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149-646: Aside from subduing Britain, the blockade was also intended to establish French industrial and commercial hegemony in Europe. Within the French Empire , the newly acquired territories and client states were subordinate to France itself, as there was a unified market within France (no internal barriers or tariffs) while economic distortions were maintained on the borders of the new territories. The Berlin Decree forbade

298-760: A kingdom under the Bourbons and a republic after the French Revolution . Historians refer to Napoleon's regime as the First Empire to distinguish it from the restorationist Second Empire (1852–1870) ruled by his nephew Napoleon III . On 18 May 1804 (28 Floréal year XII on the French Republican calendar ), Napoleon was granted the title Emperor of the French ( Empereur des Français , pronounced [ɑ̃pʁœʁ de fʁɑ̃sɛ] ) by

447-596: A French port in order to ensure that there could be no trade with Britain. He also ordered all European nations and French allies to stop trading with Britain, and he threatened Russia with an invasion if they did not comply as well. His orders backfired in the Iberian Peninsula, especially in Portugal (being allied to Britain), setting off the Peninsular War. He pushed Russia too hard, both in terms of

596-504: A colony of Portugal or the reverse should be the case. While most Portuguese-born Brazilians believed in a united empire, the majority of natives and local politicians aspired to some form of independence for their homeland. The historical evidence indicates that regardless of any developments in Portuguese politics, Brazil would have proclaimed independence after the return of King John VI to Portugal. The separatist movement rose from

745-539: A coup against the prince. John VI's regency was a complex political period that saw Portugal attempting to remain neutral in spite of the combative intransigence of its neighbors and contentious forces within the country that favored either liberal or traditional policies. Between 1795 and 1801, his government struggled to maintain a delicate balance of peace in the face of the French Continental blockade against Portugal's traditional ally, Great Britain, and

894-589: A figurehead, Napoleon produced the Articles Organiques (1802) with the goal of becoming the legal protector of the papacy, like Charlemagne . To conceal his plans before their actual execution, he aroused French colonial aspirations against Britain and the memory of the 1763 Treaty of Paris , exacerbating British envy of France, whose borders now extended to the Rhine and beyond, to Hanover , Hamburg, and Cuxhaven . Napoleon would have ruling elites from

1043-520: A final victory was reached on French soil in the Battle of Toulouse on April 10, 1814, putting an end to the Peninsular War. However, in numerous coastal, interior and border towns there were bodies bayoneted and left on the ground; several frontier towns were pillaged and ransacked for treasure or vandalized by retreating troops (both British and French); reprisal killings were common in the local populations for sympathizers (the total number of casualties in

1192-621: A fusion of the new bourgeoisie and the old aristocracy. On 12 May 1802, the French Tribunat voted unanimously, with the exception of Lazare Carnot , in favour of the Life Consulship for the leader of France. This action was confirmed by the Corps Législatif . A general plebiscite followed thereafter resulting in 3,653,600 votes aye and 8,272 votes nay. On 2 August 1802 (14 Thermidor, An X), Napoleon Bonaparte

1341-584: A large financial indemnity. Napoleon's creation of the Kingdom of Italy , the occupation of Ancona , and his annexation of Venetia and its former Adriatic territories marked a new stage in the French Empire's progress. To create satellite states , Napoleon installed his relatives as rulers of many European states. The Bonapartes began to marry into old European monarchies, gaining sovereignty over many states. Older brother Joseph Bonaparte replaced

1490-618: A new government headed by José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva , a former royal official and professor of science at the University of Coimbra who was a formative figure in Brazilian nationalism , and known as the "Patriarch of Independence". Following Prince Pedro's decision to defy the Cortes, Portuguese troops rioted, then concentrated in the area of Mount Castello, which was soon surrounded by thousands of armed Brazilians. Pedro dismissed

1639-567: A political power which had endured for over a thousand years. Prussia had been offered the territory of Hanover to stay out of the Third Coalition. With the diplomatic situation changing, Napoleon offered Great Britain the province as part of a peace proposal. To this, combined with growing tensions in Germany over French hegemony, Prussia responded by forming an alliance with Russia and sending troops into Bavaria on 1 October 1806. During

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1788-520: A popular uprising by the Portuguese that was brutally put down after some minor successes. The following year, a British force commanded by Arthur Wellesley (future Duke of Wellington ) disembarked in Galiza with the intent of supporting the Spanish, but later advanced on Porto and landed at Figueira da Foz on 1 August. The British-Portuguese forces advanced quickly on the French, defeating them at

1937-441: A request to Bonaparte for new instructions, but was compelled to withdraw before the instructions arrived, and he retreated to Santarém . Although Napoleon finally sent Soult, it was too late for Massena, who could not hold Santarém and withdrew towards Coimbra by March 6. Successively, the French were defeated in several smaller battles: the Battle of Sabugal , Fuentes de Onoro , Battle of Condeixa , Battle of Casal Novo , and

2086-499: A safe withdrawal; and the Anglo-Portuguese forces gained control over Lisbon. The Portuguese populace was free to avenge itself on francophile compatriots for the brutality and depredations of the French. As Napoleon began dealing with the Spanish in earnest, he sent Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult to reoccupy Portugal. As word spread of the abdication of the Spanish royal family, many Spaniards revolted, gaining support from

2235-553: A supporter of the radical Jacobins during the early days of the Revolution out of pragmatism, Napoleon became increasingly autocratic as his political career progressed, and once in power embraced certain aspects of both liberalism and authoritarianism—for example, public education , a generally liberal restructuring of the French legal system , and the emancipation of the Jews—while rejecting electoral democracy and freedom of

2384-480: A system of 152 fortifications north of Lisbon, planned by Wellington, supervised by Lieutenant-Colonel Richard Fletcher constructed by Portuguese laborers, manned by 40,000 Portuguese troops and members of the local population. Marshal Massena and his forces reached the lines by 14 October, but were unable to penetrate the defenses, and he was forced to retreat in April 1811. Supplies were running low, and Massena sent

2533-412: A third time, after Julius Caesar and Charlemagne, used to modify the historical evolution of France. Though the vague plan for an invasion of Great Britain was never executed, the Battle of Ulm and the Battle of Austerlitz overshadowed the defeat at Trafalgar , and the camp at Boulogne put at Napoleon's disposal the best military resources he had commanded, in the form of La Grande Armée . In

2682-711: A war zone from the Pyrenees to the Straits of Gibraltar and saw the Grande Armée facing the remnants of the Spanish Army, as well as British and Portuguese forces. General Pierre Dupont capitulated at Bailén to General Francisco Castaños , and Junot at Cintra , Portugal to General Arthur Wellesley . Spain used up the soldiers needed for Napoleon's other fields of battle, and they had to be replaced by conscripts. Spanish resistance affected Austria, and indicated

2831-595: The kingdom of Portugal and the Algarves , from the First Treaty of San Ildefonso and the beginning of the reign of Queen Maria I in 1777, to the end of the Liberal Wars in 1834, spans a complex historical period in which several important political and military events led to the end of the absolutist regime and to the installation of a constitutional monarchy in the country. In 1807, Napoleon ordered

2980-623: The Baltic and Mediterranean ports, and to the bombardment of Copenhagen by the Royal Navy he responded with a second decree of blockade, dated from Milan on 17 December 1807. The application of the Concordat and the taking of Naples led to Napoleon's first struggles with the Pope, centred around Pius VII renewing the theocratic affirmations of Pope Gregory VII . The emperor's Roman ambition

3129-596: The Battle of Austerlitz in 1805. French dominance was reaffirmed during the War of the Fourth Coalition , at the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt in 1806 and the Battle of Friedland in 1807, before Napoleon's final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. A series of wars, known collectively as the Napoleonic Wars , extended French influence to much of Western Europe and into Poland. At its height in 1812,

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3278-518: The Battle of Foz de Arouce , in addition to Michel Ney 's rear-guard action at the Battle of Pombal . With winter quickly approaching, his forces starving, they were again defeated at the Battle of Redinha and with Anglo-Portuguese forces in pursuit, Massena crossed the border into Spain; the War would continue until March 1814, but not on Portuguese territory. A series of battles in Spain followed, until

3427-647: The Battle of Roliça (17 August) and later the Battle of Vimeiro (21 August). A two-day armistice was observed as negotiations proceeded and the belligerents formally signed the Convention of Sintra (30 August), without Portuguese representation. As part of the accord, the British transported the French troops to France, with the product of sacks made in Portugal. The Convention benefited both sides: Junot's armies, incapable of communicating with France, could make

3576-533: The Concordat of 1801 which confirmed the Catholic Church as the majority church of France and restored some of its civil status. Napoleon by this time, however, thought himself more of an enlightened despot. He preserved numerous social gains of the Revolution while suppressing political liberty. He admired efficiency and strength and hated feudalism, religious intolerance, and civil inequality. Although

3725-684: The Congress of Vienna . Napoleon gained support by appealing to some common concerns of the French people. These included dislike of the emigrant nobility who had escaped persecution, fear by some of a restoration of the Ancien Régime , a dislike and suspicion of foreign countries that had tried to reverse the Revolution—and a wish by Jacobins to extend France's revolutionary ideals. Napoleon attracted power and imperial status and gathered support for his changes of French institutions, such as

3874-603: The Cortes ordered Prince Pedro to return to Europe to complete his education with a tour of Spain, France and England, but the governmental junta in São Paulo , as well as the Senate Chamber of Rio de Janeiro implored the prince to remain. He was moved by petitions from Brazilian towns and fears that his departure, with the consequent dismantling of the central government, would trigger separatist movements. Pedro formed

4023-585: The Elbe , issued the Berlin Decree forbidding his allies and conquests from trading with the British. Britain responded with further orders in council issued on 10 January and 11 November 1807. These forbade French trade with Britain, its allies or neutrals, and instructed the Royal Navy to blockade all French and allied ports, and to prevent all shipping whether neutral or not. Napoleon responded again with

4172-598: The French Republican Calendar ) and the following day, troops led by Napoleon Bonaparte seized control. They dispersed the legislative councils, leaving a rump legislature to name Bonaparte, Sieyès, and Ducos as provisional Consuls to administer the government. Although Sieyès expected to dominate the new regime, the Consulate , he was outmaneuvered by Bonaparte, who drafted the Constitution of

4321-631: The French Revolution caused great social upheaval in Europe. The eventual Portuguese reaction was to land forces in Catalonia , and together with the Spanish forces attack the French in the Pyrenees in the War of Roussillon (1794). The war did not go well, and by 1795, Spain had privately sued for peace, signed an alliance and aligned its external politics against Great Britain . Even as Portugal

4470-768: The Iberian Peninsula as he had done in Italy, in the Netherlands, and in Hesse. However, the exile of the Spanish Royal Family to Bayonne , together with the enthroning of Joseph Bonaparte, turned the Spanish against Napoleon. After the Dos de Mayo riots and subsequent reprisals, the Spanish government began an effective guerrilla campaign, under the oversight of local Juntas . The Iberian Peninsula became

4619-469: The Luddite movement. The episode seriously hurt France itself. Shipbuilding, and its trades such as rope-making, declined, as did many other industries that relied on overseas markets, such as the linen industries. With few exports and lost profits, many industries were closed down. Southern France, especially the port cities of Marseille and Bordeaux , as well as the city of La Rochelle , suffered from

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4768-568: The Milan Decree of 1807, declaring that all neutral shipping using British ports or paying British tariffs were to be regarded as British and seized. Napoleon's plan to defeat Britain was to destroy its ability to trade. As an island nation, trade was its most vital lifeline. Napoleon believed that if he could isolate Britain economically, he would be able to invade the nation after its economic collapse. Napoleon decreed that all commercial ships wishing to do business in Europe must first stop at

4917-622: The Napoleonic Code throughout the continent increased legal equality, established jury systems and legalised divorce, and seigneurial dues and seigneurial justice were abolished, as were aristocratic privileges in all places except Poland. France's defeat in 1814 (and then again in 1815), marked the end of the First French Empire and the beginning of the Bourbon Restoration . In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte

5066-512: The Palace of Bemposta to urge him to renounce liberal ideals. In Portugal, as in Spain, the adversaries of constitutionalism were divided into two factions: a radical and a more moderate group. King John depended on the moderate faction; the ministers he selected after the Vilafrancada oscillated between conciliatory paternal absolutism and a timidly moderate liberalism. Queen Carlota was

5215-704: The Third Coalition , refused to comply with French demands and was attacked by Russia in February and by Denmark-Norway in March 1808. At the same time, a French force threatened to invade southern Sweden, but the plan was stopped as the Royal Navy controlled the Danish straits . The Royal Navy set up a base outside the port of Gothenburg in 1808 to simplify operations into the Baltic Sea. The Baltic campaign

5364-597: The Treaty of Fontainebleau which would partition Portugal. In this pact, Northern Lusitania , a territory between the Minho and Douro rivers, would be a principality governed by the sovereign of the extinct Kingdom of Etruria (then Maria Luisa, daughter of Charles IV of Spain ). The Algarve and all Portuguese territory located south of the Tagus would be governed by Manuel de Godoy , in compensation for his role in bringing

5513-602: The War of the Fourth Coalition , Napoleon destroyed the Prussian armies at Jena and Auerstedt . Successive victories at Eylau and Friedland against the Russians finally ruined Frederick the Great 's formerly mighty kingdom, obliging Russia and Prussia to make peace with France at Tilsit . The Treaties of Tilsit ended the war between Russia and France and began an alliance between the two empires that held as much power as

5662-521: The War of the Third Coalition , Napoleon swept away the remnants of the old Holy Roman Empire and created in southern Germany the vassal states of Bavaria , Baden , Württemberg , Hesse-Darmstadt , and Saxony , which were reorganised into the Confederation of the Rhine . The Treaty of Pressburg , signed on 26 December 1805, extracted extensive territorial concessions from Austria, on top of

5811-851: The freemasons , who, led by José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva , were pressing for parliamentary government and independence. More confident now, in early August he called on the Brazilian deputies in Lisbon to return, decreed that Portuguese forces in Brazil should be treated as enemies, and issued a manifesto to "friendly nations" that read like a declaration of independence. Seeking to duplicate his triumph in Minas Gerais, Pedro rode to São Paulo in August to ensure his support there. Returning from an excursion to Santos , Pedro received messages from his wife Princess Maria Leopoldina and Andrade e Silva that

5960-424: The Algarves invaded and conquered the Banda Oriental , annexing it under the name of Província Cisplatina in 1821. From 1808 through 1821, Portugal was effectively both a British protectorate and a colony of Brazil, as the Portuguese Crown remained in Rio de Janeiro . The moving of the Portuguese capital to Rio de Janeiro accentuated the economic, institutional and social crises in mainland Portugal, which

6109-409: The Allies, and longstanding allied states, such as Saxony and Bavaria, forsook him as well. Following his retreat from Russia, Napoleon continued to retreat, this time from Germany. After the loss of Spain, reconquered by an Allied army led by the Duke of Wellington , the uprising in the Netherlands preliminary to the invasion, and the manifesto of Frankfurt (1 December 1813) which proclaimed it, he

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6258-441: The Austrian capital of Vienna for a second time. At Aspern , Napoleon suffered his first serious tactical defeat, along with the death of Marshal Jean Lannes , an able commander and dear friend of the emperor. The victory at Wagram , however, forced Austria to sue for peace. The Treaty of Schönbrunn , signed on 14 December 1809, resulted in the annexation of the Illyrian Provinces and recognised past French conquests. The Pope

6407-507: The Bank of Brazil was chartered and insurance companies, commerce commissions and currency exchanges were established. This damaged the mother country's commercial interests and aggravated social problems there, while benefiting the United Kingdom, as Portugal was governed by the increasingly despotic British general William Beresford in the absence of the Cortes. At the end of the Peninsular War , Portugal returned French Guiana (which had been seized in 1809) to France on 30 May 1814. With

6556-424: The British battleship Windsor Castle in Caxias . There he was made aware of the situation, summoned Miguel, dismissed him from the post of commander-in-chief of the army, and sent him into exile. On 14 May, John returned to the Palace of Bemposta and re-established the liberal government. However, a new conspiracy was discovered on October 26 of the same year. The queen accused the liberals of attempting to poison

6705-435: The British stationed in Portugal. Under the command of John Moore , British forces crossed the northern Portuguese border but were defeated at A Coruña by Marshal Soult, and were forced to retreat in the middle of January. The French immediately occupied northern Portugal and advanced on Oporto by 24 March. Unlike the first invasion, there was a popular revolt against French occupation by farmers, conservative nobility and

6854-401: The Constitution and parliamentary government. Prince Miguel, who shared the queen's views, served as her instrument to subvert the revolution. On 27 May 1823, the prince organized an insurgency against the liberal constitution; a garrison from Lisbon joined Miguel in Vila Franca de Xira , and there absolutism was proclaimed. The king responded by suspending the 1822 Constitution and promising

7003-401: The Continental Blockade by the discontented bourgeoisie, ruined by the crisis of 1811 . Even as he lost his military principles, Napoleon maintained his gift for brilliance. His Six Days' Campaign , which took place at the very end of the War of the Sixth Coalition , is often regarded as his greatest display of leadership and military prowess. But by then it was the end (or "the finish"), and it

7152-478: The Continental System, and in his demands for control over part of Poland . Napoleon's 1812 invasion of Russia was a disaster which set the stage for his downfall. The Continental System had mixed effects on British trade. The embargo encouraged British merchants to seek out new markets aggressively and to engage in smuggling with continental Europe. Napoleon's exclusively land-based customs enforcers could not stop British smugglers, especially as these operated with

7301-448: The Continental System, the orders in council threatened to respond with punitive measures. This double threat created a difficult time for neutral nations like the United States. In response to this prohibition, the U.S. government adopted the Embargo Act of 1807 and eventually Macon's Bill Number 2 . This embargo was designed as an economic counterattack to hurt Britain, but it proved even more damaging to American merchants. Together with

7450-456: The Continental System. More specifically, Alexander agreed to evacuate Wallachia and Moldavia , which had been occupied by Russian forces as part of the Russo-Turkish War . The Ionian Islands and Cattaro , which had been captured by Russian admirals Fyodor Ushakov and Dmitry Senyavin , were to be handed over to the French. In recompense, Napoleon guaranteed the sovereignty of the Duchy of Oldenburg and several other small states ruled by

7599-440: The European nations under his control, causing inflation and great debt to undermine British strength. His position was strengthened by the Fall of Berlin in October 1806, bringing swathes of Prussia under his control. In November 1806, having recently conquered or allied with every major power on the European continent, Napoleon, in retaliation to the British Order in Council of 17 May 1806 blockading all ports from Brest to

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7748-489: The French Sénat conservateur and was crowned on 2 December 1804 (11 Frimaire year XIII), signifying the end of the French Consulate and of the French First Republic . Despite his coronation, the state continued to be formally called the "French Republic" until October 1808. The empire achieved military supremacy in mainland Europe through notable victories in the War of the Third Coalition against Austria , Prussia , Russia , Britain , and allied states, notably at

7897-411: The French Empire had 130 departments , a population over 44 million people, ruled over 90 million subjects throughout Europe and in the overseas colonies, maintained an extensive military presence in Germany , Italy , Spain , and Poland , and counted Austria and Prussia as nominal allies. Early French victories exported many ideological features of the Revolution throughout Europe: the introduction of

8046-488: The French remained anxious to break the Anglo-Portuguese alliance in order to close Portuguese ports to British shipping. On 29 January 1801, an ultimatum from Spain and France forced Portugal to decide between France and Britain, even as its government had tried to negotiate favorable relations with the two powers rather than abrogate the Treaty of Windsor (1386) . The French sent a five-point statement to Lisbon demanding that Portugal: If Portugal failed to accomplish

8195-431: The King's authority to designate regents, nor support the Bragança Agreement , which stipulated that the Portuguese Crown should pass to Prince Pedro if Brazil gained its independence. Talk of separatism had dominated the economic and intellectual circles of Brazil, which was prosperous, although at least one third of its population of 3.5 million were African slaves . The question was whether Brazil should return to being

8344-403: The Marquis' fiercest detractor; once in power, she eagerly dismissed him and then exiled him to Pombal . Although the queen retained many of the Marquis' other ministers, she restored most of the privileges of the nobility and clergy, and released many of Pombal's political prisoners. The economy was reorganized and Pombaline monopolies were abandoned. However, international conditions favored

8493-464: The Mediterranean, and exclude his chief rival, Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812. Despite his victorious advance, the taking of Smolensk , the victory on the Moskva , and the entry into Moscow, he was defeated by the country and the climate, and by Alexander's refusal to make terms. After this came the terrible retreat in the harsh Russian winter, while all of Europe was turning against him. Pushed back, as he had been in Spain, from bastion to bastion, after

8642-414: The Napoleonic invasions, had approved a liberal Constitution when King Ferdinand VII was in exile, but it was quickly abrogated on his return, and he reigned as absolute monarch. The Spanish model also served as an example for the Portuguese: a popular uprising in the provinces against absolutism forced the Spanish monarch to reinstate the 1820 Constitutional monarchy. The significance of events in Spain

8791-608: The Peninsular War. Men like Baron von Stein , August von Hardenberg , and Gerhard von Scharnhorst had begun secretly preparing Prussia's retaliation . The alliance arranged at Tilsit was seriously shaken by the Austrian marriage, the threat of Polish restoration to Russia, and the Continental System. The very persons whom he had placed in power were counteracting his plans. With many of his siblings and relations performing unsuccessfully or even betraying him, Napoleon found himself obliged to revoke their power. Caroline Bonaparte conspired against her brother and against her husband Murat;

8940-440: The Portuguese capital at the end of the month, arriving a day after the Court had fled to Brazil. Before the Prince Regent departed, he left orders with the Regency Junta to greet the French in peace. Once he arrived, Junot promoted himself as a reformer come to liberate the oppressed people of Portugal, promising progress, the construction of roads and canals, efficient administration, clean finances, assistance and schools for

9089-459: The Portuguese Cortes had declared his government traitorous, and were dispatching more troops. Pedro then had to choose between returning to Portugal in disgrace, or breaking the last ties to Portugal; in a famous scene in front of the Ipiranga River on 7 September 1822, he tore the Portuguese white and blue insignia from his uniform, drew his sword, and swore: "By my blood, by my honor, and by God: I will make Brazil free." With this oath, repeated by

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9238-558: The Portuguese Cortes. Slaves continued to be bought and sold and disciplined with force, however, despite his assertion that their blood was the same color as his and the Portuguese Cortes. In September 1821, the Portuguese Cortes, with a handful of the Brazilian delegates present, voted to abolish the Kingdom of Brazil and the royal agencies in Rio de Janeiro , thus subordinating all provinces of Brazil directly to Lisbon . Troops were sent to Brazil to stifle resistance, and local units were placed under Portuguese command. On 29 September,

9387-412: The Portuguese commanding general, General Jorge Avilez, and ordered him to remove his soldiers across the bay to Niterói , where they would await transportation to Portugal. Blood was also shed in Recife, province of Pernambuco , when the Portuguese garrison was forced to depart in November 1821. In mid-February 1822, Brazilians in Bahia revolted against the Portuguese forces there, but were driven into

9536-432: The Prince Regent, the Queen and the entire royal family, accompanied by much of the nobility as well as their servants, boarded fifteen Portuguese ships gathered in the Tagus with an escort of several English ships, as planned the year before when the British ambassador advised the prince that the Portuguese Crown should be transferred to Brazil. Approximately 10,000 people, including the entire governmental administration and

9685-465: The Russian emperor's German relatives. The treaty removed about half of Prussia's territory: Cottbus was given to Saxony, the left bank of the Elbe was awarded to the newly created Kingdom of Westphalia, Białystok was given to Russia, and the rest of the Polish lands in Prussian possession were set up as the Duchy of Warsaw . Prussia was ordered to reduce its army to 40,000 men and to pay an indemnity of 100,000,000 francs. Observers in Prussia viewed

9834-491: The Spanish to align with France. The rest of Portugal, the area between the Douro and the Tagus, a strategic region because of its ports, would be administered by the central government in France until a general peace. Its colonial possessions, including Brazil, would be divided between Spain and France. On either 19 or 20 November 1807, a French battalion commanded by General Jean-Andoche Junot entered Portugal. Napoleon had ordered its invasion and occupation. On 27 November,

9983-417: The Year VIII and secured his own election as First Consul. He thus became the most powerful person in France, a power that was increased by the Constitution of the Year X , which made him First Consul for life. The Battle of Marengo (14 June 1800) inaugurated the political idea that was to continue its development until Napoleon's Russian campaign . The Peace of Amiens , which cost him control of Egypt ,

10132-487: The assembled crowd, he announced: "Brazilians, from this day forward our motto will be...Independence or Death" John VI had no pretensions to the throne until his older brother Joseph, Prince of Beira , died from smallpox at the age of 27. John, then 21 years old, lived for hunting and had little interest in public affairs. However, four years later he became prince regent because of Queen Maria I's mental illness, and in 1816, he became King John VI after her death while

10281-405: The border between the two countries. The treaty was ratified by the Prince-Regent on 14 June, while the King of Spain promulgated the treaty on 21 June. A special convention (i.e., the Treaty of Madrid ) on 29 September 1801 made additions to that of Badajoz whereby Portugal was forced to pay France an indemnity of 20 million francs . This treaty was initially rejected by Napoleon, who wanted

10430-443: The city of Porto on 29 May, and forcing the French retreat to Galicia . Wellesley intended to pursue the French, but with French forces crossing from the Spanish Extremadura , he moved his base to Abrantes . From here his forces then marched up the Tagus valley, entered Spain and won the victory at Talavera , after which he was made Duke of Wellington . He could not penetrate further, owing to Soult's forces joining Victor , to bar

10579-511: The conflict between the Regency of Prince Pedro meant to rule frugally and started by cutting his own salary , centralizing scattered government offices and selling off most of the royal horses and mules . He issued decrees eliminating the royal salt tax to spur the output of hides and dried beef ; he forbade arbitrary seizure of private property ; required a judge's warrant for arrests of freemen; and banned secret trials , torture , and other indignities. He also sent elected deputies to

10728-548: The connivance of Napoleon's chosen rulers of Spain, Westphalia , and other German states. British exports to the continent fell between 25% and 55% compared to pre-1806 levels. However, trade sharply increased with the rest of the world, covering much of the decline. In response to the Continental System, British orders in council prohibited other countries (that is, its trade partners) from trading with France. If they chose to trade with France or otherwise comply with

10877-458: The country's total trade dropped from 55% to 25% between 1802 and 1806. However, the British economy suffered greatly from 1810 to 1812, especially in terms of high unemployment and inflation. This led to widespread protest and violence, but the middle classes and upper classes strongly supported the government, which used the Yeomanry and militia to suppress the working class unrest, especially

11026-444: The countryside arresting, killing, plundering and raping the citizenry. By 1808, as Junot was busy redesigning Portuguese society, Napoleon decided to revise his alliance with Spain; he forced the abdication of Charles IV of Spain and his son Ferdinand , and installed his brother Joseph Bonaparte as King. A popular uprising in Spain immediately spread to Junot's forces, which were accompanied by Spanish troops, and further instigated

11175-511: The countryside, where they began guerrilla operations, signaling that the struggle in the north would not be without loss of life and property. Hoping to rally support throughout the country, Pedro began a series of initiatives to strengthen his position, even as the Portuguese Cortes ridiculed him and disparaged his importance. In Minas Gerais , where there were no Portuguese garrisons stationed, some doubts lingered, especially among

11324-642: The crossing of the Berezina , Napoleon had to fall back upon the frontiers of 1809, and then—having refused the peace offered to him by Austria at the Congress of Prague (4 June – 10 August 1813), from fear of losing Italy, where each of his victories had marked a stage in the accomplishment of his dream—on those of 1805, despite the victories at Lützen and Bautzen , and on those of 1802 after his disastrous defeat at Leipzig , when Bernadotte—now Crown Prince of Sweden—turned upon him, General Jean Moreau also joined

11473-647: The declaration by King John of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves in December 1815, Brazil's new importance worsened the situation in continental Portugal: politically, it became the Portuguese capital (shedding the pretense of being a colony), and economically, was now able to trade directly with other European powers. A report was sent from the Regency to John VI on 2 June 1820, stating: Portugal's neighbor Spain, during its resistance to

11622-456: The defeated and demoralized Portuguese were forced to negotiate and accept the stipulations of the Treaty of Badajoz , signed on June 6, 1801. As part of the peace settlement, Portugal recovered all of the strongholds previously conquered by the Spanish, with the exception of Olivença and other territories on the eastern margin of the Guadiana , and a prohibition of contraband was enforced near

11771-710: The defenders in the Fort of Almeida in August, then marched in the direction of Lisbon. Against the wishes of his council, Messena attacked the Anglo-Portuguese Army on 26 September in Buçaco , losing 4500 troops. Yet, Wellesley 's forces withdrew in front of the oncoming French, until his troops entered the prepared positions in Torres Vedras . But the French were impeded along the Lines of Torres Vedras ,

11920-463: The demands of the merchant classes who were prospering economically and wanted peace. Meanwhile, Spain, a former ally, had signed the Second Treaty of San Ildefonso , and was under pressure from France to coerce Portugal's cooperation, even if it required an invasion. Although Manuel de Godoy was initially hesitant to invade Portugal, due to the royal family having relatives in both countries,

12069-732: The dispossessed Bourbons in Naples; younger brother Louis Bonaparte was installed on the throne of the Kingdom of Holland , formed from the Batavian Republic ; brother-in-law Marshal Joachim Murat became Grand-Duke of Berg ; youngest brother Jérôme Bonaparte was made son-in-law to the King of Württemberg and King of Westphalia ; adopted son Eugène de Beauharnais was appointed Viceroy of Italy; and adopted daughter and second cousin Stéphanie de Beauharnais married Karl (Charles) ,

12218-455: The dogmas of religion would bring the two groups into conflict eventually. In the meantime, however, the rhetoric of the liberal intellectuals had influenced those soldiers in the northern garrisons who on 24 August 1820, first proclaimed in Porto a revolution against the absolute monarchy of Portugal. A colonel read out the declaration: The Regency in Lisbon attempted to gather forces to oppose

12367-674: The economic situation in Portugal as the balance of trade was positive, helped by wine exports and a decrease of British imports. The period was, while tainted by political instability, a time of cultural renovation, marked by the completion of the Palace at Queluz , the beginnings of the Ajuda Palace , the São Carlos Theatre , the Estrela Basilica and the immense Convent of Santa Clara in Vila do Conde . In 1789,

12516-681: The empire in the " Hundred Days ." However, he was defeated by the Seventh Coalition at the Battle of Waterloo . He surrendered himself to the British and was exiled to Saint Helena , a remote island in the South Atlantic, where he remained until his death in 1821. After the Hundred Days, the Bourbon monarchy was restored , with Louis XVIII regaining the French throne, while the rest of Napoleon's conquests were disposed of in

12665-718: The five conditions of this ultimatum, it would be invaded by Spain, supported by 15,000 French soldiers. The British could not promise any effective relief, even as Prince John appealed to Hookham Frere , who arrived in November 1800. In February, the terms were delivered to the Prince-Regent; although he sent a negotiator to Madrid, war was declared. At the time, Portugal had a poorly trained army, with less than 8,000 cavalry and 46,000 infantry troops. Its military commander, João Carlos de Bragança e Ligne (2nd Duke of Lafões ), had barely raised 2,000 horse and 16,000 troops. and

12814-719: The fleet and transferred the Portuguese court to Brazil with a Royal Navy escort. The Portuguese population rose in revolt against the French invaders, with the help of the British Army under Arthur Wellesley, later the Duke of Wellington . Napoleon intervened, and the Peninsular War began in 1808. Napoleon also forced the Spanish royal family to abdicate their throne in favour of Napoleon's brother, Joseph . First French Empire The First French Empire or French Empire ( French : Empire français ; Latin : Imperium Francicum ) and also known as Napoleonic France ,

12963-411: The former condition of the poor still prevailed, they remaining pro-monarchist and ultra-religious, but without the power to change their circumstances. The situation in continental Europe changed in 1823. Once again influenced by events in Spain, where the anti-liberal Santa Aliança had restored the absolute monarchy, pro-monarchist forces gravitated towards Queen Carlota Joaquina de Borbón . The queen

13112-544: The goods were smuggled to the many ports around the Baltic Sea. To further support the convoys, the small Danish island of Anholt was occupied in May 1809. A lighthouse on the island simplified navigation through the Danish straits. Russia also chafed under the embargo, and in 1810 reopened trade with Britain. Russia's withdrawal from the system was a motivating factor behind Napoleon's decision to invade Russia in 1812, which proved

13261-602: The guarantee of the continuance of his dynasty, marking the high point of the Empire. Undermining forces, however, had already begun to impinge on the faults inherent in Napoleon's achievements. Britain, protected by the English Channel and its navy, was persistently active, and rebellion of both the governing and of the governed broke out everywhere. Napoleon, though he underrated it, soon felt his failure in coping with

13410-796: The hypochondriac Louis, now Dutch in his sympathies, found the supervision of the blockade taken from him, and also the defence of the Scheldt , which he had refused to ensure. Jérôme Bonaparte lost control of the blockade on the North Sea shores . The very nature of things was against the new dynasties, as it had been against the old. After national insurrections and family recriminations came treachery from Napoleon's ministers. Talleyrand betrayed his designs to Klemens von Metternich and suffered dismissal . Joseph Fouché , corresponding with Austria in 1809 and 1810, entered into an understanding with Louis and also with Britain, while Louis Antoine de Bourrienne

13559-403: The import of British goods into any European country allied with or dependent upon France, and it installed the Continental System in Europe. All connections with Britain were to be cut, even mail. However, there was extensive smuggling, which made the Continental System an ineffective weapon of economic war. There was some damage to British trade, especially in 1808 and 1812, but British control of

13708-478: The invaders. An episode which occurred during the siege of Elvas accounts for the name, "War of the Oranges": Godoy, celebrating his first experience of generalship, plucked two oranges from a tree and immediately sent them to Queen Maria Luisa of Spain, mother of Carlota Joaquina and supposedly his lover, with the message: I lack everything, but with nothing I will go to Lisbon. The conflict ended quickly when

13857-501: The invasion of Portugal and subsequently the royal family and its entire court migrated to Brazil , Maria I declaring the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves in 1815. This would be one of the causes for the declaration of Brazilian independence by Pedro I of Brazil in 1822, following a liberal revolution in Portugal. The liberal period was stormy and short as Miguel of Portugal (Pedro's brother) supported an absolutist revolution endeavoring to restore all power to

14006-433: The island of Elba, Napoleon escaped to France with a thousand men and four cannons. King Louis XVIII sent Marshal Michel Ney to arrest him. Upon meeting Ney's army, Napoleon dismounted and walked into firing range, saying "If one of you wishes to kill his emperor, here I am!" But instead of firing, the soldiers went to join Napoleon's side shouting " Vive l'Empereur! " Napoleon retook the throne temporarily in 1815, reviving

14155-473: The issues of the impressment of American seamen, and British support for Indian resistance in U.S. colonization, tensions led to a declaration of war by the U.S. in the War of 1812 . This war, not Napoleon's blockade, sharply reduced British trade with the United States. The blockade did not cause significant economic damage to the British, although British exports to the continent as a proportion of

14304-533: The judiciary, joined the royal family as they moved to Brazil, a possession of Portugal, and established the capital of the Portuguese Empire in Rio de Janeiro . General Jean-Andoche Junot and his troops had entered Spain on 18 October 1807 and crossed the Iberian Peninsula to reach the Portuguese border. Junot encountered no resistance and reached Abrantes by 24 November, Santarém on 28 November, and

14453-444: The junta of Ouro Preto . With only a few companions and no pomp or ceremony, Pedro plunged into Minas Gerais on horseback in late March 1822, receiving enthusiastic welcomes and vows of allegiance everywhere. On 13 May, in Rio de Janeiro , Pedro was proclaimed the "Perpetual Defender of Brazil" by the São Paulo legislative assembly and he took the opportunity to call for a constituent assembly. To broaden his base of support, he joined

14602-455: The king, while they suspected her of having done it herself: this time, she was exiled to Queluz . During his reign as king, John promoted the arts (mainly literature), commerce and agriculture, but being forced to return to Europe and to keep track of the court intrigues that arose following the independence of Brazil made him an unhappy man, and he died soon after the Abrilada in 1826. It

14751-515: The lack of competition from British goods (particularly textiles, which were produced much more cheaply in Britain). In Italy, the agricultural sector flourished; but the Dutch economy, predicated on trade, suffered greatly as a result of the embargo. Napoleon's economic warfare was much to the chagrin of his own brother, King Louis I of Holland . Britain's first response to the Continental System

14900-433: The limitations and subordinations inherent in Brazil's colonial status were already being reduced incrementally. The prohibition on transformative industries was rescinded, and new incentives were offered for: the creation of factories, the importation of British machinery, ship construction, and road building, as well as the foundation and construction of public schools and military academies. In addition to these improvements,

15049-411: The military and noblemen, whose liberalism was based not on personal economic circumstances but on their exposure to international literature and philosophies at university or in the masonic lodges. The common people were rural, almost totally illiterate and lived in a culture of tradition and religion guided by the clergy. The ideological differences between the doctrinairism of the liberal movement and

15198-414: The monarchy. Pedro eventually returned to Portugal and fought and defeated his brother in the Liberal Wars in which liberalism prevailed and Portugal became a constitutional monarchy. The death of King Joseph in 1777 forced the accession of Princess Maria Francisca , his eldest daughter, to the throne of Portugal; she succeeded her father as the first Queen regnant of the 650-year-old country, which

15347-464: The oceans led to replacement trade with North and South America, as well as large scale smuggling in Europe particularly from Malta , which was used by the British to sell their goods to southern Italy . The loss of Britain as a trading partner also hit the economies of France and its allies. Angry governments gained an incentive to ignore the Continental System, which led to the weakening of Napoleon's coalition. As Napoleon realised that extensive trade

15496-675: The partition of Portugal, but accepted once he concluded a peace with Great Britain at Amiens . In 1806, after Napoleon's victory over the Prussians , he considered the problem of the resistance of the English, who had broken the peace in 1803 to challenge the Continental system imposed by the French, and realized that the situation in Portugal impeded his plan for reform in Europe. Again, Portuguese ports were ordered closed to British shipping; On 27 October 1807, France and Spain signed

15645-509: The poor. Instead, he set about removing vestiges of the Portuguese monarchy, declared that the House of Braganza had ceased to reign in Portugal, suspended the Council of Regency, suppressed the Portuguese militia, billeted officers in the finest houses of the rich, and plundered the Portuguese treasury for continuing reparations to the French. Meanwhile, 50,000 Spanish and French troops roamed

15794-495: The poor. Many of the citizen soldiers and farmers fought against the French aggression, going so far as to see tactical retreats as a betrayal or treason by the Portuguese officers. But Soult occupied Chaves on 12 March, a defense of Braga was unsuccessful and the French troops stormed and captured Porto by 29 March. Soult forces encountered a popular resistance in Porto, that included militia and local residents who barricaded

15943-519: The potential of national resistance. The provocations of Talleyrand and Britain strengthened the idea that the Austrians could emulate the Spanish. On 10 April 1809, Austria invaded France's ally, Bavaria. The campaign of 1809, however, would not be nearly as long and troublesome for France as the one in Spain and Portugal. Following a short and decisive action in Bavaria, Napoleon opened up the road to

16092-527: The press . France justified the spread of her empire as one of spreading her superior culture, bringing Enlightenment thinking and modern civilisation to what they viewed as backwards peoples. However this consequently led to attitudes of contempt against many of the nations France conquered and repression against recalcitrant populations. 48°51′44″N 02°19′57″E  /  48.86222°N 2.33250°E  / 48.86222; 2.33250 History of Portugal (1777%E2%80%931834) The history of

16241-496: The press and literary productions was lifted, and the Portuguese Inquisition was extinguished; a general amnesty for those involved in anti-liberal movements was also ordered. On 26 April 1821, John VI departed for Lisbon, arriving on 3 July of the same year, and communicated to the Cortes the establishment of a Regency in Brazil in the name of his heir-apparent, Pedro I of Brazil . The deputies did not recognize

16390-506: The pretext that the King's life was in danger, imprisoned numerous ministers and important figures of the kingdom, while keeping his father incommunicado in the Bemposta Palace . This second attempt to depose King John became known as the Abrilada , (after "Abril", the Portuguese word for "April"). During the course of his actions Miguel had offended the sensibilities of the British and French ambassadors, who managed to get John to

16539-476: The principal supporter of the radical absolutists, who favored absolutism without concessions and the repression of new ideas filtering in from Europe. She gave no quarter, and in 1823, the police revealed a conspiracy led by her and Prince Miguel (who had been promoted to the post of commander-in-chief of the Army following the events of the Vilafrancada ) to force the King to abdicate. Then, on 30 April, Miguel, using

16688-553: The promulgation of a new law to guarantee "personal security, property and jobs". The revolt was referred to as the Vilafrancada (events that occurred in Vila Franca). One of the objectives of Queen Carlota and Miguel was the abdication of King John, who, although he accepted absolutism, was yet loyal to the liberal Constitution. Ultimately the king accepted absolutism when a movement of army officers and citizens surrounded

16837-615: The reduction in trade. Moreover, the prices of staple foods rose in most of continental Europe. Napoleon's St. Cloud Decree in July 1810 opened the southwest of France and the Spanish frontier to limited British trade, and reopened French trade to the United States. It was an admission that his blockade had hurt his own economy more than the British. It had also failed to reduce British financial support for its allies. The industrialised north and east of France, and Wallonia (the south of present-day Belgium) saw significantly increased profits due to

16986-710: The rest of Europe. The two empires secretly agreed to aid each other in disputes. France pledged to aid Russia against the Ottoman Empire , while Russia agreed to join the Continental System against Britain. Russia also agreed to recognize the Confederation of the Rhine , as agreed on by the treaty. Napoleon also forced Alexander to enter the Anglo-Russian War and to instigate the Finnish War against Sweden in order to force Sweden to join

17135-722: The revolt, but on 15 September they too joined the movement. The administration of William Beresford was swiftly replaced by a Provisional Junta , and the " General Extraordinary and Constituent Cortes of the Portuguese Nation ", whose deputies were chosen by indirect election, was summoned on 1 January 1821 to draft a written Constitution . This constitutional assembly was composed of diplomatic functionaries, merchants, agrarian burghers, and university-educated representatives who were usually lawyers. Most of all these were ideological romantics, later referred to as Vintistas for their audacious radicalism. State censorship of

17284-466: The royal family was residing in Rio de Janeiro. In 1821 he was forced to return to a country economically and politically unstable, to preside over a recently installed constitutional monarchy. There were deep divisions between the returning Royal Court and the Portuguese Cortes that governed the nation. While the free-thinking Vintistas of the upper class governed, the new "modern era" was such in name only:

17433-532: The sea lanes in the North Sea and Baltic Sea for the British merchant fleet. The island of Heligoland off the west coast of Denmark was occupied in September 1807. This base made it easier for Britain to control trade to North Sea ports and to facilitate smuggling. The attacks against Copenhagen and Heligoland started the Gunboat War against Denmark, which lasted until 1814. Sweden, Britain's ally in

17582-583: The son of the Grand Duke of Baden. In addition to the vassal titles, Napoleon's closest relatives were also granted the title of French Prince and formed the Imperial House of France . Met with opposition, Napoleon would not tolerate any neutral power. On 6 August 1806 the Habsburgs abdicated their title of Holy Roman Emperor in order to prevent Napoleon from becoming the next Emperor, ending

17731-568: The streets. But Francisco da Silveira recovered Chaves and ultimately, it was Wellesley, again, at the head of the British-Portuguese forces who expelled the French from the north of the country. He was aided by William Carr Beresford and supported by a stronger Portuguese contingent, trained, equipped and commanded by British officers. The Anglo-Portuguese Army defeated Soult at the Second Battle of Porto , re-conquering

17880-439: The systematic defeats of the combined French and Spanish navies. After the decisive defeat at Trafalgar , Napoleon made no attempt to rebuild his navy. He turned instead to economic warfare, planning to ruin the British economy. It was thought that Britain depended completely upon trade with Europe for its prosperity, so cutting off trade with continental Europe would ruin the British economy and force it to sue for peace. A blockade

18029-401: The treason of 1812. The country itself, though flattered by conquests, was tired of self-sacrifice. The unpopularity of conscription gradually turned many of Napoleon's subjects against him . Amidst profound silence from the press and the assemblies, a protest was raised against imperial power by the literary world, against the excommunicated sovereign by Catholicism, and against the author of

18178-399: The treaty as unfair and as a national humiliation. Talleyrand had advised Napoleon to pursue milder terms; the treaties marked an important stage in his estrangement from the emperor. After Tilsit, instead of trying to reconcile Europe, as Talleyrand had advised, Napoleon wanted to defeat Britain and complete his Italian dominion. To the coalition of the northern powers, he added the league of

18327-426: The turning point of the war and his regime. Portugal openly refused to join the Continental System. In 1793, Portugal signed a treaty of mutual assistance with Britain. After the Treaty of Tilsit in July 1807, Napoleon attempted to capture the Portuguese fleet and the House of Braganza , and to occupy the Portuguese ports. He failed, as Prince-regent John VI , acting for his mother, Queen Maria I of Portugal , took

18476-494: The war reached 100,000 by one account); while famine and social deprivation was common. Furthermore, the instability in Spain and the abdication of the king, resulted in declarations of independence in the Spanish colonies of America , which in turn was responsible for a tense political climate in Brazil. In 1816, and as a result of the increasing influence of the Liga Federal , the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and

18625-675: The way to Madrid, and so withdrew to Torres Vedras to plan for the defense against a third invasion by the French. Meanwhile, in the Portuguese colony of Brazil , Portugal was successful in capturing French Guiana in 1809. The third invasion, the last effort of the Peninsular War on Portuguese soil, was commanded by Marshal André Massena , and divided into three parts under Jean Reynier , Claude Victor-Perrin and Jean-Andoche Junot , and comprised 62,000 men and 84 canon. Entering by way of Beira in August, they quickly defeated

18774-462: Was a precursor of the Peninsular War that would engulf the Iberian Peninsula . The Spanish army quickly penetrated the Alentejo region in southern Portugal and occupied Olivença , Juromenha , Arronches , Portalegre , Castelo de Vide , Barbacena and Ouguela without resistance. Campo Maior resisted for 18 days before falling to the Spanish army, but Elvas successfully resisted a siege by

18923-640: Was a temporary truce. He gradually extended his authority in Italy by annexing the Piedmont and by acquiring Genoa , Parma , Tuscany, and Naples , and added this Italian territory to the Cisalpine Republic . Then he laid siege to the Roman state and initiated the Concordat of 1801 to control the material claims of the Pope . When he recognised his error of raising the authority of the Pope from that of

19072-466: Was administered by English commercial and military interests under William Beresford's rule in the absence of the monarch. The influence of liberal ideals was strengthened by the aftermath of the war, the continuing impact of the American and French revolutions, discontent under absolutist government, and the general indifference shown by the Portuguese regency for the plight of its people. After 1807

19221-518: Was also at the end of his life that he recognized the independence of Brazil (15 November 1825) and restored his son Pedro's right of succession to the Portuguese throne. Before his death, he named a regency council presided over by the Infanta Isabel Maria to govern the country between his death and the acclamation of the future king. The death of King John VI sparked a constitutional crisis, as his rightful successor, Prince Pedro,

19370-421: Was at about this time that Queen Maria, already possessed of a religious mania, began to show signs of mental illness. When after 1799 she became incapable of handling state affairs, her son, Infante John of Braganza , began to use the title of Prince-Regent . The traditionalist adversaries of France, however, did not look to John, but rather to his wife Carlota Joaquina for support, and at one point attempted

19519-471: Was compelled to contract the services of a Prussian colonel, Count Karl Alexander von der Goltz, to assume command as field marshal. The Spanish Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief, Manuel de Godoy , had some 30,000 troops at his disposal, while the French troops under General Charles Leclerc (Napoleon's brother-in-law) arrived in Spain too late to assist Godoy, as it was a short military campaign. On May 20, Godoy finally entered Portugal; this incursion

19668-548: Was confronted by Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès —one of five Directors constituting the executive branch of the French government—who sought his support for a coup d'état to overthrow the Constitution of the Year III . The plot included Bonaparte's brother Lucien , then serving as speaker of the Council of Five Hundred , Roger Ducos , another Director, and Charles Maurice de Talleyrand . On 9 November 1799 ( 18 Brumaire VIII under

19817-471: Was convicted of speculation. By consequence of the spirit of conquest Napoleon had aroused, many of his marshals and officials, having tasted victory, dreamed of sovereign power: Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte , who had helped him to the Consulate, played Napoleon false to win the crown of Sweden . Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult , like Murat, coveted the Spanish throne after that of Portugal, thus anticipating

19966-406: Was during the years before when various European states conspired against France. While Napoleon and his holdings idled and worsened, the rest of Europe agreed to avenge the revolutionary events of 1792. Napoleon had hardly succeeded in putting down the revolt in Germany when the emperor of Russia himself headed a European insurrection against Napoleon. To put an end to this, ensure his own access to

20115-473: Was forced to fall back upon the frontiers of 1795; and was later driven further back upon those of 1792—despite the forceful campaign of 1814 against the invaders . Paris capitulated on 30 March 1814, and the Delenda Carthago , pronounced against Britain, was spoken of Napoleon. The empire briefly fell with Napoleon's abdication at Fontainebleau on 11 April 1814. After less than a year's exile on

20264-495: Was forcibly deported to Savona , and his domains were incorporated into the French Empire. The Senate's decision on 17 February 1810 created the title "King of Rome", and made Rome the capital of Italy. Between 1810 and 1812 Napoleon's divorce of Joséphine , and his marriage with Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria , followed by the birth of his son , shed light upon his future policy. He gradually withdrew power from his siblings and concentrated his affection and ambition on his son,

20413-768: Was given the title of " Emperor of the French " by the Senate ; finally, on 2 December 1804, he was solemnly crowned , after receiving the Iron Crown of the Lombard kings , and was consecrated by Pope Pius VII in Notre-Dame de Paris . In four campaigns, the Emperor transformed his " Carolingian " feudal republican and federal empire into one modelled on the Roman Empire . The memories of imperial Rome were for

20562-534: Was going through Spain and Russia , he invaded those two countries. His forces were tied down in Spain, in which the Spanish War of Independence occurred simultaneously, and suffered severely in, and ultimately retreated from, Russia in 1812. The British government was the central force in encouraging and financing alliances against France. Napoleon was frustrated in his repeated attempts to defeat Britain. Attacks that involved naval power had all failed, with

20711-554: Was impossible because the Royal Navy controlled the seas, but if Napoleon controlled the ports of Europe, he could prevent British products from landing. On 16 May 1806, the Royal Navy imposed a naval blockade of the French and French-allied coasts. In turn, Napoleon resorted to economic warfare. Britain was Europe's manufacturing and business center as a result of the Industrial Revolution . Napoleon believed it would be easy to take advantage of an embargo on trade with

20860-528: Was made more visible by the occupation of the Kingdom of Naples and of the Marches , and by the entry of General Sextius Alexandre François de Miollis into Rome; while General Jean-Andoche Junot invaded Portugal , Marshal Murat took control of formerly Roman Spain as Regent. Soon after, Napoleon had his brother, Joseph, crowned King of Spain and sent him there to take control. Napoleon tried to succeed in

21009-473: Was not lost on a small group of politically like-minded bourgeoisie in Porto ; two years earlier, Manuel Fernandes Tomás, José Ferreira Borges, José da Silva Carvalho and João Ferreira Viana had founded the Sinédrio , a clandestine liberal group who debated the political evolution of Spain and Portugal and would influence subsequent events. The Sinédrio's members were a mixture of merchants, property-owners,

21158-532: Was politically divided between continuing its old alliance with Britain, its people were also divided. The French Revolution, as seen by intellectuals and progressives, was romanticized: Bocage and the Partido Francês (French Party) believed the French could usher in a liberal revolution in Europe. The French represented a threat to the traditionalist nobility who were returning to prominence and were very willing to fight them externally or internally. It

21307-455: Was proclaimed Consul for life. Pro-revolutionary sentiment swept through Germany aided by the "Recess of 1803", which brought Bavaria , Württemberg , and Baden to France's side. William Pitt the Younger , back in power over Britain, appealed once more for an Anglo-Austro-Russian coalition against Napoleon to stop the ideals of revolutionary France from spreading. On 18 May 1804, Napoleon

21456-422: Was still recovering from the 1755 Lisbon earthquake . Before becoming queen, Princess Maria and her husband, the Infante Pedro , lived on the sidelines of politics, but were clearly unsympathetic to her father's former Prime Minister, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo , the Marquis of Pombal , who had been the de facto ruler of the kingdom for the past 27 years. During her father's last few years, she had been

21605-408: Was the Emperor of Brazil. To absolutists, the proclamation of Brazilian independence created a foreign nation, thus revoking Pedro's citizenship and his right of succession to the throne. John had left his daughter Princess Isabel Maria as regent. Prince Miguel was also an undesirable option for the liberals; he had been exiled due to several attempts he made to overthrow his own father, and supported

21754-419: Was the empire ruled by Napoleon Bonaparte , who established French hegemony over much of continental Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. It lasted from 18 May 1804 to 4 April 1814 and again briefly from 20 March 1815 to 7 July 1815, when Napoleon was exiled to St. Helena . Although France had already established a colonial empire overseas since the early 17th century, the French state had remained

21903-418: Was to launch a major naval attack on the weakest link in Napoleon's coalition, Denmark . Although ostensibly neutral, Denmark was under heavy French and Russian pressure to pledge its fleet to Napoleon. London could not take the chance of ignoring the Danish threat. In the Second Battle of Copenhagen in August–September 1807, the Royal Navy bombarded Copenhagen , seized the Danish fleet, and assured control of

22052-421: Was under the command of Vice-admiral James Saumarez . In November 1810 France demanded that Sweden should declare war upon Britain and stop all trade. The result was a phony war between Sweden and Britain . A second navy base was set up on the island of Hanö in the south of Sweden in 1810. These two bases were used to support convoys from Britain to Gothenburg, then through the Danish straits to Hanö. From Hanö

22201-413: Was very conservative, ambitious and violent, and at the same time despised her husband's politics, manners and personality. While in Brazil, she had attempted to obtain administration of Spanish dominions in Latin America and was involved in various obscure conspiracies regarding the independence of Brazil. The return of the king and the royal court had emboldened the clergy and nobles who were hostile to

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