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107-542: Kenneth Nichols , the deputy to Leslie Groves on the Manhattan Project , was a consultant for the Connecticut Yankee and Yankee Rowe nuclear power plants. He said that while the plants were considered "experimental" and were not expected to be competitive with coal and oil, they "became competitive because of inflation … and the large increase in price of coal and oil." The Connecticut Yankee plant

214-511: A United States power station is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Kenneth Nichols Kenneth David Nichols CBE (13 November 1907 – 21 February 2000) was an officer in the United States Army , and a civil engineer who worked on the secret Manhattan Project , which developed the atomic bomb during World War II . He served as Deputy District Engineer to James C. Marshall , and from 13 August 1943 as

321-708: A daughter (Jan) and a son (David). He returned to the Waterways Experiment Station in 1933. The next year he received a fellowship awarded by the Institute of International Education to study European Hydraulic Research Methods for a year at the Technische Hochschule in Berlin . While there he was promoted to first lieutenant on 1 October 1934. The thesis he wrote won an American Society of Civil Engineers award. On returning to

428-827: A downtown Heinen's supermarket. Cleveland's historic ecclesiastical architecture includes the Presbyterian Old Stone Church in downtown Cleveland, the onion domed St. Theodosius Russian Orthodox Cathedral in Tremont , and the Catholic Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist along with myriad other ethnically inspired Roman Catholic churches. The Cleveland City Planning Commission has officially designated 34 neighborhoods in Cleveland. Centered on Public Square, Downtown Cleveland

535-714: A foreign-born population of 30%. At this time, Cleveland saw the rise of radical labor movements, most prominently the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), in response to the conditions of the largely immigrant and migrant workers. In 1919, the city attracted national attention amid the First Red Scare for the Cleveland May Day Riots , in which local socialist and IWW demonstrators clashed with anti-socialists. The riots occurred during

642-578: A gradual economic recovery under Mayor George V. Voinovich in the 1980s. Downtown saw the construction of the Key Tower and 200 Public Square skyscrapers, as well as the development of the Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex – consisting of Progressive Field and Rocket Mortgage FieldHouse – and North Coast Harbor, including the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , Cleveland Browns Stadium , and

749-613: A high school diploma or equivalent. The median age was 36.6 years. As of 2020 , the racial and ethnic composition of the city was 47.5% African American, 32.1% non-Hispanic white , 13.1% Hispanic or Latino , 2.8% Asian , 0% Pacific Islander , 0.2% Native American, and 3.8% from two or more races . 85.3% of Clevelanders age five and older spoke only English at home, while 14.7% spoke a language other than English, including Spanish , Arabic , Chinese , Hungarian , Albanian , and various Slavic languages ( Russian , Polish , Serbian , Croatian , and Slovene ). The city's spoken accent

856-804: A homogeneous settlement of New England Protestants , it evolved into a city with a diverse religious composition. The predominant faith among Clevelanders today is Christianity ( Catholic , Protestant, and Eastern and Oriental Orthodox ), with Jewish, Muslim , Hindu , and Buddhist minorities. Within Cleveland, the neighborhoods with the highest foreign-born populations are Asiatown/Goodrich–Kirtland Park (32.7%), Clark–Fulton (26.7%), West Boulevard (18.5%), Brooklyn Centre (17.3%), Downtown (17.2%), University Circle (15.9%, with 20% in Little Italy), and Jefferson (14.3%). Recent waves of immigration have brought new groups to Cleveland, including Ethiopians and South Asians , as well as immigrants from Russia and

963-682: A month. Henceforth, uranium enrichment would be performed by the gaseous diffusion plants, the wartime K-25 and the new K-27, which had commenced operation in January 1946. AEC Chairman David E. Lilienthal objected, but Nichols pointed out that the proposal had been included in their briefing when the commission visited Oak Ridge in November. Nichols kept the national laboratories operating with $ 60 million worth of research grants for fiscal year 1947. He helped Captain Hyman G. Rickover train

1070-459: A national nuclear waste storage facility, all of the spent fuel used by the reactor remains at the site in an Independent Spent Fuel Storage Installation (ISFSI). There are a total of 43 dry storage casks, 40 of which contain spent nuclear fuel while the other 3 contain reactor components classified as high-level radioactive waste. [3] All of the following are filed under 362 Injun Hollow Road, Haddam, Middlesex County, CT: This article about

1177-635: A naturalization ceremony of new immigrants. Cleveland's location on the Cuyahoga River and Lake Erie has been key to its growth as a major commercial center. Steel and many other manufactured goods emerged as leading industries. The city has since diversified its economy in addition to its manufacturing sector. Established in 1914, the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland is one of 12 U.S. Federal Reserve Banks . Its downtown building, located on East 6th Street and Superior Avenue ,

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1284-552: A new TNT plant, the Pennsylvania Ordnance Works, in Williamsport, Pennsylvania . On this project, Nichols worked with DuPont and Stone & Webster as major contractors, and dealt with Leslie Groves, now the colonel in charge of military construction. In June 1942, Nichols was again summoned by Marshall, this time to Washington, D.C. Marshall had recently been appointed as district engineer of

1391-714: A new experimental site to be established in the Argonne Forest which would eventually become the Argonne National Laboratory . Nichols took charge of ore procurement. He arranged with the State Department for export controls to be placed on uranium oxide and negotiated with Edgar Sengier for the purchase of 1,200 tons of ore from the Belgian Congo that was being stored in a warehouse on Staten Island . Nichols arranged with

1498-639: A population of 372,624 in 2020. The city anchors the Cleveland metropolitan area , the 33rd-largest in the U.S. at 2.18 million residents, as well as the larger Cleveland– Akron – Canton combined statistical area with 3.63 million residents. Cleveland was founded in 1796 near the mouth of the Cuyahoga River as part of the Connecticut Western Reserve in modern-day Northeast Ohio by General Moses Cleaveland , after whom

1605-573: A residential street. In the late 1880s, writer Bayard Taylor described it as "the most beautiful street in the world". Known as Cleveland's "Crystal Palace", the five-story Cleveland Arcade (sometimes called the Old Arcade) was built in 1890 and renovated in 2001 as a Hyatt Regency Hotel. Another major architectural landmark, the Cleveland Trust Company Building , was completed in 1907 and renovated in 2015 as

1712-458: A team of naval engineers at Oak Ridge in nuclear propulsion. In February 1947 Nichols was appointed Professor of Mechanics at West Point, a move mooted in November 1946. He had been rejected for a new position at the AEC by Lilienthal; though he agreed to be available for consultation on atomic matters as Groves was planning to retire (although he then accepted a new military position). Nichols wished

1819-763: A time there was talk of calling off the Operation Sandstone nuclear weapons tests, but Nichols successfully argued for their continuation. In 1950, he became deputy director of the Guided Missiles Division of the Department of Defense, overseeing the Nike Project . He was appointed Chief of Research and Development when it was reorganized in 1952. Nichols retired from the Army on 31 October 1953. For his services from 1948 to 1953, he

1926-802: A total of 13 times beginning in 1868. It was the river fire of June 1969 that spurred the city to action under Mayor Carl B. Stokes, and played a key role in the passage of the Clean Water Act in 1972 and the National Environmental Policy Act later that year. Since that time, the Cuyahoga has been extensively cleaned up through the efforts of the city and the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency (OEPA). In addition to continued efforts to improve freshwater and air quality, Cleveland

2033-460: Is 569 feet (173 m) above sea level ; however, the city lies on a series of irregular bluffs lying roughly parallel to the lake. In Cleveland these bluffs are cut principally by the Cuyahoga River , Big Creek, and Euclid Creek . The land rises quickly from the lake shore elevation of 569 feet. Public Square, less than one mile (1.6 km) inland, sits at an elevation of 650 feet (198 m), and Hopkins Airport, 5 miles (8 km) inland from

2140-626: Is a port city , connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Saint Lawrence Seaway . Its economy relies on diverse sectors that include higher education, manufacturing, financial services, healthcare, and biomedicals. The city serves as the headquarters of the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland , as well as several major companies. The GDP for the Greater Cleveland MSA was US$ 138.3 billion in 2022. Combined with

2247-522: Is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County . Located along the southern shore of Lake Erie , it is situated across the Canada–United States maritime border and lies approximately 60 mi (97 km) west of Pennsylvania . Cleveland is the most populous city on Lake Erie, the second-most populous city in Ohio, and the 54th-most populous city in the U.S. with

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2354-983: Is an advanced form of Inland Northern American English , similar to other Great Lakes cities, but distinctive from the rest of Ohio. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Cleveland saw a massive influx of immigrants from Ireland, Italy , and the Austro-Hungarian , German , Russian , and Ottoman empires, most of whom were attracted by manufacturing jobs. As a result, Cleveland and Cuyahoga County today have substantial communities of Irish (especially in West Park), Italians (especially in Little Italy), Germans , and several Central -Eastern European ethnicities, including Czechs , Hungarians , Lithuanians , Poles , Romanians , Russians , Rusyns , Slovaks , Ukrainians , and ex- Yugoslav groups, such as Slovenes , Croats and Serbs . The presence of Hungarians within Cleveland proper was, at one time, so great that

2461-549: Is now exploring renewable energy. The city's two main electrical utilities are FirstEnergy and Cleveland Public Power . Its climate action plan , updated in December 2018, has a 2050 target of 100% renewable power , along with reduction of greenhouse gases to 80% below the 2010 level. In recent decades, Cleveland has been working to address the issue of harmful algal blooms on Lake Erie, fed primarily by agricultural runoff, which have presented new environmental challenges for

2568-865: Is the city's central business district, encompassing a wide range of subdistricts, such as the Nine-Twelve District , the Campus District , the Civic Center , East 4th Street , and Playhouse Square . It also historically included the lively Short Vincent entertainment district. Mixed-use areas, such as the Warehouse District and the Superior Arts District , are occupied by industrial and office buildings as well as restaurants, cafes, and bars. The number of condominiums , lofts , and apartments has been on

2675-424: Is the warmest month with a mean temperature of 74.5 °F (23.6 °C), and January, with a mean temperature of 29.1 °F (−1.6 °C), is the coldest. Normal yearly precipitation based on the 30-year average from 1991 to 2020 is 41.03 inches (1,042 mm). The least precipitation occurs on the western side and directly along the lake, and the most occurs in the eastern suburbs. Parts of Geauga County to

2782-764: The Akron MSA , the eight-county Cleveland–Akron metropolitan economy was $ 176 billion in 2022, the largest in Ohio. Designated as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network , Cleveland is home to several major cultural institutions, including the Cleveland Museum of Art , the Cleveland Museum of Natural History , the Cleveland Orchestra , the Cleveland Public Library , Playhouse Square , and

2889-452: The Cfa humid subtropical climate . Summers are hot and humid, while winters are cold and snowy. East of the mouth of the Cuyahoga, the land elevation rises rapidly in the south. Together with the prevailing winds off Lake Erie, this feature is the principal contributor to the lake-effect snow that is typical in Cleveland (especially on the city's East Side) from mid-November until the surface of

2996-543: The Connecticut Yankee Nuclear Power Plant , which commenced operation in 1961 and 1968 respectively. They were both experimental and not expected to be competitive with coal and oil, but later became more so due to inflation and large increases in coal and oil prices. He was critical of over-regulation and protracted hearings, which meant that by the 1980s similar boiling-water or pressurized-water plants took almost twice as long to build in

3103-865: The Eldorado Mining and Refining Company for the purchase of ore from its mine in Port Hope, Ontario , and its shipment in 100-ton lots. Nichols met with Undersecretary of the Treasury Daniel W. Bell and arranged for the transfer of 14,700 tons of silver from the West Point Depository for use in the Y-12 National Security Complex in place of copper , which was in desperately short supply in wartime. When Nichols initially said he needed six thousand tons of silver, neither of them could initially convert

3210-569: The Glenn Research Center in Cleveland. Jones Day , one of the largest law firms in the U.S., was founded in Cleveland in 1893. Healthcare plays a major role in Cleveland's economy. The city's "Big Three" hospital systems are the Cleveland Clinic , University Hospitals , and MetroHealth . The Cleveland Clinic is the largest private employer in the state of Ohio, with a workforce of over 55,000 as of 2022 . It carries

3317-680: The Great Lakes Science Center . Although the city emerged from default in 1987, it later suffered from the impact of the subprime mortgage crisis and the Great Recession . Nevertheless, by the turn of the 21st century, Cleveland succeeded in developing a more diversified economy and gained a national reputation as a center for healthcare and the arts. The city's downtown and several neighborhoods have experienced significant population growth since 2010, while overall population decline has slowed. Challenges remain for

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3424-757: The Mound Laboratories in Miamisburg, Ohio , and recommended that Sandia Base be transferred from the United States Army Air Corps to the Manhattan District. In June 1946, Nichols went to Bikini Atoll to represent the Manhattan Project at Operation Crossroads , a series of nuclear weapons tests conducted to investigate their effects on warships. Like many of his contemporaries in an Army that

3531-712: The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , as well as Case Western Reserve University . Known as " The Forest City " among many other nicknames , Cleveland serves as the center of the Cleveland Metroparks nature reserve system. The city's major league professional sports teams include the Cleveland Browns ( football ; NFL ), the Cleveland Cavaliers (basketball; NBA ), and the Cleveland Guardians (baseball; MLB ). Cleveland

3638-697: The Union during the American Civil War . Decades later, in July 1894, the wartime contributions of those serving the Union from Cleveland and Cuyahoga County would be honored with the Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument on Public Square. The Civil War vaulted Cleveland into the first rank of American manufacturing cities and fueled unprecedented growth. Its prime geographic location as a transportation hub on

3745-731: The United States Military Academy at West Point in 1929 and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the United States Army Corps of Engineers . In 1929, Nichols went to Nicaragua as part of an expedition led by Lieutenant Colonel Daniel I. Sultan whose purpose was to conduct a survey for the Inter-Oceanic Nicaragua Canal . A fellow officer in the expedition, who would later figure prominently in Nichols's career,

3852-729: The former USSR , Southeast Europe (especially Albania ), the Middle East, East Asia, and Latin America. In the 2010s, the immigrant population of Cleveland and Cuyahoga County began to see significant growth, becoming a major center for immigration in the Great Lakes region. A 2019 study found Cleveland to be the city with the shortest average processing time in the nation for immigrants to become U.S. citizens . The city's annual One World Day in Rockefeller Park includes

3959-646: The 1832 completion of the Ohio and Erie Canal . This key link between the Ohio River and the Great Lakes connected Cleveland to the Atlantic Ocean via the Erie Canal and Hudson River, and later via the Saint Lawrence Seaway . The town's growth continued with added railroad links . In 1836, Cleveland, then only on the eastern banks of the Cuyahoga, was officially incorporated as a city, and John W. Willey

4066-405: The 1960s, Cleveland's economy began to slow down, and residents increasingly sought new housing in the suburbs, reflecting the national trends of suburban growth following federally subsidized highways. Industrial restructuring , particularly in the steel and automotive industries, resulted in the loss of numerous jobs in Cleveland and the region, and the city suffered economically. The burning of

4173-400: The AEC in January 1947. But in January 1948 he returned to the army to replace Groves as chief of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP), as the Navy and Air Force were vetoing each other's candidate. On 11 March he and Lilienthal were summoned to the White House where Truman told them, "I know you two hate each other’s guts." Truman directed that "the primary objective of the AEC

4280-425: The Army's general staff, and was the senior Army member of the military liaison committee that worked with the Atomic Energy Commission. In 1950, General Nichols became deputy director of the Guided Missiles Division of the Department of Defense . He was appointed chief of research and development when it was reorganized in 1952. In 1953, he became the general manager of the Atomic Energy Commission, where he promoted

4387-409: The Atomic Energy Commission from 1946 to 1947. After briefly teaching at the United States Military Academy at West Point, he was promoted to major general and became chief of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project , responsible for the military aspects of atomic weapons, including logistics, handling and training. He was deputy director for the Atomic Energy Matters, Plans and Operations Division of

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4494-411: The Atomic Energy Commission in 1955 and opened a consulting firm on K Street , specializing in commercial atomic energy research and development. His clients included Alcoa , Gulf Oil , Westinghouse Electric Corporation and the Yankee Rowe Nuclear Power Station . Nichols was involved with the construction of the Yankee Rowe Nuclear Power Station, the first privately owned pressurized-water plant, and

4601-414: The Cleveland Transit System, the predecessor to the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority . After the war, Cleveland initially experienced an economic boom , and businesses declared the city to be the "best location in the nation". In 1949, the city was named an All-America City for the first time, and in 1950, its population reached 914,808. In sports, the Indians won the 1948 World Series ,

4708-487: The Cuyahoga River in June 1969 brought national attention to the issue of industrial pollution in Cleveland and served as a catalyst for the American environmental movement . Housing discrimination and redlining against African Americans led to racial unrest in Cleveland and numerous other Northern U.S. cities. In Cleveland, the Hough riots erupted from July 18 to 24, 1966, and the Glenville Shootout took place on July 23, 1968. In November 1967, Cleveland became

4815-424: The District Engineer of the Manhattan Engineer District . Nichols led both the uranium production facility at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, Tennessee , and the plutonium production facility at Hanford Engineer Works in Washington state . Nichols remained with the Manhattan Project after the war until it was taken over by the Atomic Energy Commission in 1947. He was the military liaison officer with

4922-411: The East and West Sides, while Broadway–Slavic Village is sometimes referred to as the South Side. Several neighborhoods have begun to attract the return of the middle class that left the city for the suburbs in the 1960s and 1970s. These neighborhoods are on both the West Side (Ohio City, Tremont, Detroit–Shoreway, and Edgewater) and the East Side (Collinwood, Hough, Fairfax, and Little Italy). Much of

5029-434: The Great Lakes played an important role in its development as an industrial and commercial center. In 1870, John D. Rockefeller founded Standard Oil in Cleveland, and in 1885, he moved its headquarters to New York City, which had become a center of finance and business. Cleveland's economic growth and industrial jobs attracted large waves of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe as well as Ireland . Urban growth

5136-414: The Manhattan Engineer District. As District Engineer, Nichols was responsible for both the uranium production facility at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge and the plutonium production facility at the Hanford Site . One of his first tasks as district engineer was to move the district headquarters to Oak Ridge, although its name did not change. For his wartime work on the Manhattan Project, Nichols

5243-429: The Military Liaison Committee to the AEC, and Deputy Assistant Chief of Staff of the Army (G-3) for Atomic Energy. In his new role Nichols clashed with the AEC over the issue of whether it or the Department of Defense should have custody of nuclear weapons. The administration's policy remained firmly in favor of AEC control. This was tested during the Berlin Blockade , when Truman ordered B-29 bombers to Europe. For

5350-534: The South. Between 1910 and 1970, the black population of Cleveland, largely concentrated on the city's East Side, increased significantly as a result of the First and Second Great Migrations . Cleveland's Latino community consists primarily of Puerto Ricans , as well as smaller numbers of immigrants from Mexico, Cuba , the Dominican Republic , South and Central America, and Spain. The city's Asian community, centered on historical Asiatown, consists of Chinese , Koreans , Vietnamese , and other groups. Additionally,

5457-503: The U.S. during the Battle of Lake Erie in the War of 1812 . Locals adopted Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry as a civic hero and erected a monument in his honor decades later. Largely through the efforts of the settlement's first lawyer Alfred Kelley , the village of Cleveland was incorporated on December 23, 1814. In spite of the nearby swampy lowlands and harsh winters, the town's waterfront location proved to be an advantage, giving it access to Great Lakes trade. It grew rapidly after

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5564-430: The United States as in France, Japan, Taiwan or South Korea. Nichols died of respiratory failure on 21 February 2000 at the Brighton Gardens retirement home in Bethesda, Maryland . He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery . Nichols is played by Christopher Muncke in the BBC presentation Oppenheimer (1980) and by Dane DeHaan in Christopher Nolan 's Oppenheimer (2023). Cleveland Cleveland

5671-402: The United States he received another one-year posting to the Waterways Experiment Station. From September 1936 to June 1937 he was a student officer at Fort Belvoir, Virginia . He then became a student again, using his Technische Hochschule thesis as the basis for a Doctor of Philosophy degree from the State University of Iowa . He became an instructor at West Point in August 1937, where he

5778-459: The broader strike wave that swept the U.S. that year. Cleveland's population continued to grow throughout the Roaring Twenties . The decade saw the establishment of the city's Playhouse Square , and the rise of the risqué Short Vincent . The Bal-Masque balls of the avant-garde Kokoon Arts Club scandalized the city. Jazz came to prominence in Cleveland during this period. Prohibition first took effect in Ohio in May 1919 (although it

5885-435: The city and for northern Ohio. At the 2020 census, there were 372,624 people and 170,549 households in Cleveland. The population density was 4,901.51 inhabitants per square mile (1,892.5/km ). The median household income was $ 30,907 and the per capita income was $ 21,223. 32.7% of the population was living below the poverty line. Of the city's population over the age of 25, 17.5% held a bachelor's degree or higher, and 80.8% had

5992-450: The city and the county have significant communities of Albanians , Arabs (especially Lebanese , Syrians , and Palestinians ), Armenians , French , Greeks , Iranians , Scots , Turks , and West Indians . A 2020 analysis found Cleveland to be the most ethnically and racially diverse major city in Ohio. The influx of immigrants in the 19th and early 20th centuries drastically transformed Cleveland's religious landscape. From

6099-439: The city and the county include Aleris , American Greetings , Applied Industrial Technologies , Eaton , Forest City Realty Trust , Heinen's Fine Foods, Hyster-Yale Materials Handling , Lincoln Electric , Medical Mutual of Ohio , Moen Incorporated , NACCO Industries , Nordson Corporation , OM Group , Swagelok , Kirby Company , Things Remembered , Third Federal S&L , TransDigm Group , and Vitamix . NASA maintains

6206-425: The city ascends into the Heights on the east, where the region known as the " Snow Belt " begins. Extending from the city's East Side and its suburbs, the Snow Belt reaches up the Lake Erie shore as far as Buffalo . The all-time record high in Cleveland of 104 °F (40 °C) was established on June 25, 1988, and the all-time record low of −20 °F (−29 °C) was set on January 19, 1994. On average, July

6313-429: The city boasted the highest concentration of Hungarians in the world outside of Budapest . Cleveland has a long-established Jewish community , historically centered on the East Side neighborhoods of Glenville and Kinsman, but now mostly concentrated in East Side suburbs such as Cleveland Heights and Beachwood , location of the Maltz Museum of Jewish Heritage . The availability of jobs attracted African Americans from

6420-464: The city from Santa Monica, California in the Women's Air Derby . The Van Sweringen brothers commenced construction of the Terminal Tower skyscraper in 1926 and oversaw it to completion in 1927. By the time the building was dedicated as part of Cleveland Union Terminal in 1930, the city had a population of over 900,000. Cleveland was hit hard by the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the subsequent Great Depression . A center of union activity ,

6527-402: The city saw significant labor struggles in this period, including strikes by workers against Fisher Body in 1936 and against Republic Steel in 1937. The city was also aided by major federal works projects sponsored by President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal . In commemoration of the centennial of Cleveland's incorporation as a city, the Great Lakes Exposition debuted in June 1936 at

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6634-513: The city was named. The city's location on the river and the lake shore allowed it to grow into a major commercial and industrial metropolis by the late 19th century, attracting large numbers of immigrants and migrants . It was among the top 10 largest U.S. cities by population for much of the 20th century, a period that saw the development of the city's cultural institutions. By the 1960s, Cleveland's economy began to slow down as manufacturing declined and suburbanization occurred. Cleveland

6741-406: The city's North Coast Harbor , along the Lake Erie shore north of downtown. Conceived by Cleveland's business leaders as a way to revitalize the city during the Depression, it drew four million visitors in its first season, and seven million by the end of its second and final season in September 1937. On December 7, 1941, Imperial Japan attacked Pearl Harbor and declared war on the U.S. Two of

6848-418: The city's west side is led by president and CEO Christine Alexander-Rager. Formerly known as City Hospital, it operates one of two Level I trauma centers in the city, and has various locations throughout Greater Cleveland. In 2013, Cleveland's Global Center for Health Innovation opened with 235,000 square feet (21,800 m ) of display space for healthcare companies across the world. To take advantage of

6955-426: The city, with improvement of city schools, economic development of neighborhoods, and continued efforts to tackle poverty, homelessness , and urban blight being top municipal priorities. According to the U.S. Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 82.47 square miles (213.60 km ), of which 77.70 square miles (201.24 km ) is land and 4.77 square miles (12.35 km ) is water. The shore of Lake Erie

7062-409: The commissioners were impressed with his administrative skills, it also became clear that Nichols did not agree with the commissioners' concept of the Director of Military Application as a staff rather than a line function. In December 1946, Nichols recommended the closing down of the alpha tracks of the Y-12 plant, thereby cutting the Tennessee Eastman payroll from 8,600 to 1,500 and saving $ 2 million

7169-517: The construction of nuclear power plants. He played a key role in the security clearance hearing against J. Robert Oppenheimer that resulted in Oppenheimer 's security clearance being revoked. In later life, Nichols became an engineering consultant on private nuclear power plants. Kenneth David Nichols was born on 13 November 1907 in West Park, Ohio , which later became part of Cleveland , Ohio, one of four children of Wilbur L. Nichols and his wife Minnie May Colbrunn. He graduated fifth in his class at

7276-476: The desirable attributes of abundant electric power, water and transportation with sparse population. A site at Oak Ridge, Tennessee was chosen, but Marshall delayed purchase while he awaited scientific results that justified a full-scale plant. Afterwards, Nichols visited the Metallurgical Laboratory , or "Met Lab", at the University of Chicago , where he met with Arthur Compton . Seeing the problems of overcrowding there, Nichols, on his own authority, arranged for

7383-420: The distinction of being one of the best hospital systems in the world. The clinic is led by Croatian-born president and CEO Tomislav Mihaljevic and it is affiliated with Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine . University Hospitals includes the University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center and its Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital . Cliff Megerian serves as that system's CEO. MetroHealth on

7490-416: The east receive over 44 inches (1,100 mm) of liquid precipitation annually. With its extensive cleanup of its Lake Erie shore and the Cuyahoga River, Cleveland has been recognized by national media as an environmental success story and a national leader in environmental protection. Since the city's industrialization, the Cuyahoga River had become so affected by industrial pollution that it "caught fire"

7597-402: The first major American city since the Great Depression to enter into a financial default on federal loans. The national recession of the early 1980s "further eroded the city's traditional economic base." While unemployment during the period peaked in 1983, Cleveland's rate of 13.8% was higher than the national average due to the closure of several steel production centers. The city began

7704-425: The first major American city to elect an African American mayor, Carl B. Stokes , who served from 1968 to 1971 and played an instrumental role in restoring the Cuyahoga River. During the 1970s, Cleveland became known as "Bomb City U.S.A." due to several bombings that shook the city, mostly due to organized crime rivalries. In December 1978, during the turbulent tenure of Dennis Kucinich as mayor, Cleveland became

7811-549: The golden age in Downtown Cleveland retail, centered on major department stores Higbee's , Bailey's, the May Company , Taylor's , Halle's , and Sterling Lindner Davis , which collectively represented one of the largest and most fashionable shopping districts in the country, often compared to New York's Fifth Avenue . In 1929, Cleveland hosted the first of many National Air Races , and Amelia Earhart flew to

7918-408: The growth has been spurred on by attracting creative class members, which has facilitated new residential development and the transformation of old industrial buildings into loft spaces for artists. Typical of the Great Lakes region , Cleveland exhibits a continental climate with four distinct seasons, which lies in the humid continental ( Köppen Dfa ) zone. The climate is transitional with

8025-614: The hockey team, the Barons , became champions of the American Hockey League, and the Browns dominated professional football in the 1950s. As a result, along with track and boxing champions produced, Cleveland was declared the "City of Champions" in sports at this time. Additionally, the 1950s saw the rising popularity of a new music genre that local WJW (AM) disc jockey Alan Freed dubbed " rock and roll ". However, by

8132-644: The increase since 2000 and especially 2010, reflecting downtown's growing population. Clevelanders geographically define themselves in terms of whether they live on the east or west side of the Cuyahoga River. The East Side includes the neighborhoods of Buckeye–Shaker , Buckeye–Woodhill , Central , Collinwood (including Nottingham ), Euclid–Green , Fairfax , Glenville , Goodrich–Kirtland Park (including Asiatown ), Hough , Kinsman , Lee–Miles (including Lee–Harvard and Lee–Seville), Mount Pleasant , St. Clair–Superior , Union–Miles Park , and University Circle (including Little Italy ). The West Side includes

8239-484: The lake freezes, usually in late January or early February. The lake effect causes a relative differential in geographical snowfall totals across the city. On the city's far West Side, the Hopkins neighborhood only reached 100 inches (254 cm) of snowfall in a season three times since record-keeping for snow began in 1893. By contrast, seasonal totals approaching or exceeding 100 inches (254 cm) are not uncommon as

8346-480: The lake, is at an elevation of 791 feet (241 m). Cleveland borders several inner-ring and streetcar suburbs . To the west, it borders Lakewood , Rocky River , and Fairview Park , and to the east, it borders Shaker Heights , Cleveland Heights , South Euclid , and East Cleveland . To the southwest, it borders Linndale , Brooklyn , Parma , and Brook Park . To the south, the city borders Newburgh Heights , Cuyahoga Heights , and Brooklyn Heights and to

8453-555: The military liaison officer to the AEC. Nichols's main responsibility was to help organize an orderly transfer of assets and responsibilities from the MED to the AEC. Military aspects were taken over by the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP). It was generally assumed that Nichols would become the AEC's Director of Military Application, but while Nichols's relationship with the AEC was cordial and

8560-524: The military, rather than the AEC, to have custody of (atomic) weapons. Lilienthal's opponents in Congress objected to the departure of the two men best informed about atomic matters. With a retirement age of 65 he looked forward to almost 26 years of "pleasant and comfortable" academic life with a house on the Hudson, and to Jackie "a wonderful place to raise Jan and David". He was to leave as deputy manager of

8667-456: The neighborhoods of Brooklyn Centre , Clark–Fulton , Cudell , Detroit–Shoreway , Edgewater , Ohio City , Old Brooklyn , Stockyards , Tremont (including Duck Island ), West Boulevard , and the four neighborhoods colloquially known as West Park : Kamm's Corners , Jefferson , Bellaire–Puritas , and Hopkins . The Cuyahoga Valley neighborhood (including the Flats ) is situated between

8774-550: The new Manhattan Engineer District (MED), and had received authorization to staff it by drawing on officers and civilians working for the Syracuse Engineer District, which was now winding down as the major part of its construction program was nearing completion. Marshall started by designating Nichols as his Deputy District Engineer, which became effective when the Manhattan District was officially formed on 16 August 1942. The first major decision confronting

8881-632: The new district, which unlike other engineer districts had no geographic limits, was the choice of construction site. On 30 June Nichols and Marshall set out for Tennessee , where they met with officials of the Tennessee Valley Authority and looked over prospective sites in the foothills of the Cumberland Mountains that had been identified (by scouts from the Office of Scientific Research and Development ) as possessing

8988-634: The open Cleveland Mall and share a common neoclassical architecture . They were built in the early 20th century as the result of the 1903 Group Plan. They constitute one of the most complete examples of City Beautiful design in the U.S. Completed in 1927 and dedicated in 1930 as part of the Cleveland Union Terminal complex, the Terminal Tower was the tallest building in North America outside New York City until 1964 and

9095-634: The purchase of the site at Oak Ridge and negotiated for the project to be given a AAA priority rating. Groves soon decided to establish his project headquarters on the fifth floor of the New War Department Building in Washington, D.C., where Marshall had maintained a liaison office. Nichols, who concentrated his attention on ore procurement, feed materials and the plutonium project, was promoted to colonel on 22 May 1943. On 13 August, he replaced Marshall as District Engineer of

9202-544: The rural South arrived in Cleveland (among other Northeastern and Midwestern cities) as part of the Great Migration for jobs, constitutional rights, and relief from racial discrimination . By 1920, the year in which the Cleveland Indians won their first World Series championship , Cleveland had grown into a densely-populated metropolis of 796,841, making it the fifth-largest city in the nation, with

9309-495: The southeast, it borders Warrensville Heights , Maple Heights , and Garfield Heights . To the northeast, along the shore of Lake Erie, Cleveland borders Bratenahl and Euclid . Cleveland's downtown architecture is diverse. Many of the city's government and civic buildings, including City Hall , the Cuyahoga County Courthouse , the Cleveland Public Library , and Public Auditorium , are clustered around

9416-472: The tallest in the city until 1991. It is a prototypical Beaux-Arts skyscraper. The two other major skyscrapers on Public Square, Key Tower (the tallest building in Ohio) and 200 Public Square, combine elements of Art Deco architecture with postmodern designs. Running east from Public Square through University Circle is Euclid Avenue , which was known as "Millionaires' Row" for its prestige and elegance as

9523-419: The time as the sixth-largest U.S. city. Its automotive companies included Peerless , Chandler , and Winton , maker of the first car driven across the U.S. Other manufacturing industries in Cleveland included steam cars produced by White and electric cars produced by Baker . The city counted major Progressive Era politicians among its leaders, most prominently the populist Mayor Tom L. Johnson , who

9630-415: The victims of the attack were Cleveland natives – Rear Admiral Isaac C. Kidd and ensign William Halloran. The attack signaled America's entry into World War II . A major hub of the " Arsenal of Democracy ", Cleveland under Mayor Frank Lausche contributed massively to the U.S. war effort as the fifth largest manufacturing center in the nation. During his tenure, Lausche also oversaw the establishment of

9737-458: The weight to troy ounces. When Nichols said, "What difference does it make how we express the quantity?", Bell replied, "Young man, you may think of silver in tons, but the Treasury will always think of silver in troy ounces." In September 1942, Groves, now a brigadier general , became director of the Manhattan Project . Groves immediately moved on the most urgent issues. He promptly approved

9844-1101: Was First Lieutenant Leslie Groves . For his service on the expedition, Nichols was awarded the Nicaraguan Medal of Merit "for exceptional service rendered [to] the Republic of Nicaragua." Nichols returned to the United States in 1931 and went to Cornell University , where he received a bachelor's degree in civil engineering . He became assistant to the Director of the Waterways Experiment Station in Vicksburg, Mississippi , in June 1932. In August he continued his studies at Cornell, where he completed his master's degree in civil engineering on 10 June 1933. While at Cornell he married Jacqueline (Jackie) Darrieulat. Their marriage produced

9951-478: Was "a Communist in every sense except that he did not carry a party card," and that he "is not reliable or trustworthy." The commission agreed, and Oppenheimer was stripped of his security clearance. A second scandal was the Dixon-Yates contract , a political controversy that became a major issue in the 1954 elections , resulting in Nichols appearing before a United States Senate subcommittee. Nichols left

10058-428: Was accompanied by significant strikes and labor unrest, as workers demanded better wages and working conditions . Between 1881 and 1886, 70 to 80% of strikes were successful in improving labor conditions in Cleveland. The Cleveland Streetcar Strike of 1899 was one of the more violent instances of labor strife in the city during this period. By 1910, Cleveland had become known as the "Sixth City" due to its status at

10165-571: Was appointed to command the AFSWP, with the rank of major general, becoming the youngest major general in the Army at the time. Although his rank entitled him to quarters at Fort Myer, Virginia , the Chief of Staff of the United States Army , General Omar Bradley advised him not to ask for them as there had been criticism from some senior colonels. Nichols also became Senior Army Member of

10272-587: Was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal by the United States Secretary of War , Robert P. Patterson . Nichols was promoted to brigadier general on 22 January 1946. Following the departure of Major General Thomas Farrell , Nichols became Groves' deputy, although he also continued as district engineer. Asked to spend more time on weapons production and storage, Nichols established a new underground assembly plant at

10379-591: Was belatedly awarded a second Distinguished Service Medal in 1956. Nichols became General Manager of the AEC on 2 November 1953. In this capacity he initiated the AEC Personnel Security Board hearing on the loyalty and trustworthiness of atomic scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer . In a harshly worded memorandum to the AEC on 12 June 1954, subsequent to the hearing, Nichols recommended that Oppenheimer's security clearance not be reinstated. In five "security findings", Nichols said that Oppenheimer

10486-591: Was completed in 1923 by the Cleveland architectural firm Walker and Weeks . The headquarters of the Federal Reserve System's Fourth District, the bank employs 1,000 people and maintains branch offices in Cincinnati and Pittsburgh . Cleveland and Cuyahoga County are home to Fortune 500 companies Cleveland-Cliffs , Progressive , Sherwin-Williams , Parker-Hannifin , KeyCorp , and Travel Centers of America . Other large companies based in

10593-727: Was dramatically reduced in size as it rapidly demobilized, Nichols was reduced in rank, reverting to his substantive rank of lieutenant colonel on 30 June 1946. On return from Bikini, he found that he had been made an honorary Commander of the Order of the British Empire . The Atomic Energy Act of 1946 created the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) to take over the functions and assets of the Manhattan Project. President Harry S. Truman appointed its five commissioners on 28 October 1946, and Groves appointed Nichols as

10700-556: Was elected its first mayor. That same year, it nearly erupted into open warfare with neighboring Ohio City over a bridge connecting the two communities. Ohio City remained an independent municipality until its annexation by Cleveland in 1854. A center of abolitionist activity, Cleveland (code-named "Station Hope") was a major stop on the Underground Railroad for escaped African American slaves en route to Canada. The city also served as an important center for

10807-733: Was established on July 22, 1796, by surveyors of the Connecticut Land Company when they laid out Connecticut 's Western Reserve into townships and a capital city. They named the settlement "Cleaveland" after their leader, General Moses Cleaveland , a veteran of the American Revolutionary War . Cleaveland oversaw the New England –style design of the plan for what would become the modern downtown area, centered on Public Square , before returning to Connecticut, never again to visit Ohio. The town's name

10914-534: Was estimated to cost $ 100 million. All original buildings were removed during decommissioning and the former plant site, according to federal and state environmental authorities, has been fully remediated and ready for any use including farming. [1] Much of this work was completed by the Connecticut based Manafort Brothers Incorporated. [2] Due to the failure of the US Department of Energy to develop

11021-589: Was not well-enforced in Cleveland), became law with the Volstead Act in 1920, and was eventually repealed nationally by Congress in 1933. The ban on alcohol led to the rise of speakeasies throughout the city and organized crime gangs, such as the Mayfield Road Mob , who smuggled bootleg liquor across Lake Erie from Canada into Cleveland. The era of the flapper marked the beginning of

11128-407: Was often shortened to "Cleveland", even by Cleaveland's original surveyors. A common myth emerged that the spelling was altered by The Cleveland Advertiser in order to fit the name on the newspaper's masthead . The first permanent European settler in Cleveland was Lorenzo Carter , who built a cabin on the banks of the Cuyahoga River. The emerging community served as an important supply post for

11235-559: Was promoted to captain on 13 June 1939. In June 1941, Colonel James C. Marshall summoned Nichols to the Syracuse Engineer District to become area engineer in charge of construction of the Rome Air Depot . He was promoted to major on 10 October 1941 and lieutenant colonel on 1 February 1942, when Marshall asked him to take on additional responsibility as area engineer in charge of construction of

11342-577: Was responsible for the development of the Cleveland Mall Plan . The era of the City Beautiful movement in Cleveland architecture saw wealthy patrons support the establishment of the city's major cultural institutions. The most prominent among them were the Cleveland Museum of Art , which opened in 1916, and the Cleveland Orchestra , established in 1918. In addition to the large immigrant population, African American migrants from

11449-522: Was to develop and produce atomic weapons". Lilienthal was told he would have to "forgo your desire to place a bottle of milk on every doorstop and get down to the business of producing atomic weapons". Nichols had been looking forward to "a long relaxing career as a professor during a long period of peace" but saw increased tension with the Soviet Union in February and March. In April 1948, Nichols

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