshoeshoe I , King of the Sotho, was threatened by Free State (Boer) encroachers. Three years later it was given to the Cape Colony. In the 1870s, Basutoland was still relatively peaceful and prosperous, as

2704-574: A quick mobilisation of their commando units from each district, drawing up to 30–40,000 men. The Boers used a quick-hitting mobile style of war, based on their experiences fighting the British in the first Boer War, along with lessons learned from studying the American Civil War . Early British attempts to relieve these besieged garrisons met with mixed results. The British felt that the war would be ended quickly. They were ill-prepared to face

2873-592: A responsible government – the Chancellor being accountable solely to the emperor and needing no parliamentary confidence. Germany gained a responsible government only with the Weimar Republic and more securely with the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany . Historians account the lack of responsible government in the formative decades of united Germany as one of the factors contributing to

3042-401: A robust mining sector and comparatively developed secondary and tertiary sectors . Additionally many countries (with the exception of Mozambique and Malawi in particular) have relatively well developed infrastructure. Some of its main exports including platinum , diamonds , gold , copper , cobalt , chromium and uranium , Southern Africa still faces some of the problems that the rest of

3211-653: A semi-nomadic nation of mixed Khoi and Boer origins, moved north to lands just north of the Cape, east of southern Bechuanaland, and west of the Orange Free State, being led by Adam Kok I. This new land was established as Griqualand West by Andries Waterboer . When diamonds were discovered in the area, an influx of Whites overwhelmed the Griqua, leading to annexation by the British in 1871, and forcing 2000 Griqua to trek east from 1871 to 1872. Eventually, they established Griqualand East in 1873, only to be annexed

3380-431: A series of victories, and in the final 1884 peace agreement, it was returned to indirect rule, with the British preserving indigenous rule with the intent of exploiting the state's agricultural resources. At the end of the South African Wars, still under British rule, attempts to incorporate it into the 1910 Union of South Africa failed. As a result of the disagreement, Basutoland became one of three colonies left outside of

3549-416: A shadow government of executives or advisors and attempt to use them as instruments of government, or to rely upon their unofficial advice. They generally are not permitted to take any action under the color of their executive power without that action being as a result of the counsel and advisement of their responsible ministers. Common exceptions to this rule include emergency or wartime acts of necessity and

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3718-500: A siege of more than a month. On the day he was taken prisoner, Chief Malaboch twice attempted suicide by jumping into a fire, but both attempts at suicide failed. He was tried by a council of war on 2 August 1894 and was found guilty on all charges. He was never sentenced but kept prisoner of war until his release by the British authorities in 1900 during the Second Anglo-Boer War . The chief returned to his people and ruled until his death in 1939. When Jameson's forces had been defeated by

3887-407: A small population of European ( Afrikaner , British , Portuguese Africans , etc.) and Asian descent ( Cape Malays , Indian South Africans , etc.) people in many southern African countries. Further information in the sections of Architecture of Africa : Further information in the sections of History of science and technology in Africa : Some key factors affecting the food security within

4056-510: A system of non-racial franchise – unusual in the restrictive world of the 19th century – whereby voters all qualified for the vote equally, regardless of race, on the basis of land ownership. In practice, however, it remained a European-dominated state, although in 1872 it succeeded in gaining a degree of independence from the British Empire when it successfully instituted a system of responsible government . Its government at first pursued

4225-601: A wrong turn. They made camp under the Pukunyoni until 28 May 1906, when scouts were shot at by a Zulu impi marching toward the camp. After returning with the news of the approaching Zulu, the camp prepared itself for attack. The Zulu made an initial rush but were turned away. Using a herd of cattle as cover, the Zulu drove the herd through the North-East corner of the camp, with many Zulu being shot only 5 yards (4.6 m) from

4394-505: Is a major food producer and exporter in the region. Data on agricultural production trends and food insecurity especially in term of food availability for Southern Africa is readily available through the Famine Early Warning Systems Network ( FEWS NET ) and Southern African Development Community ( SADC ) - Food, Agriculture and Nature Resource Directorate (FARN). However, this data might not fully capture

4563-656: Is divided between three of the modern provinces of South Africa. These wars took place in the home of the native Northern Sotho 's. There were three separate campaigns against Sekhukhune , Paramount King of Bapedi i.e., the First Sekhukhune War of 1876 conducted by the Boers , and the two separate campaigns of the Second Sekhukhune War of 1876-1879 conducted by the British. Sekhukhune considered Sekhukhuneland to be independent and not subject to

4732-473: Is only limited data on the other Southern African countries. From 2018 to 2021, parts of the region suffered from a period of drought . Responsible government Responsible government is a conception of a system of government that embodies the principle of parliamentary accountability , the foundation of the Westminster system of parliamentary democracy . Governments (the equivalent of

4901-569: Is the dominant economy of the region. Generally, mining, agriculture, the public sector and tourism dominate the economies of Southern African countries, apart from South Africa which has mature and flourishing financial, retail, and construction sectors. Zimbabwe maintains a smaller banking and real estate sector along with what remains of its manufacturing industry, despite a protracted economic crisis . Most global banks have their regional offices for Southern Africa based in Johannesburg . Over

5070-468: Is the notion that the Dominion of Newfoundland "gave up responsible government" when it suspended its self-governing status in 1933, as a result of financial problems. It did not regain responsible government until it became a province of Canada in 1949. Following the formation of elected legislative assemblies, starting with Nova Scotia in 1758, governors and their executive councils did not require

5239-548: The 1967 Australian referendum , the federal government was allowed to count Indigenous Australians in the census, and to ensure that their voting rights were respected across the country. The Cape Colony , in Southern Africa, was under responsible self-government from 1872 until 1910 when it became the Cape Province of the new Union of South Africa . Under its previous system of representative government ,

South African Wars (1879–1915) - Misplaced Pages Continue

5408-709: The American Revolutionary War and was threatened in the Rebellions of 1837–1838 in Canada. The government first established appointed or partially elected Legislative Councils. William Wentworth among other prominent colonists in this time advocated for the introduction of responsible government in the Australian colonies. Violence erupted in the Colony of Victoria during the 1850s, where there

5577-517: The British South Africa Company the opportunity to begin mining the land in safety. This plan would never go into effect after Rhodes' discussion with Fred Selous, who warned him that this would be a monumental disaster for traders and England itself. Rhodes' decision, based on Selous' advice, was to move around Lobengula and make for a different route to Mashonaland from the south around Mount Hampden. Johnson's new mission

5746-602: The Bushveld basin into South Africa. This extends southwest through the Witwatersrand and Northern Cape of South Africa toward the southern coast. Mining activity exists across the eastern region. Diamond mining is found in parts of Botswana and along the Namibian coast. Coal can also be found in central Mozambique, Zimbabwe and northeast South Africa. The climate of the region is broadly divided into subtropical in

5915-529: The Cape Colony continued at a steady pace until a renewed attempt to extend British control over the hinterland caused the outbreak of the Anglo-Boer Wars in 1899. An important feature of the Cape Colony under responsible government was that it was the only state in southern Africa (and one of very few in the world at the time) to have a non-racial system of voting . Later however – following

6084-589: The Comoros , Eswatini , Lesotho , Madagascar , Malawi , Mauritius , Mozambique , Namibia , South Africa , Zambia , and Zimbabwe . In cultural geography , the island country of Madagascar is often not included due to its distinct language and cultural heritage. In physical geography , the geographical delineation for the subregion is the portion of Africa south of the Cunene and Zambezi Rivers: Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, Zimbabwe, and

6253-521: The Constitutional Act 1791 . Many reformers thought that these assemblies should have some control over the executive power, leading to political unrest between the governors and assemblies in both Upper and Lower Canada. The Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada, Sir Francis Bond Head , wrote in one dispatch to London that, if responsible government were implemented, "democracy, in the worst possible form, will prevail in our colonies." After

6422-555: The Gun War and Ngcayechibi's War were caused in part by the imposition of new federation-inspired policies on the Cape and its neighbors. Exacerbating these conflicts was the effects of the discovery of diamonds around Kimberley and gold in the Transvaal . These led to enormous social upheaval and instability. Crucially, they fueled the rise to power of the ambitious imperialist Cecil Rhodes . When he succeeded in gaining power as

6591-626: The Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada in the Nova Scotia House of Assembly reads: First Responsible Government in the British Empire. The first executive council chosen exclusively from the party having a majority in the representative branch of a colonial legislature was formed in Nova Scotia on 2 February 1848. Following a vote of want of confidence in the preceding council, James Boyle Uniacke , who had moved

6760-639: The Indian Ocean on the coast of Mozambique . Along the way, it flows over Victoria Falls on the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe . Victoria Falls is one of the largest waterfalls in the world and a major tourist attraction for the region. Southern Africa includes both subtropical and temperate climates, with the Tropic of Capricorn running through the middle of the region, dividing it into its subtropical and temperate halves. Countries commonly included in Southern Africa include Angola , Botswana ,

6929-524: The Rebellions of 1837–1838 in the Canadas , the Earl of Durham was appointed governor general of British North America, with the task of examining the issues and determining how to defuse tensions. In his report , one of his recommendations was colonies that were developed enough should be granted "responsible government". This term specifically meant the policy that British-appointed governors should bow to

South African Wars (1879–1915) - Misplaced Pages Continue

7098-603: The South Africa Act 1909 to form the Union of South Africa – this multi-racial universal suffrage was steadily eroded, and eventually abolished by the Apartheid government in 1948. The following is a list of British colonies, and the year when responsible government was established in the territory: In the early 1860s, the Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck was involved in

7267-580: The South African Republic (ZAR) Government as he refused to pay tax. The authorities took action through forced removal, which ultimately resulted in the "Malaboch War", with the chief and his subjects defending their territory. As it became evident that the Bahananwa people were losing the war against the soldiers of Commandant-General Piet Joubert , they began surrendering, and subsequently their chief followed suit, on 31 July 1894, after

7436-832: The Transvaal Republic and refused to allow miners from the Pilgrim's Rest goldfields to prospect on his side of the Steelpoort River . The inability of the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek (ZAR; 'Transvaal Republic') under President Francois Burgers to score a decided victory in the Sekhukhune War, presented the opportunity to the British to annex Transvaal in 1877. Soon afterward, Britain declared war against Sekhukhune , Paramount King of Bapedi . After three unsuccessful attempts, he

7605-408: The Westminster system and made efforts to reform local government in order to increase the opportunity for ordinary men to participate. The Governors and London therefore set in motion a gradual process of establishing a Westminster system in the colonies. They did not want to get ahead of population or economic growth, nor be so slow as to provoke clamouring for revolutionary change as had happened in

7774-469: The colonial territories led to the independence of new states of Angola and Mozambique as well as Southern Rhodesia , which declared independence as Zimbabwe in 1980. The denouement of South West Africa achieved independence as Namibia in 1990 and the black majority in South Africa took power after the democratic elections in 1994 , therefore ending the Apartheid regime. From the end of

7943-696: The executive branch ) in Westminster democracies are responsible to parliament rather than to the monarch, or, in a colonial context, to the imperial government, and in a republican context, to the president, either in full or in part . If the parliament is bicameral , then the government is usually responsible first to the parliament's lower house , which is more representative than the upper house , as it usually has more members and they are always directly elected . Responsible government of parliamentary accountability manifests itself in several ways. Ministers account to Parliament for their decisions and for

8112-548: The "9th Frontier War" or the "Fengu-Gcaleka War"). One was the onset of the worst drought in the region's recorded history, and as the historian de Kiewiet memorably noted: "In South Africa, the heat of drought easily becomes the fever of war." The devastating droughts across the Transkei threatened the relative peace which had prevailed for the previous decade. They started in 1875 in Gcalekaland and spread to other parts of

8281-525: The "native problem" from the borders of the Boer Transvaal had unintended adverse consequences. The removal of British focus from its Boer issues allowed the Boers to concentrate on the continued British control of the Transvaal. General Wolseley was openly against any notion of Boer independence and issued statements that gatherings in protest of the British rule could lead to prosecution for treason. The Boers continued to push for their independence, to

8450-485: The 175th anniversary of the implementation of responsible government in the province. In his remarks, the King said: I am delighted to have the opportunity to recognize the 175th anniversary of Nova Scotia's establishment of the system of responsible government, which has become a cornerstone of Canadian democracy. It was in the drawing room at Government House , Halifax, where Lieutenant Governor Sir John Harvey swore in

8619-670: The 1820s between Shaka's half-brothers Dingane and Mhlangana due to a succession dispute. Boer settlers began arriving northwards of the Orange River in the 1830s, which led to conflicts between the two peoples and resulted in the Battle of Blood River in 1838. The kingdom fell during the Anglo-Zulu War of the late 19th-century. In the aftermath of World War II , the colonial powers came under international pressure to decolonize. The transfer to an African majority, however,

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8788-415: The 1960s, while Western Australia barred Aboriginal people unless they successfully applied to become citizens. As a result, most Aboriginal people across the country were prevented from voting, including those who in theory had the right. Later, the 1962 Commonwealth Electoral Act gave all Aboriginal people the option to enroll to vote, but still most were not able to exercise their rights. After passage of

8957-454: The 1990s these industries have struggled in the face of globalization and cheaper imports from China , leading to job losses particularly in heavy industry , gold mining and textiles . Zimbabwe in particular has seen significant deindustrialization as a result of factors both domestic and foreign. While colonialism has left its mark on the development over the course of history, today poverty , corruption , and HIV / AIDS are some of

9126-552: The 19th century, the United Kingdom began to introduce systems of responsible government to the colonial governments of its settler colonies including in Canada, Newfoundland, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. These systems were strongly based upon the system that had historically developed in the United Kingdom, with a bicameral legislature and an executive responsible to the Lower House. Responsible government

9295-688: The Australian Commonwealth Government in 1911. It then lost responsible self-government (although residents could still vote in federal elections) and did not gain it back until 1974. Likewise, the Australian Capital Territory was originally part of New South Wales. It was transferred to the Commonwealth Government in 1911 and lost responsible self-government until 1989. White female suffrage (then considered universal suffrage)

9464-441: The Australian colonies, which had their own regional agitators for change. South Australia was quick to pass universal male suffrage, and Victoria and New South Wales followed soon after. By the end of the 1850s, all the Australian colonies and New Zealand had achieved responsible self-government. Only Western Australia took until 1890 to achieve this. The Northern Territory was originally part of South Australia, but transferred to

9633-399: The Bechuanaland Protectorate was one of three states which were not incorporated into the 1910 Union of South Africa. It gained its independence in 1966 as the modern state of Botswana . In the 1870s, there were two Griqualands – West and East – both founded by the Griqua people who had moved out of the Cape Colony in the early 19th century due mainly to racial discrimination. The Griqua,

9802-505: The Boer colonization, there were indigenous groups like the Sotho, San, and various Nguni clans in the Free State area. In the 1870s the Free State Boers began moving into Griqualand West in search of farmland, pushing the Griqua out. However, they did not officially incorporate the land, which came to be disputed by Britain as well as the Griquas themselves. In 1890, there were approximately 77,000 whites and 128,000 Africans (many were servants working on white farms). In 1900, Bloemfontein ,

9971-458: The Boers began shooting at the scouts and dispatch riders as spies. The Boers also employed black men during the war, who mostly helped with digging defensive emplacements and roads for the transport of weaponry. They served in this capacity primarily during the initial conventional phase of the war. The Second Boer War consisted of three phases. It began with a Boer offensive to besiege the garrisons at Ladysmith , Mafeking , and Kimberley , after

10140-422: The Boers towards negotiations. Negotiations for ending the war began in April 1902. Proposals were sent back and forth and rejected by both sides as being unreasonable. At times it looked as if the negotiations would fail, and the war would continue. The Boers were granted some concessions on the treatment of Cape Afrikaner rebels and the rights of the black Africans. Perhaps the most surprising thing to come out of

10309-441: The Boers were initially cowed, but then began covertly scaling the hill from the north, reaching the Highlander lines and attacking. The Highlanders attempted on separate occasions to warn Colley of the attack, but he ignored the reports. Colley was killed in the final assault, as the British lines fractured from a lack of leadership. This defeat shocked the British in South Africa and in the home islands. While many demanded vengeance,

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10478-503: The Boers, the Ndebele saw an opportunity to revolt. In March 1896, the whites were attacked first at outlying farms, mining camps, and stores. As people fled, and when word reached Bulawayo, the capital, people began to panic and rush for arms. Since the Ndebele had first attacked on the outskirts the element of surprise had passed and allowed time for the whites to gather and manoeuvre. As volunteers arrived, Rhodes came from Fort Salisbury and, after naming himself colonel, rode into combat with

10647-403: The Boers. He pushed into and captured the Orange Free State in May 1900 and then pushed into the Transvaal to capture Johannesburg on 31 May. Roberts declared the war over after the capture of the Orange Free State and Johannesburg , announcing the formation of the Transvaal Colony and the Orange River Colony , incorporated in 1902. It was at this point that the Boers, initially demoralised by

10816-415: The British army, continuing the scorched-earth policy. He believed that women served as a source of intelligence for the Boers, so he put them in concentration camps . Additionally, he set up blockhouses and barbed wire fences to restrict the Boers to a certain area. In January 1901, Kitchener raided the countryside, putting Africans and Boer civilians into concentration camps. When he learned that Louis Botha

10985-455: The British defeat led to a desire of the British to crush the Zulu and dismantle their nation. After five months of fighting, the British used their technological advantage as a vast force multiplier and destroyed Cetshwayo's last remaining forces at the Battle of Ulundi . The British brought in General Sir Garnet Wolseley as a new proconsul to wrap up the "native problems" surrounding the Boer Transvaal. The British success in removing much of

11154-434: The British quietly conducted a settlement that gave the Boers independence with only nominal lip service paid to the authority of the Crown in an effort to allow the British to withdraw "with minimum embarrassment". The invasion was predicated on the desire of Cecil Rhodes and Britain to pursue further land north through Bechuanaland into Matabeleland. Despite numerous envoys and letters from Queen Victoria to Lobengula , of

11323-504: The British to withdraw all troops from their borders and recall their reinforcements, or they would "regard the action as a formal declaration of war." Over time, the war has come to be viewed as a "White Man’s War." Recent scholarship has exposed this as untrue. Black people were used on both sides, primarily in non-combat roles, as labourers. The British employed armed black men as scouts or dispatch riders, and were going to employ unarmed black scouts, but decided to continue arming them when

11492-542: The British took control of the Transvaal in 1877. However, the British proved to care more about placating the Boers than they did concerning themselves with the Zulu priorities. When the Zulu began pressuring them, the British under Sir Theophilus Shepstone , the Natal Secretary for Native Affairs, turned against the Zulu and Shepstone began cabling London that Cetshwayo's regime needed to be removed and Zululand annexed. In July 1878, High Commissioner Henry Bartle Frere , using Shepstone's assurance, began claiming that Natal

11661-447: The British – began to claim parts of southern Africa , it became apparent that expansion was imperative in order to maintain their political positions. The relationships and boundaries among them became exceedingly more complex, affecting not only themselves but the indigenous African peoples and the land itself. By 1880, there were four dominant European regions. The Cape Colony and Natal were to some degree under British control, and

11830-429: The British, who were officially granted possession of the Cape by the Netherlands in 1815. At this time, the Cape Colony encompassed 100,000 square miles (260,000 km) and was populated by about 26,720 people of European descent, a relative majority of whom were still of Dutch origin. The remainder were descended from German soldiers and sailors in the service of the Dutch East India Company's former administration and

11999-509: The Cape Parliament, and becoming the Cape's first Prime Minister . The ensuing period saw an economic recovery, a massive growth in exports and an expansion of the colony's frontiers. Despite political complications that arose from time to time (such as an ill-fated scheme by the British Colonial Office to enforce a confederation in Southern Africa in 1878, and tensions with the Afrikaner -dominated Government of Transvaal over trade and railroad construction), economic and social progress in

12168-488: The Cape Prime Minister, he instigated a rapid expansion of British influence into the hinterland. In particular, he sought to engineer the conquest of the Transvaal, and although his ill-fated Jameson Raid failed and brought down his government, it led to the Second Anglo-Boer War and British conquest at the turn of the century. Several factors contributed to the outbreak of Ngcayechibi's War (also known as

12337-691: The Confederation plan of the British Colonial Secretary, the Earl of Carnarvon , and the disastrous attempts to enforce it. This scheme was intended to forge the diverse states of southern Africa into one single British-controlled federation. This was strongly resisted by the Cape Colony , the Boer republics, and the independent African States. The Anglo-Zulu War and First Anglo-Boer War resulted from these attempts at annexation, while

12506-465: The Imperial Forces would be more likely to rescue well to-do members of the Cape than miners. While the pioneer column moved out of camp and was preparing to cross, false assurances were being sent to Lobengula about the number of white men in his country. However, Lobengula did not attack and the column, after the 360-mile (580 km) journey, arrived at Mount Hampden on 12 September and named

12675-807: The June–August rainfall maximum in the western cape. Year-to-year variability in rainfall, including drought, is associated with changes in global and regional sea surface temperatures . These include the El Nino Southern Oscillation , the Subtropical Indian Ocean Dipole , and changes in the Benguela Current region in the southeast Atlantic. Future climate projections suggest that much of southern Africa will get hotter and drier in response to global climate change. East and southern Africa are among

12844-629: The Matabele nation, no progress had been made on the opening the "road". In December 1889, Cecil Rhodes took matters into his own hands by contracting Frank Johnson and Maurice Haney to recruit 500 mercenaries to overthrow Lobengula. Rhodes wanted to strike the main towns and military posts to cause turmoil in the Matabele (or Ndebele ) nation. He also wanted to remove the power of the Amandebele to raid nearby villages and wanted to send their state into general confusion. Rhodes believed this would give

13013-727: The Ministers of the Cape Government reported directly to the British Imperial Governor , and not to the locally elected representatives in the Cape Parliament . Among Cape citizens of all races, growing anger at their powerlessness in influencing unpopular imperial decisions had repeatedly led to protests and rowdy political meetings – especially during the early " Convict Crisis " of the 1840s. A popular political movement for responsible government soon emerged, under local leader John Molteno . A protracted struggle

13182-599: The Orange Free State. The British were not prepared for this type of tactic, having an insufficient number of mounted troops and no intelligence personnel. They moved against the civilian population that supported the Boers, burning their houses and barns. Nonetheless, support for the Boers remained strong. To deal with families wandering across the countryside without shelter, the British decided to set up what they considered to be refugee camps, in September 1900. In December 1900 Herbert Kitchener of Khartoum took over command of

13351-676: The Rebellions of 1837–1838. Elgin had serious misgivings about the bill, but, nonetheless assented to it, despite demands from the Tories that he refuse to do so. Elgin was physically assaulted by an English-speaking mob for this and the parliament building in Montreal was burned to the ground in the ensuing riots . Nonetheless, the Rebellion Losses Bill helped entrench responsible government into Canadian politics. In time,

13520-817: The SADC region and ensures sustainable energy developments through sound economic, environmental and social practices. The main objective of the power pool is to develop a world class, robust and safe interconnected electrical system across the Southern African Region. According to a report by Southern Africa Power Pool, the three largest producers of electricity in Southern Africa as at 2017, include Eskom in South Africa with an estimated 46,963MW, Zesco in Zambia with 2,877MW and SNL of Angola with 2,442MW. Whilst moderately successful by African standards,

13689-478: The Second Anglo-Boer War in 1899 have been disputed ever since the events took place. Fault for the war has been placed on both sides, for different reasons. The Boers felt that the British intention was to again annex the Transvaal. Some feel that the British were coerced into war by the mining magnates; others that the British government manipulated the magnates into creating conditions that allowed

13858-527: The Shangani River and asked that they give all hidden gold to the white men to have peace. Ultimately, the gold was given to men that the messengers came across, and never did reach Jameson or his troops. Matabeleland was ultimately divided among the volunteers and several of Rhodes' officials. In April 1894, Chief Malaboch (Mmaleboho, Mmaleboxo) of the Bahananwa (Xananwa) people refused to leave his traditional mountain kingdom of Blouberg as ordered by

14027-663: The South African border. There are numerous environmental issues in Southern Africa , including air pollution and desertification . Southern Africa is home to many people. It was initially populated by San , Hottentots and Pygmies in widely dispersed concentrations. Due to the Bantu expansion , the majority of African ethnic groups in this region, including the Xhosa , Zulu , Tsonga , Swazi , Northern Ndebele , Southern Ndebele , Tswana , Sotho , Pedi , Mbundu , Ovimbundu , Shona , Chaga and Sukuma , speak Bantu languages . The process of colonization and settling resulted in

14196-679: The Transkei and Basutoland, also to the Cape Colony-controlled Ciskei. In 1877 ethnic tensions began to emerge, particularly between the Mfengu , the Thembu , and the Gcaleka Xhosa. Another factor was centuries of oppression and disaffection, brought to a head by the attempt by the new British Colonial Secretary, the Earl of Carnarvon (in office 1866–1867 and 1874–1878), to force the varied states of southern Africa into

14365-531: The Transvaal (South African Republic) and Orange Free State were independent republics controlled by the Boers . These colonies and their political leaders were the most important and influential of the time, and all were eventually dissolved into the singular Union of South Africa in May 1910. The Cape Colony was founded by the Dutch East India Company in 1652. In 1795, it was taken over by

14534-535: The Transvaal as a strategic attempt to prevent the combining of those two colonies, thereby allowing them access to the Great North Road . Along with the annexation of the Crown Colony in 1895, Cecil Rhodes pushed hard for the northern Protectorate but was resisted by indigenous Tswana chiefs who successfully convinced the British to halt the annexation attempt. At the end of the South African Wars,

14703-818: The UN subregion, these countries and territories are often included in Southern Africa: The Democratic Republic of the Congo is generally included in Central Africa, while Seychelles and Tanzania are more commonly associated with Eastern Africa, but these three countries have occasionally been included in Southern Africa, as they are the SADC members. The terrain of Southern Africa is varied, ranging from forest and grasslands to deserts . The region has both low-lying coastal areas, and mountains. In terms of natural resources,

14872-553: The Union – together with Bechuanaland and Swaziland. Today, Basutoland is a small independent nation called Lesotho , engulfed by South Africa. Following the Bechuanaland Expedition of 1884–85, Bechuanaland was settled by Britain in 1885, the northern area becoming the Protectorate and the southern area, the Crown Colony of British Bechuanaland. This region was constructed between German Southwest Africa and

15041-927: The United Nations geoscheme for Africa, five states constitute Southern Africa: This definition excludes other countries in the region, and instead includes the Comoros, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mayotte, Mozambique, Réunion, the Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean (as a part of the French Southern Territories ), Zambia, and Zimbabwe in Eastern Africa , Angola in Middle Africa (or Central Africa), and Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha (under

15210-596: The Western Cape in South Africa, the major rainfall season is during the southern-hemisphere summer, from December to February. In the Western Cape , the rainfall maximum occurs from June through August. There are a number of important rainfall-producing weather systems in southern Africa. These include tropical-extra-tropical cloud bands, tropical lows, and tropical cyclones , cut-off lows , and mesoscale convective systems . Winter midlatitude storms account for

15379-529: The Xhosa King deposed and resulted in the annexation of the last independent Xhosa state, and the overthrow of the Cape's elected government by the British Governor. The Confederation attempt failed, but the wars resulting from that attempt continued for decades. Foreign settlers first came into conflict with the Zulu in the 1830s as they began expanding into Zulu territory. For the majority of

15548-520: The Zambezi and Limpopo river valleys, probably due to the lower altitude. The Western Cape has a Mediterranean vegetation and climate, including the unique fynbos , grading eastward into an oceanic climate along the Garden Route to Gqeberha and East London . The Namib and Kalahari deserts form arid lands in the centre-west, separating the highlands, woodlands, croplands, and pastures of

15717-472: The area's roads. The British colonial forces overran the stockade, capturing or killing dozens of miners and bringing many to Melbourne for trial. However, mass public support led to the miners' release. Within a year, most of their demands had been met, including responsible self-government and universal male suffrage for the Colony of Victoria. The Eureka Rebellion and events in Victoria resonated around

15886-491: The biggest factors impeding economic growth. In addition, South Africa and Zimbabwe in particular, face high emigration among their skilled workers leading to a significant brain drain to western economies and billions lost in human capital flight . The pursuit of economic and political stability is an important part of the region's goals, as demonstrated by the SADC, however complete regional integration remains an elusive target. In terms of economic strength, South Africa

16055-587: The border, Jameson sent for Captain Lendy and Boer transport riders to find the Ndebele, and if they refused to leave to move them by force. When confronted, Captain Lendy followed orders and fired upon the Ndebele. After the men returned to Fort Victoria, Jameson sent word to Rhodes and Loch that they must go to war. By October, Jameson had gathered 650 volunteers and 900 Shona auxiliaries. Jameson continued to send word that Lobengula had troops planning to attack. The war

16224-643: The capital, came under British domination. At the close of the South African Wars, the Free State joined the 1910 Union of South Africa. Natal is positioned on the Indian Ocean coast of southern Africa, just northeast of the Cape Colony. Home to the indigenous Nguni and later the Zulu , the region of Natal played a key role in European colonization. First called the Natalia Republic , the territory

16393-462: The causes of the later New Zealand Wars (1845–1872) over land and governance. Maori men were granted legal suffrage in 1867 through specially reserved Maori seats . In Australia during the colonial period, some Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people may have theoretically had the right to vote in colonial elections. But, in practice they were usually unable to exercise this right: they lived traditional lifestyles in remote areas uncontacted by

16562-531: The colonial government to bolster the local European workforce and help populate the frontier as an additional defense against the Xhosa. By 1871, the Cape was by far the largest and most powerful state in the region. Its northern border had been established at the Orange River , and Britain had handed over the administration of Basutoland too. The Cape was also the only state in the region to (at least officially) give people of all race's equal rights. It implemented

16731-619: The colony, or affected by the disruption of the Frontier Wars . In addition, they often were excluded from voting by racial discrimination in practices or by property requirements. After federation, the Commonwealth Franchise Act of 1902 barred Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people from voting in federal elections unless they were already eligible to vote in their state. Queensland explicitly barred Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people from voting until

16900-431: The column. The new High Commissioner, General Sir George Pomeroy Colley , assembled units to avenge the British defeat. Colley was short on-field experience and marched against the Boer forces who were laying siege to British garrisons and demanding their surrender. His brash tactics in assaulting the Boers led to the loss of a quarter of his troops in a series of engagements in later January and early February 1881. Colley

17069-406: The concentration camps worsened, and the problem was not brought to public attention until an Englishwoman Emily Hobhouse did her own investigation and sailed back to England with the intention of exposing Kitchener for what he was permitting. The war minister, Brodick , dismissed the complaints of Hobhouse and her supporters in parliament, stating that it was Boer guerilla tactics that had led to

17238-466: The conflict to a head was the seizure of a farm wagon over tax dues. The Boers held that the British seizure was illegal because they had never recognized the annexation of the Transvaal. 5,000 Boers assembled at a farm on 8 December and began deliberating a course of action. On 13 December they proclaimed the Transvaal's independence and intent to establish a republican government, raising the Vierkleur,

17407-685: The consent of elected legislators in order to carry out all their roles. It was only in the decades leading up to Canadian Confederation in 1867 that the governing councils of those British North American colonies became responsible to the elected representatives of the people. In the aftermath of the American Revolution , sparked by the perceived shortcomings of virtual representation , the British government became more sensitive to unrest in its remaining colonies with large populations of European-descended colonists. Elected assemblies were introduced to both Upper Canada and Lower Canada with

17576-483: The constitution, it transpired only after nearly twenty years in 1872 when the so-called 'responsibles' under Molteno were able to command sufficient support in both houses to secure the passage of the necessary bill." Finally, with a parliamentary majority and with the Colonial Office and new Governor Henry Barkly won over, Molteno instituted responsible government, making the Ministers directly responsible to

17745-444: The continent does. Despite this, diamond production has fueled the economies of Botswana and Namibia, for example. Over the 20th century, the region developed a robust manufacturing sector, focused on South Africa and Zimbabwe, which allowed greater prosperity and investments into infrastructure, education and healthcare that elevated both nations into middle income economies and captured growing markets across Africa. However, since

17914-521: The countryside, and while he was out, the Zulu surrounded the remaining forces at Isandlwana and slaughtered the majority of the British troops who had remained. It was one of the worst defeats in the history of the British Army. On 23 January, the Battle of Rorke's Drift , stationed with 150 men at an isolated outpost, repelled a huge force of Zulu tribes commanded by Prince Dabulamanzi kaMpande , achieving an improbable British victory. The shock of

18083-505: The defence line. The rest were then driven back or withdrew. The Zulu continued to fire on the camp from a "very bushy" hillside about 300 yards (270 m) away. Several troops were killed and wounded. Southern Africa Defined by physical geography , Southern Africa is home to a number of river systems; the Zambezi River is the most prominent. The Zambezi flows from the northwest corner of Zambia and western Angola to

18252-433: The devil". Supporters believed that the most effective means of instituting responsible government was simply to change the section of the constitution which prevented government officials from being elected to parliament or members of parliament from serving in executive positions. The conflict therefore centred on the changing of this specific section. "Although responsible government merely required an amendment to s.79 of

18421-414: The earliest regions where modern humans (Homo sapiens) and their predecessors are believed to have lived. In September 2019, scientists reported the computerized determination, based on 260 CT scans , of a virtual skull shape of the last common human ancestor to modern humans , representative of the earliest modern humans, and suggested that modern humans arose between 350,000 and 260,000 years ago through

18590-738: The entire region. A key factor behind the growth of these tensions was the pursuit of commerce and resources, both by countries and individuals, especially following the discoveries of gold in the region in 1862 and diamonds in 1867. Conflicts such as the First and Second Boer Wars , the Anglo-Zulu War , the Sekhukhune Wars , the Basotho Gun War , the Xhosa Wars , and other concurrent conflicts are typically considered separate events. However, they have also been viewed as outbreaks in

18759-600: The expansion of supermarkets in the region, which is changing the way people obtain food in the city, rural-to-urban migration, unemployment, and poverty. The issue of food insecurity in general and urban food insecurity in particular in the region is also characterized by an increased consumption of caloric junk food and processed foods leading to potential increase in the co-existence of undernutrition and dietary-related chronic diseases such as obesity and hypertension. In South Africa for example, while over 50% experience hunger, 61% are overweight or morbidly obese. There

18928-487: The first class-based social system within the region. Society was mainly centered around family and farming. The kingdom would culminate to the Kingdom of Zimbabwe in the 13th century. And at its height the capital's population was about 5000 people. There are no written records from the kingdom and what historians and archeologists know of the state is from the remains of buildings. The Kingdom of Zimbabwe (c. 1220–1450)

19097-588: The first democratically elected [ sic ] cabinet in Canada's history. In 2014, as Prince of Wales, I had the great privilege of being sworn into the Queen's Privy Council for Canada in the very same room. At the time, I was struck by the historic setting and profound significance in the history of Canada and the Commonwealth and, as you reflect on and celebrate this important milestone, I wanted to send you my warmest best wishes. John Ralston Saul ,

19266-522: The first permanent European settlement in Australia at Port Jackson . The settlers gradually expanded across the continent, displacing the indigenous population, until they had established six colonies; the legal system of these colonies were based on the common law system. At first, the Australian colonies were run by autocratic governors. They were appointed by the British monarch , but in practice

19435-431: The following year by Britain. Griqualand East was positioned between the Cape Colony and Natal on the eastern coast. At this point, the whites considered the Griqua as part of the bigger Coloureds group. Swaziland , Zululand , Portuguese East Africa , German Southwest Africa , Matabeleland (now Zimbabwe ). The first series of wars, the "Confederation Wars" in the late 1870s and early 1880s, were due in large part to

19604-407: The governors exercised vast executive and legislative powers with very little oversight. Several factors influenced this: most of these early colonies were penal colonies, they were at a great distance from the United Kingdom and communication was slow. In addition the continent was of enormous size and the Australian colonies were largely unexplored by Europeans and sparsely settled by them. In 1808

19773-408: The granting of certain state honours. Their ministers are required to counsel them (i.e., explain to them and be sure they understand any issue that they will be called upon to decide) and to form and have recommendations for them (i.e., their advice or advisement) to choose from, which are the ministers' formal, reasoned recommendations as to what course of action should be taken. From the middle of

19942-619: The granting of responsible government became the first step on the road to complete independence. Canada gradually gained greater autonomy through inter imperial and Commonwealth diplomacy, including the British North America Act, 1867 ; the Statute of Westminster, 1931 ; and the patriation of the Constitution Act, 1982 . Charles III , King of Canada , sent a message to Nova Scotians on 2 February 2023 to mark

20111-462: The hill of Spion Kop . While the British won this battle, they belatedly realised that the hill was over-watched by Boer gun emplacements and suffered heavy casualties. Buller suffered another defeat at Vaal Krantz and was relieved as commander of British forces over questions of his management of the war. His replacement was Field Marshal Lord Frederick Roberts . Roberts won a series of battles by committing overwhelming numbers of British forces against

20280-484: The immediate disbanding of the Zulu army and abolishment of the Zulu military system in 30 days to remove Cetshwayo's base of power. Chelmsford crossed the Blood River on 11 January 1879 with 4,700 men and set up camp at Isandlwana . They neglected any defensive formations around their camp due to Chelmsford's feelings that a Zulu assault was unlikely. He took the main part of his force from camp on 22 January to sweep

20449-401: The legislature chiefly to raise money. Under responsible government, the executive is also a part of the legislature. The Executive branch must consist of MPs Responsible government was a major element of Canada's gradual development toward independence. The concept of responsible government is associated in Canada more with self-government than with parliamentary accountability; hence, there

20618-467: The magistrate and a small party were threatened by gunshots from Bambata and his followers, the party made their retreat to a small hotel. Joined by the people at the hotel, the magistrate's party proceeded hastily to the police station at Keates Drift. As news spread to Greytown, a Natal police force was dispatched to deal with the fugitives but saw no sign of the enemy after reaching the Drift. At sunset,

20787-528: The march was continued until they were ambushed at a spot in the Impanza Valley by Bambata's men. After fighting off the enemy and returning to camps with the dead and wounded, more troops were mobilised for an attack on Bambata's location. However, the morning before, he had escaped to Zululand by crossing the Tugela River . The Kranskop reserves trailed Bambata along the same route until they made

20956-772: The methods currently in use. The military situation for the troops of De Wet, Botha, and De la Rey had worsened, for Kitchener's blockhouses and fences were posing a serious problem. Additionally, three-quarters of the Boer's cattle had been killed and taken away and they were struggling just to survive. Though De la Rey (in March 1902) captured General Lord Paul Methuen and 600 troops, he had to let them go because he had no place to keep them. At this time there were many that decided that it would be best to simply accept British rule, some of them serving as guides. These "joiners," as they were called, disagreed with those Boers who continued fighting at great risk, though they knew there would never be

21125-547: The name Saint Helena) in Western Africa , instead. Some atlases include Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe in Central Africa instead of Southern or Eastern Africa. The Southern African Customs Union , created in 1969, also comprises the five states in the UN subregion of Southern Africa. The Southern African Development Community (SADC) was established in 1980 to facilitate co-operation in the region. It includes: Other than

21294-476: The negotiations was that the Transvaal and Orange Free State would have to recognize King Edward VII as sovereign over their land. Many of the people of the Orange Free State and Transvaal considered this a betrayal of one of their key tenets for fighting in the first place. The Rebellion was in reaction to a Poll Tax of £1 on all Native male members over 18 years of age by the Natal House of Assembly. After

21463-482: The next 40+ years, there was a tentative peace among the British and the Zulu. The Boer /Zulu relationship continued to be one of great friction from the Battle of Blood River in 1838 to Boer incursions and infiltration of land recognized by the British to belong to the Zulu leading into the 1860s. The British supported the Zulu cause against the Boers and supported the Zulu leader Cetshwayo during his coronation in 1873. Cetshwayo assumed this support would continue when

21632-439: The north and temperate in the south, but also includes humid-subtropical , Mediterranean-climate , highland-subtropical , oceanic, desert, and semi-arid regions. Except for lower parts of Zambia and interior areas of Namibia and Botswana, the region rarely suffers from extreme heat. In addition, the winter presents mostly as mild and dry, except in the southwest. Cool southeasterly winds and high humidity bring cool conditions in

21801-408: The old republican flag, and beginning the "war of independence." This war had very little in the way of large-scale conflicts. The first was a Boer defeat of a British column that was unprepared for actual conflict. The Boers demanded that the column halt while the British commander, Colonel Philip Anstruther, insisted on continuing to Pretoria . The Boers proceeded to overrun and force the surrender of

21970-573: The other in the south ( Kingdom of Butua from 1450–1683) which was a smaller entity than the former two, the kingdom was governed by the Torwa dynasty and its capital was situated at Khami . Both states would eventually be absorbed by the powerful Shona state, the Rozwi Empire by 1683. The economy was based on cattle herding, farming, and gold mining. The empire lasted until 1866, which came after droughts and instability. The Mthethwa Paramountcy

22139-508: The outset of the South African Wars, the British under Theophilus Shepstone annexed the state, and the Boers were forced to cede their independence in exchange for a small pension. The British defeating local natives to secure more land in 1879 only gave the Boers less competition to worry about and enabled them to focus on retaking the Transvaal. In 1881 the Boers rebelled and the First Anglo-Boer War ensued. In this war, power

22308-464: The overwhelming numbers of British troops, began the third phase of the Second Boer War: the guerilla campaign. After regrouping into smaller units, the Boer commanders started using guerrilla tactics, destroying railways, bridges, and telegraph wires. Their leaders included Louis Botha in the eastern Transvaal; Koos de la Rey and Jan Smuts in western Transvaal; and Christian de Wet in

22477-654: The part of Mozambique that lies south of the Zambezi River. That definition is most often used in South Africa for natural sciences and particularly in guidebooks such as Roberts' Birds of Southern Africa , the Southern African Bird Atlas Project , and Mammals of the Southern African Subregion . It is not used in political, economic, or human geography contexts because the definition cuts Mozambique in two. In

22646-468: The performance of their departments. This requirement to make announcements and to answer questions in Parliament means that ministers must have the privileges of the floor, which are only granted to those who are members of either house of Parliament. Secondly, and most importantly, although ministers are officially appointed by the authority of the head of state and can theoretically be dismissed at

22815-408: The period of colonial rule, imperial interests controlled the economies of the region and South Africa became the dominant economic power in the late 20th century. The 21st century has seen attempts to create unity among nations in Southern Africa. In spite of democracy, violence , inequality and poverty still persist throughout the region. The region is distinct from the rest of Africa, with

22984-493: The pleasure of the sovereign, they concurrently retain their office subject to their holding the confidence of the lower house of Parliament. When the lower house has passed a motion of no confidence in the government, the government must ordinarily immediately resign or submit itself to the electorate in a new general election. Lastly, the head of state is in turn required to effectuate their executive power only through these responsible ministers. They must never attempt to set up

23153-431: The point that the Boer leader Paul Kruger , who had initially preached caution against rushing to fight, began accepting that war was inevitable. Though there were growing signs of conflict, Wolseley recommended the reduction of British garrisons in the region. Continued British indifference to Boer protests and increasing demands placed on the Boers triggered an all-out rebellion in late 1880. The issue that finally brought

23322-782: The reality of a region with large urban populations and where food insecurity goes beyond per-capita availability to issues of access and dietary adequacy. Urban food security has been noted as an emerging area of concern in the region, with recent data showing high levels of food insecurity amongst low-income households. In a study of eleven cities in nine countries: Blantyre , Cape Town , Gaborone , Harare , Johannesburg , Lusaka , Maputo , Manzini , Maseru , Durban , and Windhoek , only 17% of households were categorized as 'food-secure' while more than half (57%) of all households surveyed were found to be 'severely food-insecure'. Some factors affecting urban food insecurity include climate change with potential impact on agricultural productivity,

23491-757: The region has the world's largest resources of platinum and the platinum group elements, chromium , vanadium , and cobalt , as well as uranium , gold , copper , titanium , iron , manganese , silver , beryllium , and diamonds . Southern Africa is set apart from other Sub-Saharan African regions because of its mineral resources, including copper, diamonds, gold, zinc, chromium, platinum, manganese, iron ore, and coal. Countries in Southern Africa are larger in geographic area, except three smaller landlocked states: Lesotho, Swaziland, and Malawi. The larger states- South Africa, Botswana, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Namibia, and Angola—all have extensive mineral deposits. These widespread mineral resources make this one of

23660-679: The region largely lags behind their Asian counterparts in innovation, foreign direct investment, STEM sciences and research and development . Southern Africa has a wide diversity of ecoregions including grassland , bushveld , karoo , savannah and riparian zones . Even though considerable disturbance has occurred in some regions from habitat loss due to human population density or export-focused development, there remain significant numbers of various wildlife species, including white rhino , lion , African leopard , impala , kudu , blue wildebeest , vervet monkey and elephant . It has complex Plateaus that create massive mountain structures along

23829-875: The regions including political instability, poor governance, droughts, population growth, urbanisation, poverty, low economic growth, inadequate agricultural policies, trade terms and regimes, resource degradation and the recent increase in HIV/AIDS . These factors vary from country to country. For example, the Democratic Republic of the Congo has favourable climatic and physical conditions, but performs far below its capacity in food provision due to political instability and poor governance. In contrast, semi-arid countries such as Botswana and Namibia, produce insufficient food, but successfully achieve food security through food imports due to economic growth, political stability and good governance. The Republic of South Africa

23998-439: The resolution, became attorney general and leader of the government. Joseph Howe, the long-time campaigner for this "peaceable revolution", became provincial secretary . Other members of the council were Hugh Bell, Wm.F. Desbarres, Lawrence O.C. Doyle, Herbert Huntingdon, James McNab, Michael Tobin, and George R. Young. The colony of New Brunswick soon followed in May 1848, when Lieutenant Governor Edmund Walker Head brought in

24167-480: The surrounding area Fort Salisbury. During the second annual meeting of the South Africa Company, Rhodes stated that the company was on friendly terms with Lobengula, the last king of the Ndebele people, all the while knowing that war was to come. Ultimately, Jameson gave Lobengula's commanders an ultimatum to withdraw from Mashonaland. At the end of his meeting with Lobengula, who refused to move from

24336-404: The troops. In June, it seemed that the Ndebele forces were falling back from Bulawayo to the Mambo Hills, but the whites were surprised once more, for the Shona had joined in the revolt. By the week's end, more than 100 men, women, and children were killed, which was about 10 percent of the white population. Eventually there was a deadlock in the Matopo Hills, and assaults continued until Rhodes sent

24505-440: The war to ignite. It appears that the British did not begin with the intention of annexation. They simply wanted to ensure that British strength and the regional economic and political stability of the British Empire remained unchanged. The British worried about popular support for the war and wanted to push the Boers to make the first move toward actual hostilities. This occurred when the Transvaal issued an ultimatum on 9 October for

24674-424: The weak, indirect authority of the Cape Colony did not threaten the traditional Sotho government and the Cape preferred as little interference in Basutoland as possible. At the end of the 1870s however, an attempt by Britain and the new Sprigg Government of the Cape to enforce a more direct rule and influence the state's internal affairs led to a Sotho rebellion. In the resulting Gun War , the Sotho sharpshooters won

24843-422: The wealthiest regions of Africa with the greatest potential for economic growth . A chain of mineral resources in Southern Africa stretches from the rich oil fields in northwest Angola, east through the central diamond-mining region in Huambo Province , and into the Copper Belt region of Zambia and Congo. A region of rich mineral deposits continues to the south called the Great Dyke in central Zimbabwe, through

25012-428: The well-equipped Boers, losing a large number of men in their first attempts to push into places such as Magersfontein , Stormberg , and Colenso . The second phase began with Britain re-elling from defeats and deploying the largest British force ever sent overseas to South Africa. The British commander, Sir Redvers Buller , and his subordinate Major General Charles Warren, began the British offensive with an attack on

25181-489: The wetter and higher East from the Atlantic Ocean . In addition, the Drakensberg and Eastern Highlands separate the highland areas and coastal plains centred on Mozambique in the north and KwaZulu-Natal in the south, the latter of which are often prone to flooding every few years. In the east, the river systems of the Zambezi and Limpopo basin form natural barriers and sea lanes between Mozambique, South Africa, and Zimbabwe. Across most of southern Africa, apart from

25350-423: The will of elected colonial assemblies. The first instance of responsible government in the British Empire outside of the United Kingdom itself was achieved by the colony of Nova Scotia in January and February 1848, through the efforts of Joseph Howe . Howe's push for responsible government was inspired by the work of Thomas McCulloch and Jotham Blanchard almost two decades earlier. The plaque erected by

25519-434: The winter. The Namib Desert is the driest area in the region. Altitude plays an outsize role in moderating the temperatures of the South African Highveld , Lesotho , and much of Zambia and Zimbabwe. The prairie region of central and northeast South Africa, the country of Zimbabwe, and parts of Zambia are known as the veldt , divided into the Bushveld and Highveld . There are high temperatures and low rainfall within

25688-424: The years, some the other Southern African nations have invested in economic diversification, and invested public funds into rail, road and air transportation as part of a concerted effort through SADC to boost regional trade and improve communication and transportation. The countries in this region also belong to the Southern Africa Power Pool, which facilitates the development of a competitive electricity market within

25857-466: Was a Shona ( Karanga ) kingdom in what is today Zimbabwe . The capital, which sits near present-day Masvingo , is located at Great Zimbabwe , which are the largest stone structure in precolonial Southern Africa. This kingdom came after the collapse of the Kingdom of Mapungubwe. During the decline of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, two powers emerged, one in the north ( Kingdom of Mutapa from 1430–1760) which had improved on Zimbabwe's administrative structure; and

26026-415: Was an African state that emerged in the late 18th-century in the region of present-day KwaZulu-Natal . The state was consolidated and extended under the rule of Dingiswayo who produced a disciplined and highly organised army for the first time in the region. The Zulu Kingdom rose under the leadership of Shaka and covered most of present-day KwaZulu-Natal in the 19th century. Internal conflict arose in

26195-417: Was an easy win for Jameson, for as his troops advanced in Matabeleland, they swept over the Ndebele defenders with their machine guns and artillery. Once defeated, Lobengula destroyed his capital and fled to the north. Jameson's advancing troops followed him, reaching Bulawayo on 4 November, but had no luck in finding Lobengula. In a desperate attempt to get away, Lobengula addressed a council of his indunas near

26364-438: Was complicated by the settlement of white peoples . After an initial phase from 1945 to 1958, as a consolidation of white power, decolonization succeeded in its achievement when High Commission territories and overseas departments such as Zambia , Malawi , Botswana , Lesotho , Mauritius , Swaziland , Madagascar and the Comoros became independent states from British and French rule. The brutal struggle for independence in

26533-431: Was determined to redeem himself and led forces, in the Battle of Majuba Hill , to seize the hill despite the chance of an armistice to end the war. He attacked with a small force that did not know about the initial planning, had no proper reconnaissance, and no heavy weapons support. They seized the hill and set up camp without taking the precaution of setting up defensive positions. When the British announced their position,

26702-432: Was finally defeated by two British regiments under Sir Garnet Wolseley , assisted by 8 000 Swazis and other auxiliaries. Many of the Bapedi armies were killed, including Sekhukhune's heir, Morwamotshe, and three of his brothers. The Anglo-Pedi War suffered both the British and Boer armies greatly as well as they fell and perished in great numbers too. By the 1870s, the Transvaal was crumbling under Boer rule. In 1877, at

26871-401: Was gained from the 1890s to the 1910s in Australia and New Zealand (1893), allowing the other half of the ethnic European population to participate in responsible representative government. In New Zealand, the English and te reo maori versions of the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi had different wording, which fuelled disagreement over how the land should be governed, owned and sold. This was one of

27040-444: Was growing political discontent and civil disobedience among the common men, especially in the inland gold fields areas. This culminated in the 1854 Eureka Rebellion near Ballarat . 190 miners armed themselves, erected a stockade , and raised the Southern Cross Flag. They demanded an end to taxation (via an expensive miner's license) without representation, the right to vote in colonial elections, and colonial maintenance and upkeep of

27209-428: Was implemented in several colonies of British North America (present day Canada ), between 1848 and 1850, with the executive council formulating policy with the assistance of the legislative branch, which voted approval or disapproval, and the appointed governor enacting those policies that the legislature had approved. This replaced the previous system, whereby the governor took advice from an executive council and used

27378-429: Was independently ruled by the Boers. The Free State's boundaries were defined almost entirely by rivers: the Orange River on the south, the Vaal River on the west and north, and the Caledon River on the east. The northeastern boundary was shared with its British neighbor, Natal . The Caledon boundary was disputed with Moshoeshoe I 's Sotho people and fought over in two primary incidents – in 1858 and 1865. Before

27547-441: Was inhabited by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island peoples, who had their own traditional forms of self-government. They were divided into various nations and clans and, in some cases, large alliances between several nations. In 1770, Royal Navy officer James Cook sailed along the east coast of Australia and claimed it for King George III . Nearly two decades later, in 1788 the First Fleet led by Arthur Phillip established

27716-399: Was interested in peace, he jumped at the opportunity, using Botha's wife and an intermediary. Nothing came of the talks, for Sir Alfred Milner insisted that nothing but full surrender would be acceptable to the British. The Boers wanted independence, and in June 1901, Boer leaders came together and stated that no proposal would be considered unless it included their independence. Conditions in

27885-417: Was regained by the Boers, though any possibility of expansion and alliance was blocked by the British. With the discovery of diamonds around 1885 in Griqualand, West Transvaal struggled with the Cape and the Free State for land, but to no avail. At the end of the South African Wars , the Transvaal was annexed by the 1910 Union of South Africa. By the beginning of the South African Wars, the Orange Free State

28054-408: Was set up in 1839, by Boer Voortrekkers on their " Great Trek ", fleeing the Cape English. When the British established the colony four years later– as a strategic land gain – the border was extended to the Tugela and Buffalo Rivers. In the 1870s, Natal was a British Colony, with a degree of autonomy in its local administration, but under the direct control of the appointed British Governor. It had

28223-427: Was then conducted over the ensuing years as the movement (known informally as "the responsibles") grew increasingly powerful, and used their parliamentary majority to put pressure on the British Governor, withholding public finances from him, and conducting public agitations. Not everyone favoured responsible government though, and pro-imperial press outlets even accused the movement of constituting "crafts and assaults of

28392-510: Was threatened by a possible Zulu invasion and pushed for war despite London's desire for patience and doing everything to prevent war. The lack of a continuous line of communication from London to South Africa enabled Frere and Shepstone to push their agenda faster than London could react. Frere felt that the technological advantage of Lord Chelmsford 's British Army would bring a quick end to the conflict. Frere provoked war with an ultimatum to Cetshwayo that he knew would be unacceptable. He demanded

28561-425: Was to find 120 'miners' to travel with Selous as their guide. The plan was approved at the local level, but once London received the report, the plan was seen as an agitation designed to involve Britain in a war with Lobengula. This led to further negotiations with Lobengula in an attempt to open the "road." Lobengula complained about having to deal with subordinates and told Jameson to have Rhodes brought before him. In

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