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128-572: Cordite is a family of smokeless propellants developed and produced in Britain since 1889 to replace black powder as a military firearm propellant . Like modern gunpowder, cordite is classified as a low explosive because of its slow burning rates and consequently low brisance . These produce a subsonic deflagration wave rather than the supersonic detonation wave produced by brisants, or high explosives . The hot gases produced by burning gunpowder or cordite generate sufficient pressure to propel

256-653: A bullet or shell to its target, but not so quickly as to routinely destroy the barrel of the gun . Cordite was used initially in the .303 British , Mark I and II, standard rifle cartridge between 1891 and 1915. Shortages of cordite in World War I led to the creation of the "Devil's Porridge" munitions factory ( HM Factory, Gretna ) on the English–Scottish border, which produced around 800 tonnes of cordite per week. The UK also imported some United States–developed smokeless powders for use in rifle cartridges. Cordite

384-429: A foam zone . The gaseous propellant decomposes into simpler molecules in a surrounding fizz zone . Energy is released in a luminous outer flame zone where the simpler gas molecules react to form conventional combustion products like steam and carbon monoxide . The foam zone acts as an insulator slowing the rate of heat transfer from the flame zone into the unreacted solid. Reaction rates vary with pressure; because

512-489: A "cancer risk", and thus rejected an appeal by the French charcuterie industry against the organisation. Potassium nitrate is used in fertilizers as a source of nitrogen and potassium – two of the macronutrients for plants. When used by itself, it has an NPK rating of 13-0-44. Potassium nitrate was once thought to induce impotence , and is still rumored to be in institutional food (such as military fare). There

640-521: A by-product of ammonia is to combine ammonium nitrate, found in instant ice packs , and potassium chloride , easily obtained as a sodium-free salt substitute . Potassium nitrate can also be produced by neutralizing nitric acid with potassium hydroxide. This reaction is highly exothermic. On industrial scale it is prepared by the double displacement reaction between sodium nitrate and potassium chloride. Potassium nitrate has an orthorhombic crystal structure at room temperature, which transforms to

768-409: A cloud of smoke. Gunpowder burns in a relatively inefficient process that produces lower pressures, making it about one-third as powerful as the same amount of smokeless powder. A significant portion of the combustion products from gunpowder are solids that are hygroscopic , i.e. they attract moisture from the air and make cleaning mandatory after every use, in order to prevent water accumulation in

896-480: A common ingredient of salted meat since antiquity or the Middle Ages . The widespread adoption of nitrate use is more recent and is linked to the development of large-scale meat processing. The use of potassium nitrate has been mostly discontinued because it gives slow and inconsistent results compared with sodium nitrite preparations such as "Prague powder" or pink " curing salt ". Even so, potassium nitrate

1024-534: A license to produce Ballistite , and DuPont started producing smokeless shotgun powder. The United States Army evaluated 25 varieties of smokeless powder and selected Ruby and Peyton Powders as the most suitable for use in the Krag–Jørgensen service rifle. Ruby was preferred, because tin-plating was required to protect brass cartridge cases from picric acid in the Peyton Powder . Rather than paying

1152-778: A mothballed World War I Government-owned cordite factory. 35% of British cordite produced between 1942 and 1945 came from Ardeer and these agency factories. ICI ran a similar works at Deer Park (which was also confusingly known as Ardeer after the adjacent suburb) near Melbourne in Australia and in South Africa. Additional sources of propellant were also sought from the British Commonwealth in both World War I and World War II. Canada , South Africa, and Australia had ICI-owned factories that, in particular, supplied large quantities of cordite. Canadian Explosives Limited

1280-438: A multistage draining and water washing process similar to that used in paper mills during production of chemical woodpulp . Pressurized alcohol removed remaining water from drained pyrocellulose prior to mixing with ether and diphenylamine. The mixture was then fed through a press extruding a long tubular cord form to be cut into grains of the desired length. Alcohol and ether were then evaporated from "green" powder grains to

1408-479: A new ballistite-like propellant in 1889. It consists of (by weight) 58% nitroglycerin , 37% guncotton (nitrocellulose) and 5% petroleum jelly . Using acetone as a solvent , it was extruded as spaghetti -like rods initially called "cord powder" or "the Committee's modification of Ballistite", but this was swiftly abbreviated to "Cordite". Cordite began as a double-base propellant. In the 1930s, triple-base

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1536-708: A newspaper ad asking that the contents of chamber pots be saved for collection. In South Carolina, in April 1864, the Confederate government forced 31 enslaved people to work at the Ashley Ferry Nitre Works, outside Charleston. Perhaps the most exhaustive discussion of the niter-bed production is the 1862 LeConte text. He was writing with the express purpose of increasing production in the Confederate States to support their needs during

1664-630: A nitrocellulose powder colloided with ether-alcohol. The Navy licensed or sold patents for this formulation to DuPont and the California Powder Works while retaining manufacturing rights for the Naval Powder Factory, Indian Head, Maryland constructed in 1900. The United States Army adopted the Navy single-base formulation in 1908 and began manufacture at Picatinny Arsenal . By that time Laflin & Rand had taken over

1792-594: A nitroglycerin replacement when reduced flame temperatures without sacrificing chamber pressure are of importance. Reduction of flame temperature significantly reduces barrel erosion and hence wear. During the 1930s, triple-base propellants containing nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin or diethylene glycol dinitrate, and a substantial quantity of nitroguanidine (detonation velocity 8,200 m/s (26,900 ft/s), RE factor 0.95) as explosive propellant ingredients were commercialized. The first triple-base propellant, featuring 20-25% of nitroguanidine and 30-45% nitroglycerine,

1920-450: A process for manufacturing spherical smokeless powder by 1933. Reworked powder or washed pyrocellulose can be dissolved in ethyl acetate containing small quantities of desired stabilizers and other additives. The resultant syrup, combined with water and surfactants , can be heated and agitated in a pressurized container until the syrup forms an emulsion of small spherical globules of the desired size. Ethyl acetate distills off as pressure

2048-480: A remaining solvent concentration between 3 percent for rifle powders and 7 percent for large artillery powder grains. Burning rate is inversely proportional to solvent concentration. Grains were coated with electrically conductive graphite to minimize generation of static electricity during subsequent blending. "Lots" containing more than ten tonnes of powder grains were mixed through a tower arrangement of blending hoppers to minimize ballistic differences. Each blended lot

2176-460: A rhyming presentation about potassium nitrate for his chemistry class. In Eating Raoul , Paul hires a dominatrix to impersonate a nurse and trick Raoul into consuming saltpeter in a ploy to reduce his sexual appetite for his wife. In The Simpsons episode " El Viaje Misterioso de Nuestro Jomer (The Mysterious Voyage of Our Homer) ", Mr. Burns is seen pouring saltpeter into his chili entry, titled Old Elihu's Yale-Style Saltpeter Chili. In

2304-470: A smokeless propellant that had some success. It was made out of collodion ( nitrocellulose dissolved in ethanol and ether ), resulting in a plastic colloidal substance which was rolled into very thin sheets, then dried and cut up into small flakes. It was immediately adopted by the French military for their Mle 1886 infantry rifle and called Poudre B (for poudre blanche , or white powder ) to distinguish it from black powder (gunpowder). The rifle and

2432-470: A stabilizer in 1888. Meanwhile, in 1887, Alfred Nobel obtained an English patent for a smokeless gunpowder he called ballistite . In this propellant the fibrous structure of cotton (nitro-cellulose) was destroyed by a nitroglycerine solution instead of a solvent. In England in 1889, a similar powder was patented by Hiram Maxim , and in the United States in 1890 by Hudson Maxim . Ballistite

2560-546: A term of uncertain origin that later came to mean gunpowder . It was called "Chinese salt" by the Iranians/Persians or "salt from Chinese salt marshes" ( Persian : نمک شوره چينی namak shūra chīnī ). The Tiangong Kaiwu , published in the 17th century by members of the Qing dynasty , detailed the production of gunpowder and other useful products from nature. In Mauryan India saltpeter manufacturers formed

2688-431: A trigonal system at 128 °C (262 °F). On cooling from 200 °C (392 °F), another trigonal phase forms between 124 °C (255 °F) and 100 °C (212 °F). Sodium nitrate is isomorphous with calcite , the most stable form of calcium carbonate , whereas room-temperature potassium nitrate is isomorphous with aragonite , a slightly less stable polymorph of calcium carbonate. The difference

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2816-446: Is a propellant that produces a large proportion of inert nitrogen at relatively low temperatures that dilutes the combustible gases. Triple-base propellants are used for this because of the nitrogen in the nitroguanidine. Flash reducers include potassium chloride , potassium nitrate , potassium sulfate , and potassium bitartrate (potassium hydrogen tartrate: a byproduct of wine production formerly used by French artillery). Before

2944-400: Is a similar process used to produce nitrate from excrement. Unlike the leaching-based process of the nitrary, however, one mixes the excrements with soil and waits for soil microbes to convert amino-nitrogen into nitrates by nitrification . The nitrates are extracted from soil with water and then purified into saltpeter by adding wood ash. The process was discovered in the early 15th century and

3072-469: Is added to some formulations. To prevent buildup of the deterioration products, stabilizers are added. Diphenylamine is one of the most common stabilizers used. Nitrated analogs of diphenylamine formed in the process of stabilizing decomposing powder are sometimes used as stabilizers themselves. The stabilizers are added in the amount of 0.5–2% of the total amount of the formulation; higher amounts tend to degrade its ballistic properties. The amount of

3200-522: Is also approved for use as a food additive in the United States and Australia and New Zealand (where it is listed under its INS number 252). Since October 2015, WHO classifies processed meat as Group 1 carcinogen (based on epidemiological studies, convincingly carcinogenic to humans). In April 2023 the French Court of Appeals of Limoges confirmed that food-watch NGO Yuka was legally legitimate in describing Potassium Nitrate E249 to E252 as

3328-515: Is also used in fireworks such as smoke bombs . It is also added to cigarettes to maintain an even burn of the tobacco and is used to ensure complete combustion of paper cartridges for cap and ball revolvers. It can also be heated to several hundred degrees to be used for niter bluing , which is less durable than other forms of protective oxidation, but allows for specific and often beautiful coloration of steel parts, such as screws, pins, and other small parts of firearms. Potassium nitrate has been

3456-417: Is attributed to the similarity in size between nitrate ( NO − 3 ) and carbonate ( CO 2− 3 ) ions and the fact that the potassium ion ( K ) is larger than sodium ( Na ) and calcium ( Ca ) ions. In the room-temperature structure of potassium nitrate, each potassium ion is surrounded by 6 nitrate ions. In turn, each nitrate ion is surrounded by 6 potassium ions. Potassium nitrate

3584-537: Is classified as an explosive , it is not employed as a high explosive. It is designed to deflagrate , or burn, to produce high pressure gases. Alfred Nobel sued Abel and Dewar over an alleged patent infringement. His patent specified that the nitrocellulose should be "of the well-known soluble kind". After losing the case, it went to the Court of Appeal . This dispute eventually reached the House of Lords , in 1895, but it

3712-451: Is increased by addition of graphite and organic stabilizers. Products of combustion within the gun barrel include flammable gasses like hydrogen and carbon monoxide. At high temperature, these flammable gasses will ignite when turbulently mixed with atmospheric oxygen beyond the muzzle of the gun. During night engagements, the flash produced by ignition can reveal the location of the gun to enemy forces and cause temporary night-blindness among

3840-410: Is moderately soluble in water, but its solubility increases with temperature. The aqueous solution is almost neutral, exhibiting pH 6.2 at 14 °C (57 °F) for a 10% solution of commercial powder. It is not very hygroscopic , absorbing about 0.03% water in 80% relative humidity over 50 days. It is insoluble in alcohol and is not poisonous; it can react explosively with reducing agents , but it

3968-464: Is no scientific evidence for such properties. In Bank Shot , El ( Joanna Cassidy ) propositions Walter Ballantine ( George C. Scott ), who tells her that he has been fed saltpeter in prison. In One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest , Randle is asked by the nurses to take his medications, but not knowing what they are, he mentions he does not want anyone to "slip me saltpeter". He then proceeds to imitate

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4096-436: Is not explosive on its own. Between 550–790 °C (1,022–1,454 °F), potassium nitrate reaches a temperature-dependent equilibrium with potassium nitrite : Potassium nitrate has a wide variety of uses, largely as a source of nitrate. Historically, nitric acid was produced by combining sulfuric acid with nitrates such as saltpeter. In modern times this is reversed: nitrates are produced from nitric acid produced via

4224-458: Is one of the major constituents of gunpowder (black powder). In processed meats , potassium nitrate reacts with hemoglobin and myoglobin generating a red color. Nitre, or potassium nitrate, because of its early and global use and production, has many names. As for nitrate, Hebrew and Egyptian words for it had the consonants n-t-r, indicating likely cognation in the Greek nitron , which

4352-608: Is slowly reduced to leave small spheres of nitrocellulose and additives. The spheres can be subsequently modified by adding nitroglycerine to increase energy, flattening between rollers to a uniform minimum dimension, coating with phthalate deterrents to slow ignition, and/or glazing with graphite to improve flow characteristics during blending. Modern smokeless powder is produced in the United States by St. Marks Powder , Inc. owned by General Dynamics . Saltpetre Major uses of potassium nitrate are in fertilizers , tree stump removal , rocket propellants and fireworks . It

4480-530: Is still used in some food applications, such as salami, dry-cured ham, charcuterie , and (in some countries) in the brine used to make corned beef (sometimes together with sodium nitrite). In the Shetland Islands (UK) it is used in the curing of mutton to make reestit mutton , a local delicacy. When used as a food additive in the European Union, the compound is referred to as E252 ; it

4608-443: Is to regulate the burn rate so that a more or less constant pressure is exerted on the propelled projectile as long as it is in the barrel so as to obtain the highest velocity. The perforations stabilize the burn rate because as the outside burns inward (thus shrinking the burning surface area) the inside is burning outward (thus increasing the burning surface area, but faster, so as to fill up the increasing volume of barrel presented by

4736-698: The Sharpe novel series by Bernard Cornwell , numerous mentions are made of an advantageous supply of saltpeter from India being a crucial component of British military supremacy in the Napoleonic Wars. In Sharpe's Havoc , the French Captain Argenton laments that France needs to scrape its supply from cesspits . In the Dr. Stone anime and manga series, the struggle for control over a natural saltpeter source from guano features prominently in

4864-507: The 105 mm L118 Light Gun ) is now manufactured in Germany. Gunpowder , an explosive mixture of sulfur , charcoal and potassium nitrate (also known as saltpeter ), was the original propellant employed in firearms and fireworks . It was used from about the 10th or 11th century onward, but it had disadvantages, including the large amount of smoke it produced. With the 19th-century development of various "nitro explosives", based on

4992-472: The American Civil War . Since he was calling for the assistance of rural farming communities, the descriptions and instructions are both simple and explicit. He details the "French Method", along with several variations, as well as a "Swiss method". N.B. Many references have been made to a method using only straw and urine, but there is no such method in this work. Turgot and Lavoisier created

5120-477: The Explosive Company of Stowmarket introduced EC Powder , which contained nitro-cotton and nitrates of potassium and barium in a grain gelatinised by ether alcohol. It had coarser grains than other nitrocellulose powders. It proved unsuitable for rifles, but it remained in long use for shotguns and was later used for grenades and fragmentation bombs. In 1884, the French chemist Paul Vieille produced

5248-742: The Martin-Baker Company . Cordite was also used in the detonation system of the Little Boy atomic bomb dropped over Hiroshima in August 1945. The term "cordite" generally disappeared from official publications between the wars. During World War II, double-base propellants were very widely used, and there was some use of triple-base propellants by artillery. Triple-base propellants were used in post-war ammunition designs and remain in production for UK weapons; most double-base propellants left service as World War II stocks were expended after

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5376-612: The Ministry of Supply (MoS). The company of ICI Nobel , at Ardeer, was asked in 1939 to construct and operate six factories in southern Scotland. Four of these six were involved in cordite or firearm-propellant manufacture. The works at MoS Drungans ( Dumfries ) produced guncotton that was converted to cordite at MoS Dalbeattie (triple-base cordite) and at MoS Powfoot (monobase granulated guncotton for small-arms). A smaller site at Girvan, South Ayrshire, now occupied by Grant's distillery, produced cordite and TNT . The ICI Ardeer site also had

5504-715: The Naval Torpedo Station in Newport, Rhode Island , patented a formulation of guncotton colloided with nitrobenzene, called Indurite , in 1891. Several United States firms began producing smokeless powder when Winchester Repeating Arms Company started loading sporting cartridges with Explosives Company powder in 1893. California Powder Works began producing a mixture of nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose with ammonium picrate as Peyton Powder , Leonard Smokeless Powder Company began producing nitroglycerine–nitrocellulose Ruby powders, Laflin & Rand negotiated

5632-580: The Ostwald process . The most famous use of potassium nitrate is probably as the oxidizer in blackpowder . From the most ancient times until the late 1880s, blackpowder provided the explosive power for all the world's firearms. After that time, small arms and large artillery increasingly began to depend on cordite , a smokeless powder . Blackpowder remains in use today in black powder rocket motors , but also in combination with other fuels like sugars in " rocket candy " (a popular amateur rocket propellant). It

5760-585: The Quebec Arsenal . By November 1915 production had been expanded to 350,000 lb (159,000 kg) of cordite per month (approximately 1,900 tonnes per year). The Canadian Explosives Limited cordite factory at Nobel, Ontario , was designed to produce 1,500,000 lb (681 tonne) of cordite per month (approximately 8,170 tonnes per year). HM Factory, Gretna , and the Royal Navy Cordite Factory, Holton Heath , both closed after

5888-547: The RDX type (detonation velocity 8,750 m/s (28,710 ft/s), RE factor 1.60). Detonation velocities are of limited value in assessing the reaction rates of nitrocellulose propellants formulated to avoid detonation. Although the slower reaction is often described as burning because of similar gaseous end products at elevated temperatures, the decomposition differs from combustion in an oxygen atmosphere. Conversion of nitrocellulose propellants to high-pressure gas proceeds from

6016-515: The Royal Navy Cordite Factory, Holton Heath . Acetone for the cordite industry during late World War I was eventually produced through the efforts of Dr. Chaim Weizmann , considered to be the father of industrial fermentation . While a lecturer at Manchester University Weizmann discovered how to use bacterial fermentation to produce large quantities of many desired substances. He used the bacterium Clostridium acetobutylicum (the so-called Weizmann organism) to produce acetone. Weizmann transferred

6144-560: The Régie des Poudres et Salpêtres a few years before the French Revolution . Niter-beds were prepared by mixing manure with either mortar or wood ashes, common earth and organic materials such as straw to give porosity to a compost pile typically 4 feet (1.2 m) high, 6 feet (1.8 m) wide, and 15 feet (4.6 m) long. The heap was usually under a cover from the rain, kept moist with urine , turned often to accelerate

6272-839: The Scotland - England border at Gretna , and the Royal Navy Cordite Factory, Holton Heath . A factory was also established by the Indian Government at Nilgris. Both the Gretna and the Holton Heath cordite factories closed at the end of World War I. By the start of World War II, Holton Heath had reopened, and an additional factory for the Royal Navy, The Royal Navy Propellant Factory, Caerwent , opened at Caerwent in Wales . A very large Royal Ordnance Factory , ROF Bishopton,

6400-706: The World War I era, potassium nitrate for black powder and fertilizer was produced on an industrial scale from nitric acid produced using the Birkeland–Eyde process , which used an electric arc to oxidize nitrogen from the air. During World War I the newly industrialized Haber process (1913) was combined with the Ostwald process after 1915, allowing Germany to produce nitric acid for the war after being cut off from its supplies of mineral sodium nitrates from Chile (see nitratite ). Potassium nitrate can be made by combining ammonium nitrate and potassium hydroxide . An alternative way of producing potassium nitrate without

6528-484: The "Explosives Committee", chaired by Sir Frederick Abel , monitored foreign developments in explosives and obtained samples of Poudre B and Ballistite; neither of these smokeless powders was recommended for adoption by the Explosives Committee. Abel, Sir James Dewar and W Kellner, who was also on the committee, developed and jointly patented (Nos 5,614 and 11,664 in the names of Abel and Dewar) in 1889

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6656-541: The 1960s, so there was a discontinuity in the propellant geometry numbering system. An important development during World War II was the addition of another explosive, nitroguanidine , to the mixture to form triple-base propellant or Cordite N and NQ . The formulations were slightly different for artillery and naval use. This solved two problems associated with the large naval guns fitted to British Navy's capital ships : gun flash and muzzle erosion. Nitroguanidine produces large amounts of nitrogen when heated, which had

6784-549: The American Powder Company to protect their investment, and Laflin & Rand had been purchased by DuPont in 1902. Upon securing a 99-year lease of the Explosives Company in 1903, DuPont enjoyed use of all significant smokeless powder patents in the United States, and was able to optimize production of smokeless powder. When government anti-trust action forced divestiture in 1912, DuPont retained

6912-548: The Austrian factories blew up in 1862, Thomas Prentice & Company began manufacturing guncotton in Stowmarket in 1863; and British War Office chemist Sir Frederick Abel began thorough research at Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills leading to a manufacturing process that eliminated the impurities in nitrocellulose making it safer to produce and a stable product safer to handle. Abel patented this process in 1865 when

7040-615: The Explosives Company at Stowmarket patented an improved formulation of nitrated cotton gelatinised by ether-alcohol with nitrates of potassium and barium . These propellants were suitable for shotguns but not rifles, because rifling results in resistance to a smooth expansion of the gas, which is reduced in smoothbore shotguns. In 1884, Paul Vieille invented a smokeless powder called Poudre B (short for poudre blanche , white powder, as distinguished from black powder ) made from 68.2% insoluble nitrocellulose , 29.8% soluble nitrocellulose gelatinized with ether and 2% paraffin. This

7168-494: The Faversham factory in 1847. Austrian Baron Wilhelm Lenk von Wolfsberg built two guncotton plants producing artillery propellent, but it too was dangerous under field conditions, and guns that could fire thousands of rounds using black powder would reach the end of their service life after only a few hundred shots with the more powerful guncotton. Small arms could not withstand the pressures generated by guncotton. After one of

7296-457: The French use of nitro-cottons in Poudre B. He called it pyrocollodion . Britain conducted trials on all the various types of propellant brought to its attention, but was dissatisfied with them all and sought something superior to all existing types. In 1889, Sir Frederick Abel , James Dewar and Dr W Kellner patented (Nos 5614 and 11,664 in the names of Abel and Dewar) a new formulation that

7424-462: The Mach disc, they are re-compressed to produce an intermediate flash. Hot, combustible gases (e.g. hydrogen and carbon-monoxide) may follow when they mix with oxygen in the surrounding air to produce the secondary flash, the brightest. The secondary flash does not usually occur with small arms. Nitrocellulose contains insufficient oxygen to completely oxidize its carbon and hydrogen. The oxygen deficit

7552-638: The Nuniya & Labana caste . Saltpeter finds mention in Kautilya's Arthashastra (compiled 300BC – 300AD), which mentions using its poisonous smoke as a weapon of war, although its use for propulsion did not appear until medieval times. A purification process for potassium nitrate was outlined in 1270 by the chemist and engineer Hasan al-Rammah of Syria in his book al-Furusiyya wa al-Manasib al-Harbiyya ( The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices ). In this book, al-Rammah describes first

7680-514: The addition of stabilizers, which was based on German RP C/12 propellant featuring significant amounts of centralite (Called "carbamite" in British parlance) and led to the type commonly used in World War II as the main naval propellant. In Great Britain this was known as Cordite SC (= Solventless Cordite), and it required production facilities separate from classical cordite. Cordite SC

7808-481: The barrel (though some primer compounds can leave hygroscopic salts that have a similar effect; non-corrosive primer compounds were introduced in the 1920s). ) Faster-burning propellants generate higher temperatures and higher pressures, however they also increase wear on gun barrels. Nitrocellulose deteriorates with time, yielding acidic byproducts. Those byproducts catalyze the further deterioration, increasing its rate. The released heat, in case of bulk storage of

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7936-460: The barrel that can lead to corrosion and premature failure. These solids are also behind gunpowder's tendency to produce severe fouling that causes breech-loading actions to jam and can make reloading difficult. Nitroglycerine was synthesized by the Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero in 1847. It was subsequently developed and manufactured by Alfred Nobel as an industrial explosive under

8064-428: The barrel. Despite its name, smokeless powder is not completely free of smoke ; while there may be little noticeable smoke from small-arms ammunition, smoke from artillery fire can be substantial. Invented in 1884 by Paul Vieille , the most common formulations are based on nitrocellulose , but the term was also used to describe various picrate mixtures with nitrate , chlorate , or dichromate oxidizers during

8192-427: The benefit of reducing the muzzle flash, and its lower burning temperature greatly reduced the erosion of the gun barrel. N and NQ were also issued in limited amounts to ammunitions used by the British 25-pdr and 5.5-inch land-based artillery pieces. After World War II production of double-base propellants generally ended. Triple-base propellants, N and NQ, were the only ones used in new ammunition designs, such as

8320-530: The buildup of copper residues from the gun barrel rifling. These include tin metal and compounds (e.g., tin dioxide ), and bismuth metal and compounds (e.g., bismuth trioxide , bismuth subcarbonate , bismuth nitrate , bismuth antimonide ); the bismuth compounds are favored as copper dissolves in molten bismuth, forming brittle and easily removable alloy. Lead foil and lead compounds have been phased out due to toxicity. Wear reduction materials including wax , talc and titanium dioxide are added to lower

8448-603: The burning rate. Deterrents include centralites (symmetrical diphenyl urea—primarily diethyl or dimethyl), dibutyl phthalate , dinitrotoluene (toxic and carcinogenic), akardite (asymmetrical diphenyl urea), ortho-Tolyl urethane, and polyester adipate. Camphor was formerly used but is now obsolete. Stabilizers prevent or slow down self-decomposition. These include diphenylamine , petroleum jelly , calcium carbonate , magnesium oxide , sodium bicarbonate , and beta-Naphthol methyl ether Obsolete stabilizers include amyl alcohol and aniline . Decoppering additives hinder

8576-490: The cartridge developed to use this powder were known generically as the 8mm Lebel , after the officer who developed its 8 mm full metal jacket bullet . The following year, 1887, Alfred Nobel invented and patented a smokeless propellant he called Ballistite . It was composed of 10% camphor , 45% nitroglycerine and 45% collodion (nitrocellulose). Over time the camphor tended to evaporate, leaving an unstable explosive. A United Kingdom government committee, known as

8704-886: The cartridges for 105 mm Field and for 155 mm FH70 . In Great Britain, cordite was developed for military use at the Royal Arsenal by Abel, Dewar and Kellner, Woolwich , and produced at the Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills from 1889 onwards. At the start of World War I, cordite was in production at Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills and by seven other suppliers (British Explosives Syndicate Ltd, Chilworth Gunpowder Company Ltd, Cotton Powder Company Ltd, Messrs Curtis's and Harvey Ltd, National Explosives Company Ltd, New Explosives Company Ltd and Nobels Explosive Company Ltd). Existing factories were expanded and new ones built, notably by Nobel's at Ardeer, HM Factory, Gretna , which straddled

8832-539: The chamber (hence lighter breeches, etc.) but longer high pressure. Cordite could be made in any desired shape or size. The creation of cordite led to a lengthy court battle between Nobel, Maxim, and another inventor over alleged British patent infringement. The Anglo-American Explosives Company began manufacturing its shotgun powder in Oakland, New Jersey , in 1890. DuPont began producing guncotton at Carneys Point Township, New Jersey , in 1891. Charles E. Munroe of

8960-558: The decomposition, then finally leached with water after approximately one year, to remove the soluble calcium nitrate which was then converted to potassium nitrate by filtering through potash . Joseph LeConte describes a process using only urine and not dung, referring to it as the Swiss method . Urine is collected directly, in a sandpit under a stable. The sand itself is dug out and leached for nitrates which are then converted to potassium nitrate using potash, as above. From 1903 until

9088-500: The departing projectile). Fast-burning pistol powders are made by extruding shapes with more area such as flakes or by flattening the spherical granules. Drying is usually performed under a vacuum. The solvents are condensed and recycled. The granules are also coated with graphite to prevent static electricity sparks from causing undesired ignitions. Smokeless powder does not leave the thick, heavy fouling of hygroscopic material associated with black powder that causes rusting of

9216-487: The development of modern semi- and fully automatic firearms and lighter breeches and barrels for artillery. Before the widespread introduction of smokeless powder the use of gunpowder or black powder caused many problems on the battlefield. Military commanders since the Napoleonic Wars reported difficulty with giving orders on a battlefield obscured by the smoke of firing. Visual signals could not be seen through

9344-415: The effectiveness of small guns because it gave off almost no smoke and was three times more powerful than black powder. Higher muzzle velocity meant a flatter trajectory and less wind drift and bullet drop, making 1,000 m (1,094 yd) shots practicable. Since less powder was needed to propel a bullet, the cartridge could be made smaller and lighter. This allowed troops to carry more ammunition for

9472-729: The end of the war and the Gretna factory was dismantled. This left the Waltham Abbey and Ardeer factories in production. As noted above, in addition to its own facilities, the British Government had ICI Nobel set up a number of Agency Factories producing cordite in Scotland, Australia, Canada and South Africa. Smokeless powder Smokeless powder is a type of propellant used in firearms and artillery that produces less smoke and less fouling when fired compared to black powder . Because of their similar use, both

9600-454: The exposed surface to the interior of each solid particle in accordance with Piobert's law . Studies of solid single- and double-base propellant reactions suggest reaction rate is controlled by heat transfer through the temperature gradient across a series of zones or phases as the reaction proceeds from the surface into the solid. The deepest portion of the solid experiencing heat transfer melts and begins phase transition from solid to gas in

9728-642: The foam allows less effective heat transfer at low pressure, with greater heat transfer as higher pressures compress the gas volume of that foam. Propellants designed for a minimum heat transfer pressure may fail to sustain the flame zone at lower pressures. The energetic components used in smokeless propellants include nitrocellulose (the most common), nitroglycerin , nitroguanidine , DINA (bis-nitroxyethylnitramine; diethanolamine dinitrate, DEADN; DHE), Fivonite (2,2,5,5-tetramethylol-cyclopentanone tetranitrate, CyP), DGN ( diethylene glycol dinitrate ), and acetyl cellulose. Deterrents (or moderants) are used to slow

9856-402: The gun crew by photo-bleaching visual purple . Flash suppressors are commonly used on small arms to reduce the flash signature, but this approach is not practical for artillery. Artillery muzzle flash up to 150 feet (46 m) from the muzzle has been observed, and can be reflected off clouds and be visible for distances up to 30 miles (48 km). For artillery, the most effective method

9984-541: The gunpowder he wrote about originated in China. At least as far back as 1845, nitratite deposits were exploited in Chile and California. Major natural sources of potassium nitrate were the deposits crystallizing from cave walls and the accumulations of bat guano in caves. Extraction is accomplished by immersing the guano in water for a day, filtering, and harvesting the crystals in the filtered water. Traditionally, guano

10112-627: The largest pieces. The United States Navy manufactured single-base tubular powder for naval artillery at Indian Head, Maryland , beginning in 1900. Similar procedures were used for United States Army production at Picatinny Arsenal beginning in 1907 and for manufacture of smaller grained Improved Military Rifle (IMR) powders after 1914. Short-fiber cotton linter was boiled in a solution of sodium hydroxide to remove vegetable waxes, and then dried before conversion to nitrocellulose by mixing with concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids . Nitrocellulose still resembles fibrous cotton at this point in

10240-726: The late 19th century, before the advantages of nitrocellulose became evident. Smokeless powders are typically classified as division 1.3 explosives under the UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods  – Model Regulations , regional regulations (such as ADR ) and national regulations. However, they are used as solid propellants ; in normal use, they undergo deflagration rather than detonation . Smokeless powder made autoloading firearms with many moving parts feasible (which would otherwise jam or seize under heavy black powder fouling). Smokeless powder allowed

10368-403: The light emitted in the vicinity of the muzzle by the hot propellant gases and the chemical reactions that follow as the gases mix with the surrounding air. Before projectiles exit, a slight pre-flash may occur from gases leaking past the projectiles. Following muzzle exit, the heat of gases is usually sufficient to emit visible radiation: the primary flash. The gases expand but as they pass through

10496-403: The manufacturing process, and was typically identified as pyrocellulose because it would spontaneously ignite in air until unreacted acid was removed. The term guncotton was also used; although some references identify guncotton as a more extensively nitrated and refined product used in torpedo and mine warheads prior to use of TNT . Unreacted acid was removed from pyrocellulose pulp by

10624-566: The military. Prior to World War I , most of the cordite used by the British Government was produced in its own factories. Immediately prior to World War I, between 6,000 and 8,000 tons per year of cordite were produced in the United Kingdom by private manufacturers; between 1,000 and 1,500 tons per year were made by Nobel's Explosives , at Ardeer. However, private industry had the capability to produce about 10,000 tons per year, with Ardeer able to produce some 3,000 tons of this total. At

10752-401: The most. During WWII they had some use by British and German artillery, and after the war they became the standard propellants in all British large-caliber ammunition designs except small arms. Most Western nations, except the United States, followed a similar path. In the late 20th century new propellant formulations started to appear. These are based on nitroguanidine and high explosives of

10880-608: The motions of masturbation. In 1776 , John Adams asks his wife Abigail to make saltpeter for the Continental Army. She, eventually, is able to do so in exchange for pins for sewing. In the Star Trek episode " Arena ", Captain Kirk injures a gorn using a rudimentary cannon that he constructs using potassium nitrate as a key ingredient of gunpowder . In 21 Jump Street , Jenko, played by Channing Tatum , gives

11008-460: The new nitre beds at Ashley Ferry, S.C. The nitre beds were large rectangles of rotted manure and straw, moistened weekly with urine, "dung water", and liquid from privies, cesspools and drains, and turned over regularly. The National Archives published payroll records that account for more than 29,000 people compelled to such labor in the state of Virginia. The South was so desperate for saltpeter for gunpowder that one Alabama official reportedly placed

11136-422: The nitrocellulose smokeless powder formulations used by the United States military and released the double-base formulations used in sporting ammunition to the reorganized Hercules Powder Company . These newer and more powerful propellants were more stable and thus safer to handle than Poudre B. The properties of the propellant are greatly influenced by the size and shape of its pieces. The specific surface area of

11264-471: The original black powder formulation and the smokeless propellant which replaced it are commonly described as gunpowder . The combustion products of smokeless powder are mainly gaseous, compared to around 55% solid products (mostly potassium carbonate , potassium sulfate , and potassium sulfide ) for black powder. In addition, smokeless powder does not leave the thick, heavy fouling of hygroscopic material associated with black powder that causes rusting of

11392-560: The paper absorbed atmospheric moisture. In 1871, Frederick Volkmann received an Austrian patent for a colloided version of Schultze powder called Collodin , which he manufactured near Vienna for use in sporting firearms. Austrian patents were not published at the time, and the Austrian Empire considered the operation a violation of the government monopoly on explosives manufacture and closed the Volkmann factory in 1875. In 1882,

11520-575: The plot. In the farming lore from the Corn Belt of the 1800s, drought-killed corn in manured fields could accumulate saltpeter to the extent that upon opening the stalk for examination it would "fall as a fine powder upon the table". In the Slovenian short story Martin Krpan from Vrh pri Sveti Trojici , the titular character and Slovene folk hero Martin Krpan illegally smuggles "English salt" for

11648-404: The powder, or too large blocks of solid propellant, can cause self-ignition of the material. Single-base nitrocellulose propellants are hygroscopic and most susceptible to degradation; double-base and triple-base propellants tend to deteriorate more slowly. To neutralize the decomposition products, which could otherwise cause corrosion of metals of the cartridges and gun barrels, calcium carbonate

11776-461: The propellant influences the speed of burning, and the size and shape of the particles determine the specific surface area. By manipulation of the shape it is possible to influence the burning rate and hence the rate at which pressure builds during combustion. Smokeless powder burns only on the surfaces of the pieces. Larger pieces burn more slowly, and the burn rate is further controlled by flame-deterrent coatings that retard burning slightly. The intent

11904-468: The purification of barud (crude saltpeter mineral) by boiling it with minimal water and using only the hot solution, then the use of potassium carbonate (in the form of wood ashes ) to remove calcium and magnesium by precipitation of their carbonates from this solution, leaving a solution of purified potassium nitrate, which could then be dried. This was used for the manufacture of gunpowder and explosive devices. The terminology used by al-Rammah indicated

12032-514: The reaction of nitric acid mixtures on materials such as cellulose and glycerin , a search began for a replacement for gunpowder. The first smokeless powder was developed in 1865 by Johann Edward Schultze . At the time of this breakthrough, Schultze was a captain of Prussian artillery. Schultze eventually rose to the rank of colonel. His formulation (dubbed Schultze Powder ) was composed of nitrolignose derived from nitrated wood grains, impregnated with saltpetre or barium nitrate . In 1882,

12160-573: The required royalties for Ballistite , Laflin & Rand financed Leonard's reorganization as the American Smokeless Powder Company. United States Army Lieutenant Whistler assisted American Smokeless Powder Company factory superintendent Aspinwall in formulating an improved powder named W.A. for their efforts. W.A. smokeless powder was the standard for United States military service rifles from 1897 until 1908. In 1897, United States Navy Lieutenant John Bernadou patented

12288-646: The rights to the manufacture of acetone to the Commercial Solvents Corporation in exchange for royalties. After the Shell Crisis of 1915 during World War I, he was director of the British Admiralty Laboratories from 1916 until 1919. Cordite RDB was later found to become unstable if stored too long. Research on solvent-free Cordite RDB technologically extremely similar to ballistite continued primarily on

12416-525: The same muzzle velocity, due to the inherently less powerful nature of Cordite MD. During World War I, acetone was in short supply in Great Britain, and a new experimental form was developed for use by the Royal Navy . This was Cordite RDB (= R esearch D epartment formula B ); which was 52% collodion , 42% nitroglycerin and 6% petroleum jelly . It was produced at HM Factory, Gretna ; and

12544-470: The same weight. Also, it would burn even when wet. Black powder ammunition had to be kept dry and was almost always stored and transported in watertight cartridges. Other European countries swiftly followed and started using their own versions of Poudre B, the first being Germany and Austria, which introduced new weapons in 1888. Subsequently, Poudre B was modified several times with various compounds being added and removed. Krupp began adding diphenylamine as

12672-576: The sea". In 1561, Elizabeth I , Queen of England and Ireland, who was at war with Philip II of Spain , became unable to import saltpeter (of which the Kingdom of England had no home production), and had to pay "300 pounds gold" to the German captain Gerrard Honrik for the manual "Instructions for making saltpeter to growe" (the secret of the " Feuerwerkbuch " -the nitraries-). A nitre bed

12800-591: The second Austrian guncotton factory exploded. After the Stowmarket factory exploded in 1871, Waltham Abbey began production of guncotton for torpedo and mine warheads. In 1863, Prussian artillery captain Johann F. E. Schultze patented a small-arms propellant of nitrated hardwood impregnated with saltpeter or barium nitrate . Prentice received an 1866 patent for a sporting powder of nitrated paper manufactured at Stowmarket, but ballistic uniformity suffered as

12928-424: The sole explosive propellant ingredient are described as single-base powder . Propellants mixtures containing nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin (detonation velocity 7,700 m/s (25,260 ft/s), RE factor 1.54) as explosive propellant ingredients are known as double-base powder . Alternatively diethylene glycol dinitrate (detonation velocity 6,610 m/s (21,690 ft/s), RE factor 1.17) can be used as

13056-474: The stabilizer is depleted with time with substantial changes of ballistic properties. Propellants in storage should be periodically tested for the amount of stabilizer remaining, as its depletion may lead to auto-ignition of the propellant. Moisture changes the stabilizers consumption over time. Propellants using nitrocellulose ( detonation velocity 7,300 m/s (23,950 ft/s), RE factor 1.10) (typically an ether-alcohol colloid of nitrocellulose) as

13184-588: The start of World War I, private industry in the UK was asked to produce 16,000 tons of cordite, and all the companies started to expand. HM Factory, Gretna , the largest propellant factory in the United Kingdom, which opened in 1916, was by 1917 producing 800 tons (812 tonne ) of Cordite RDB per week (approximately 41,600 tons per year). The Royal Navy had its own factory at Holton Heath . In 1910, Canadian Explosives Limited produced 3,000 lb (1,362 kg) of rifle cordite per month at its Beloeil factory, for

13312-515: The surface by efflorescence . Operators then gathered the resulting powder and transported it to be concentrated by ebullition in the boiler plant. Besides " Montepellusanus ", during the thirteenth century (and beyond) the only supply of saltpeter across Christian Europe (according to "De Alchimia" in 3 manuscripts of Michael Scot, 1180–1236) was "found in Spain in Aragon in a certain mountain near

13440-546: The thick smoke from the gunpowder used by the guns. Unless there was a strong wind, after a few shots, soldiers using gunpowder ammunition would have their view obscured by a huge cloud of smoke, and this problem became worse with increasing rate of fire. In 1884 during the Battle of Tamai Sudanese troops were able to break the square of British infantry armed with Martini–Henries because of that. Sharpshooters firing from concealed positions risked revealing their locations with

13568-435: The trademark " Dynamite ", but even then it was unsuitable as a propellant: despite its energetic and smokeless qualities, it detonates at supersonic speed , as opposed to deflagrating smoothly at subsonic speeds, making it more liable to shatter a gun barrel rather than propel a projectile out of it. Nitroglycerine is also highly shock-sensitive, making it unfit to be carried in battlefield conditions. A major step forward

13696-760: The use of triple-base propellants, the usual method of flash reduction was to add inorganic salts like potassium chloride so their specific heat capacity might reduce the temperature of combustion gasses and their finely divided particulate smoke might block visible wavelengths of radiant energy of combustion. All flash reducers have a disadvantage: the production of smoke. Smokeless powder may be corned into small spherical balls or extruded into cylinders or strips with many cross-sectional shapes (strips with various rectangular proportions, single or multi-hole cylinders, slotted cylinders) using solvents such as ether. These extrusions can be cut into short ("flakes") or long pieces ("cords" many inches long). Cannon powder has

13824-608: The war. For small arms it has been replaced by other propellants, such as the Improved Military Rifle (IMR) line of extruded powder or the WC844 ball propellant currently in use in the 5.56×45mm NATO . Production ceased in the United Kingdom around the end of the 20th century, with the closure of the last of the World War II cordite factories, ROF Bishopton . Triple-base propellant for UK service (for example,

13952-422: The wear of the gun barrel liners. Large guns use polyurethane jackets over the powder bags. Other additives include ethyl acetate (a solvent for manufacture of spherical powder), rosin (a surfactant to hold the grain shape of spherical powder) and graphite (a lubricant to cover the grains and prevent them from sticking together, and to dissipate static electricity ). Flash reducers dim muzzle flash ,

14080-456: Was Latinised to nitrum or nitrium . Thence Old French had niter and Middle English nitre . By the 15th century, Europeans referred to it as saltpetre , specifically Indian saltpetre (Chilean saltpetre is sodium nitrate ) and later as nitrate of potash, as the chemistry of the compound was more fully understood. The Arabs called it "Chinese snow" ( Arabic : ثلج الصين , romanized :  thalj al-ṣīn ) as well as bārūd ( بارود ),

14208-543: Was adopted for the Lebel rifle chambered in 8×50mmR Lebel . It was passed through rollers to form paper-thin sheets, which were cut into flakes of the desired size. The resulting propellant , known as pyrocellulose , contains somewhat less nitrogen than guncotton does, and is less volatile. A particularly good feature of the propellant is that it will not detonate unless it is compressed, making it very safe to handle under normal conditions. Vieille's powder revolutionized

14336-441: Was also used for large weapons, such as tank guns , artillery , and naval guns. It has been used mainly for this purpose since the late 19th century by the UK and British Commonwealth countries. Its use was further developed before World War II , and as 2-and-3-inch-diameter (51 and 76 mm) Unrotated Projectiles for launching anti-aircraft weapons . Small cordite rocket charges were also developed for ejector seats made by

14464-598: Was developed at the Dynamit Nobel factory at Avigliana by its director Dr. Modesto Abelli (1859-1911) and patented in 1905. These "cold propellant" mixtures have reduced flash and flame temperature without sacrificing chamber pressure compared to single- and double-base propellants, albeit at the cost of more smoke. In practice, triple-base propellants are, due to their higher price, reserved mainly for high-velocity large caliber ammunition such as used in (naval) artillery and tank guns , which suffer from bore erosion

14592-419: Was developed by including a substantial proportion of nitroguanidine . Triple-base propellant reduced the disadvantages of double-base propellant – its relatively high temperature and significant flash. Imperial Chemical Industries 's (ICI) World War II double-base AN formulation also had a much lower temperature, but it lacked the flash reduction properties of N and NQ triple-base propellants. Whilst cordite

14720-420: Was finally lost because the words "of the well-known soluble kind" in his patent were taken to mean the soluble collodion, and hence specifically excluded the insoluble guncotton. The ambiguous phrase was "soluble nitro-cellulose": soluble nitro-cellulose was known as Collodion and was soluble in alcohol . It was employed mainly for medical and photographic use. In contrast, insoluble in alcohol, nitrocellulose

14848-419: Was finished on 24 August 1918. It was designed to produce 1,500,000 lb (681,000 kg) of cordite per month. Factories, specifically "heavy industry" (Long, and Marland 2009) were important for the provision of munitions. Cordite factories typically employed women (Cook 2006) who put their lives at risk as they packed the shells. Large quantities of cordite were manufactured in both World Wars for use by

14976-776: Was formed in 1910 to produce rifle cordite, at its Beloeil factory, for the Quebec Arsenal . By November 1915 production had been expanded to produce 350,000 lb (159,000 kg) of cordite per month for the Imperial Munitions Board . The Imperial Munitions Board set up a number of additional explosives factories in Canada . It built The British Cordite Ltd factory at Nobel, Ontario , in 1916/1917, to produce cordite. Production started in mid-1917. Canadian Explosives Limited built an additional cordite factory at Nobel, Ontario. Work started in February 1918 and

15104-639: Was known as gun cotton and was used as an explosive. Nobel's patent refers to the production of Celluloid using camphor and soluble nitrocellulose; and this was taken to imply that Nobel was specifically distinguishing between the use of soluble and insoluble nitrocellulose. For a forensic analysis of the case, see The History of Explosives Vol II; The Case for Cordite, John Williams (2014). However, in her comprehensive 2019 biography of Alfred Nobel Ingrid Carlberg notes how closely Abel and Dewar were allowed to follow Nobel's work in Paris, and how disappointed Nobel

15232-574: Was manufactured at the Royal Gunpowder Factory at Waltham Abbey. It entered British service in 1891 as Cordite Mark 1. Its main composition was 58% nitroglycerine , 37% guncotton and 3% mineral jelly . A modified version, Cordite MD, entered service in 1901, with the guncotton percentage increased to 65% and nitroglycerine reduced to 30%. This change reduced the combustion temperature and hence erosion and barrel wear. Cordite's advantages over gunpowder were reduced maximum pressure in

15360-573: Was opened in Scotland to manufacture cordite for the British Army and the Royal Air Force. A new cordite factory at Waltham Abbey and two additional ROF's— ROF Ranskill and ROF Wrexham —were also opened. Cordite produced in these factories was sent to filling factories for filling into ammunition. The British Government set up additional cordite factories, not under Royal Ordnance Factory control but as Agency Factories run on behalf of

15488-559: Was patented in the United States in 1891. The Germans adopted ballistite for naval use in 1898, calling it WPC/98. The Italians adopted it as filite , in cord instead of flake form—but, realising its drawbacks, changed to a formulation with nitroglycerine that they called solenite . In 1891 the Russians tasked the chemist Mendeleev with finding a suitable propellant. He created nitrocellulose gelatinised by ether-alcohol, which produced more nitrogen and more uniform colloidal structure than

15616-769: Was produced in different shapes and sizes, so the particular geometry of Cordite SC was indicated by the use of letters or numbers, or both, after the SC. For example, SC followed by a number was rod-shaped cord, with the number representing the diameter in thousandths of an inch. "SC T" followed by two sets of numbers indicated tubular propellant, with the numbers representing the two diameters in thousandths. Two-inch (approximately 50 mm) and three-inch (approximately 75 mm) diameter, rocket Cordite SC charges were developed in great secrecy before World War II for anti-aircraft purposes—the so-called Z batteries , using ' Unrotated Projectiles '. Great Britain changed to metric units in

15744-513: Was soon superseded, as it caused excessive gun barrel erosion. It has since become known as Cordite Mk I . The composition of cordite was changed to 65% guncotton, 30% nitroglycerin (keeping 5% petroleum jelly), and 0.8% acetone shortly after the end of the Second Boer War . This was known as Cordite MD (modified). Cordite MD cartridges typically weighed approximately 15% more than the cordite Mk I cartridges they replaced, to achieve

15872-623: Was the invention of guncotton , a nitrocellulose-based material, by German chemist Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1846. He promoted its use as a blasting explosive and sold manufacturing rights to the Austrian Empire . Guncotton was more powerful than gunpowder, but at the same time was once again somewhat more unstable. John Taylor obtained an English patent for guncotton; and John Hall & Sons began manufacture in Faversham . English interest languished after an explosion destroyed

16000-495: Was the source used in Laos for the manufacture of gunpowder for Bang Fai rockets. Calcium nitrate , or lime saltpetre, was discovered on the walls of stables, from the urine of barnyard animals. Potassium nitrate was produced in a nitrary or " saltpetre works ". The process involved burial of excrements (human or animal) in a field beside the nitraries, watering them and waiting until leaching allowed saltpeter to migrate to

16128-434: Was then subjected to testing to determine the correct loading charge for the desired performance. Military quantities of old smokeless powder were sometimes reworked into new lots of propellants. Through the 1920s Fred Olsen worked at Picatinny Arsenal experimenting with ways to salvage tons of single-base cannon powder manufactured for World War I. Olsen was employed by Western Cartridge Company in 1929 and developed

16256-699: Was very widely used until the Chilean mineral deposits were found. The Confederate side of the American Civil War had a significant shortage of saltpeter. As a result, the Nitre and Mining Bureau was set up to encourage local production, including by nitre beds and by providing excrement to government nitraries. On November 13, 1862, the government advertised in the Charleston Daily Courier for 20 or 30 "able bodied Negro men" to work in

16384-501: Was with how this trust was betrayed. The book argues for Nobel as the original inventor and that the case was lost because of an unimportant technicality. It was quickly discovered that the rate of burning could be varied by altering the surface area of the cordite. Narrow rods were used in small-arms and were relatively fast burning, while thicker rods would burn more slowly and were used for longer barrels, such as those used in artillery and naval guns. The original Abel-Dewar formulation

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