Corexit (often styled COREXIT) is a product line of oil dispersants used during oil spill response operations. It is produced by Nalco Holding Company , an indirect subsidiary of Ecolab . Corexit was originally developed by the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey. Corexit is typically applied by aerial spraying or spraying from ships directly onto an oil slick. On contact with the dispersant, oil that would otherwise float on the surface of the water is emulsified into tiny droplets and sinks or (in the unusual case of sub-surface application) remains suspended in the water. In theory this allows the oil to be more rapidly degraded by bacteria ( bioremediation ) and prevents it from accumulating on beaches and in marshes.
160-534: Corexit was used in unprecedented quantities during the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico and became the largest use of such chemicals in the United States. In addition to spraying the dispersant onto the surface slick, it was used in an untested, off-label manner when BP injected it at the broken well-head, roughly 1,500 m (5,000 ft) below the surface. Researchers continue to examine
320-473: A 125-tonne (280,000 lb) containment dome over the largest leak and piped the oil to a storage vessel. While this technique had worked in shallower water, it failed here when gas combined with cold water to form methane hydrate crystals that blocked the opening at the top of the dome. Pumping heavy drilling fluids into the blowout preventer to restrict the flow of oil before sealing it permanently with cement (" top kill ") also failed. BP then inserted
480-467: A 9% decline. On 2 August 2010, the EPA said dispersants did no more harm to the environment than the oil and that they stopped a large amount of oil from reaching the coast by breaking it down faster. However, some independent scientists and EPA's own experts continue to voice concerns about the approach. Underwater injection of Corexit into the leak may have created the oil plumes which were discovered below
640-478: A large oil slick began to spread at the former rig site. The oil flowed for 87 days. BP originally estimated a flow rate of 1,000 to 5,000 barrels per day [bbl/d] (160 to 790 m /d). The Flow Rate Technical Group (FRTG) estimated the initial flow rate was 62,000 bbl/d (9,900 m /d). The total estimated volume of leaked oil approximated 4.9 MMbbl (210,000,000 US gal; 780,000 m ) with plus or minus 10% uncertainty, including oil that
800-661: A lawsuit against the EPA and the US Coast Guard , saying the agencies failed to adequately study the chemicals in Corexit and dispersed oil without regard to environmental effects. US District Judge Carl Barbier in December 2012 dismissed all claims against the manufacturer of Corexit, stating that such claims would become an "obstacle to federal law." Barbier held that Nalco did not determine how and in what quantities Corexit
960-523: A lesser extent silica , peat and barite , is also a significant sector. Since 1991, offshore oil and gas has become an important part of the economy, although production and revenue are now declining. However, agriculture remains an important sector in the province, particularly in the Annapolis Valley . Nova Scotia's defence and aerospace sector generates approximately $ 500 million in revenues and contributes about $ 1.5 billion to
1120-464: A local native set up a network for people to volunteer their assistance in cleaning up beaches. Boat captains were given the opportunity to offer the use of their boats to help clean and prevent the oil from further spreading. To assist with the efforts the captains had to register their ships with the Vessels of Opportunity; however, an issue arose when more boats registered than actually participated in
1280-539: A population of 969,383. Of the 958,990 singular responses to the census question concerning mother tongue , the most commonly reported languages were: Figures shown are for the number of single-language responses and the percentage of total single-language responses. Nova Scotia is home to the largest Scottish Gaelic -speaking community outside of Scotland, with a small number of native speakers in Pictou County , Antigonish County , and Cape Breton Island , and
1440-466: A rapidly developing Information & Communication Technology (ICT) sector which consists of over 500 companies, and employs roughly 15,000 people. In 2006, the manufacturing sector brought in over $ 2.6 billion in chained GDP, the largest output of any industrial sector in Nova Scotia. Michelin remains by far the largest single employer in this sector, operating three production plants in
1600-413: A replacement blowout preventer was installed. On 16 September 2010, the relief well reached its destination and pumping of cement to seal the well began. On 19 September 2010, National Incident Commander Thad Allen declared the well "effectively dead" and said that it posed no further threat to the Gulf. In May 2010, BP admitted they had "discovered things that were broken in the sub-surface" during
1760-425: A riser insertion tube into the pipe and a stopper-like washer around the tube plugged at the end of the riser and diverted the flow into the insertion tube. The collected gas was flared and oil stored on board the drillship Discoverer Enterprise . Before the tube was removed, it collected 924,000 US gal (22,000 bbl; 3,500 m ) of oil. On 3 June 2010, BP removed the damaged drilling riser from
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#17327795759741920-667: A series of six wars took place between the English and the French , with Nova Scotia being a consistent theatre of conflict between the two powers. Hostilities between England and France in North America resumed from 1702 to 1713, known as Queen Anne's War . The siege of Port Royal took place in 1710, ending French rule in peninsular Acadia. The subsequent signing of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 formally recognized British rule in
2080-485: A small concentration of propylene glycol . Warnings from the Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet for 2-butoxyethanol include: "Cancer Hazard: 2-Butoxy Ethanol may be a carcinogen in humans since it has been shown to cause liver cancer in animals. Many scientists believe there is no safe level of exposure to a carcinogen....Reproductive Hazard: 2-Butoxy Ethanol may damage the developing fetus. There
2240-473: A sponge. Although that method did not remove the oil completely, chemicals called dispersants were used to hasten the oil's degradation to prevent the oil from doing further damage to the marine habitats below the surface water. For the Deep Horizon oil spill, cleanup workers used 1,400,000 US gal (5,300,000 L; 1,200,000 imp gal) of various chemical dispersants to further breakdown
2400-470: A study done in 2013 found that one of the plumes of dispersant-treated oil had reached a shelf 80 mi (130 km) off the Tampa Bay region. According to researchers, there is "some evidence it may have caused lesions in fish caught in that area". First, BP unsuccessfully attempted to close the blowout preventer valves on the wellhead with remotely operated underwater vehicles . Next, it placed
2560-680: A study from Georgia Tech and Universidad Autonoma de Aguascalientes in Environmental Pollution journal reported that Corexit used during the BP oil spill had increased the toxicity of the oil by 52 times. The scientists concluded that "Mixing oil with dispersant increased toxicity to ecosystems" and made the gulf oil spill worse. The three basic approaches for removing the oil from the water were: combustion, offshore filtration, and collection for later processing. USCG said 33,000,000 US gal (120,000 m ) of tainted water
2720-423: A total of 1,074 mi (1,728 km) had been oiled since the spill began. As of December 2012 , 339 mi (546 km) of coastline remain subject to evaluation and/or cleanup operations. The reported 3.19 million barrels of spilled oil was not the only effect of this disaster. A report detailed the release of thousands of tons of hydrocarbon gases (HC) into the atmosphere. Concerns were raised about
2880-639: Is Halifax , which is home to over 45% of the province's population as of the 2021 census . Halifax is the twelfth-largest census metropolitan area in Canada, the largest municipality in Atlantic Canada , and Canada's second-largest coastal municipality after Vancouver . The land that makes up what is now Nova Scotia was inhabited by the Miꞌkmaq people at the time of European colonization. In 1605, Acadia —France's first New France colony—was founded with
3040-509: Is Sable Island , a small island notorious for being the site of offshore shipwrecks, approximately 175 km (110 mi) from the province's southern coast. Nova Scotia has many ancient fossil-bearing rock formations. These formations are particularly rich on the Bay of Fundy 's shores. Blue Beach near Hantsport , Joggins Fossil Cliffs , on the Bay of Fundy 's shores, has yielded an abundance of Carboniferous -age fossils. Wasson's Bluff, near
3200-700: Is Scottish (30.0%), followed by English (28.9%), Irish (21.6%), French (16.5%), German (10.7%), First Nations (5.4%), Dutch (3.5%), Métis (2.9%), and Acadian (2.6%). 42.6% of respondents identified their ethnicity as " Canadian ". As of the 2021 Canadian Census , the ten most spoken languages in the province included English (951,945 or 99.59%), French (99,300 or 10.39%), Arabic (11,745 or 1.23%), Hindi (10,115 or 1.06%), Spanish (8,675 or 0.91%), Mandarin (8,525 or 0.89%), Punjabi (6,730 or 0.7%), German (6,665 or 0.7%), Miꞌkmaq (5,650 or 0.59%), and Tagalog (5,595 or 0.59%). The question on knowledge of languages allows for multiple responses. The 2021 Canadian census showed
3360-467: Is "more toxic to marine life, but less toxic to life along the shore and animals at the surface" because the dispersant allows the oil to stay submerged below the surface of the water. Corexit causes oil to form into small droplets in the water; fish may be harmed when they eat these droplets. According to its Material safety data sheet , Corexit may also bioaccumulate , remaining in the flesh and building up over time. Thus predators who eat smaller fish with
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#17327795759743520-529: Is also the second-most densely populated province in Canada, and second-smallest province by area. The province comprises the Nova Scotia peninsula and Cape Breton Island , as well as 3,800 other coastal islands. The province is connected to the rest of Canada by the Isthmus of Chignecto , on which the province's land border with New Brunswick is located. Nova Scotia's capital and largest municipality
3680-605: Is in many ways similar to the central Baltic Sea coast in Northern Europe, only wetter and snowier. This is true although Nova Scotia is some fifteen parallels further south. Areas not on the Atlantic coast experience warmer summers more typical of inland areas, and winter lows are a little colder. On 12 August 2020, the community of Grand Étang, famous for its Les Suêtes winds, recorded a balmy overnight low of 23.3 °C (73.9 °F) The province includes regions of
3840-475: Is limited evidence that 2-Butoxy Ethanol may damage the male reproductive system (including decreasing the sperm count) in animals and may affect female fertility in animals". 2-butoxyethanol was identified as a causal agent in the health problems experienced by cleanup workers after the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill . According to the Alaska Community Action on Toxics, the use of Corexit during
4000-467: Is now part of ExxonMobil . In 2011, Corexit became the property of Ecolab, following a merger between Ecolab and Nalco Holding Company . As of 2015, Corexit is owned by Ecolab and is manufactured by Nalco Company, an indirect subsidiary of Ecolab. Dispersants are mixtures of surfactants and solvents that are commonly used to break up floating oil slicks into small droplets, which are submerged underwater. This reduces shoreline accumulation but increases
4160-475: Is the recognized Canadian English name for the province. In both Canadian French and Canadian Gaelic , the province is directly translated as "New Scotland" (French: Nouvelle-Écosse . Canadian Gaelic: Alba Nuadh ). In general, Latin and Slavic languages use a direct translation of "New Scotland", while most other languages use direct transliterations of the Latin/English name. The province
4320-549: Is whether the benefits of dispersing the oil by using Corexit are outweighed by the substantial increase in toxicity of the mixture...Perhaps we should allow the oil to naturally disperse. It might take longer, but it would have less toxic impact on marine ecosystems." On their own, oil and Corexit were found to be equally toxic. A study released by Florida State University and Utrecht University , Netherlands in November 2012, found Corexit made oil sink faster and more deeply into
4480-836: The American Civil War (1861–1865), primarily on behalf of the North . The British Empire (including Nova Scotia) declared itself neutral in the conflict. As a result, Britain (and Nova Scotia) continued to trade with both the South and the North. Nova Scotia's economy boomed during the Civil War. Soon after the American Civil War, Pro-Canadian Confederation premier Charles Tupper led Nova Scotia into Canadian Confederation on 1 July 1867, along with New Brunswick and
4640-655: The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), thousands of Loyalists settled in Nova Scotia. In 1848, Nova Scotia became the first British colony to achieve responsible government . In July 1867, Nova Scotia joined in Confederation with New Brunswick and the Province of Canada (now Ontario and Quebec ), forming the Dominion of Canada. "Nova Scotia" is Latin for "New Scotland " and
4800-511: The Bank of Nova Scotia , Cunard Line , Alexander Keith's Brewery, Morse's Tea Company (first tea company in Canada), among others. Nova Scotia became a world leader in both building and owning wooden sailing ships in the second half of the 19th century. Nova Scotia produced internationally recognized shipbuilders Donald McKay and William Dawson Lawrence . The fame Nova Scotia achieved from sailors
4960-699: The Battle of Fort Cumberland (1776) and at the Siege of Saint John (1777) . Throughout the war, American privateers devastated the maritime economy by capturing ships and looting almost every community outside of Halifax. These American raids alienated many sympathetic or neutral Nova Scotians into supporting the British. By the end of the war, Nova Scotia had outfitted numerous privateers to attack American shipping. British military forces based at Halifax succeeded in preventing an American occupation of Nova Scotia, though
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5120-618: The Environmental Protection Agency alleging that dispersants were still being used in secret and demanding that the agency take action. The letter was published in the Huffington Post . Ott told Al Jazeera , "The dispersants used in BP's draconian experiment contain solvents , such as petroleum distillates and 2-butoxyethanol . Solvents dissolve oil, grease, and rubber. It should be no surprise that solvents are also notoriously toxic to people, something
5280-475: The Exxon Valdez case, people who worked with dispersants, most of them are dead now. The average death age is around fifty. It’s very dangerous. ... It’s an economic protector of BP, not an environmental protector of the public." Marine toxicologist Riki Ott blamed BP for poisoning locals with Corexit, which she alleges they used to hide their responsibility. In August 2010 she wrote an open letter to
5440-636: The Guaracara River . The President of Petrotrin , Khalid Hassanali denied this claim but confirmed that Corexit had been used one mile off-shore near Pointe-à-Pierre . The use of Corexit is approved in the US by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This decision was called into question in 2013 following a report by the Government Accountability Project alleging "devastating long-term effects on human health and
5600-553: The Halifax Explosion . In April 2004, the Nova Scotia legislature adopted a resolution explicitly inviting the government of the Turks and Caicos Islands to explore the possibility of joining Canada as part of that Province . In April 2020, a killing spree occurred across the province and became the deadliest rampage in Canada's history. According to the 2016 Canadian census the largest ethnic group in Nova Scotia
5760-1020: The Intracoastal Waterway and on Pensacola Beach and the Gulf Islands National Seashore . In late June, oil reached Gulf Park Estates , its first appearance in Mississippi. In July, tarballs reached Grand Isle and the shores of Lake Pontchartrain . In September a new wave of oil suddenly coated 16 mi (26 km) of Louisiana coastline and marshes west of the Mississippi River in Plaquemines Parish . In October, weathered oil reached Texas. As of July 2011 , about 491 mi (790 km) of coastline in Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and Florida were contaminated by oil and
5920-539: The Louisiana coast. BP was the operator and principal developer of the Macondo Prospect with a 65% share, while 25% was owned by Anadarko Petroleum , and 10% by MOEX Offshore 2007 , a unit of Mitsui . At approximately 7:45 pm CDT , on 20 April 2010, high-pressure methane gas from the well expanded into the marine riser and rose into the drilling rig, where it ignited and exploded, engulfing
6080-608: The Mi'kmaq nation of Mi'kma'ki ( mi'gama'gi ), the territory of which extends across the Maritimes, parts of Maine , Newfoundland and the Gaspé Peninsula . The Mi'kmaq people are part of the large Algonquian-language family and inhabited Nova Scotia at the time the first European colonists arrived. Research published in 1871 as well as S. T. Rand's work from 1894 showed that some Mi’kmaq believed they had emigrated from
6240-819: The Naval battle off Cape Breton (1781). After the Americans and their French allies won at the siege of Yorktown in 1781, approximately 33,000 Loyalists (the King's Loyal Americans, allowed to place " United Empire Loyalist " after their names) settled in Nova Scotia (14,000 of them in what became New Brunswick) on lands granted by the Crown as some compensation for their losses. (The British administration divided Nova Scotia and hived off Cape Breton and New Brunswick in 1784). The Loyalist exodus created new communities across Nova Scotia, including Shelburne , which briefly became one of
6400-623: The Province of Canada . The Anti-Confederation Party was led by Joseph Howe . Almost three months later, in the election of 18 September 1867, the Anti-Confederation Party won 18 out of 19 federal seats, and 36 out of 38 seats in the provincial legislature. Throughout the 19th century, numerous businesses developed in Nova Scotia became of pan-Canadian and international importance: the Starr Manufacturing Company (first ice skate manufacturer in Canada),
6560-485: The Royal Navy failed to establish naval supremacy in the region. While the British captured many American privateers in battles such as the Naval battle off Halifax (1782), many more continued attacks on shipping and settlements until the final months of the war. The Royal Navy struggled to maintain British supply lines, defending British convoys from American and French attacks as in the fiercely fought convoy battle,
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6720-565: The United States Department of Justice settled federal criminal charges, with BP pleading guilty to 11 counts of manslaughter , two misdemeanors , and a felony count of lying to the United States Congress . BP also agreed to four years of government monitoring of its safety practices and ethics, and the Environmental Protection Agency announced that BP would be temporarily banned from new contracts with
6880-566: The mountainous star coral did not survive". Studies from Florida showed toxic effects of the oil and Corexit mixture on phytoplankton as well as on larger species, including conch, oysters and shrimp. Surfrider Foundation released preliminary results of their study "State of the Beach" in which they found that Corexit appears to make it tougher for microbes to digest the oil. Organic pollutants ( PAHs ) stay above carcinogenic levels by NIH and OSHA standards owing to inhibition by Corexit of
7040-603: The "top kill" effort. Oil slicks were reported in March and August 2011, in March and October 2012, and in January 2013. Repeated scientific analyses confirmed that the sheen was a chemical match for oil from the Macondo well. The USCG initially said the oil was too dispersed to recover and posed no threat to the coastline, but later warned BP and Transocean that they might be held financially responsible for cleaning up
7200-520: The 2011 census, the largest denominations by number of adherents were Christians with 78.2%. About 21.18% were non-religious and 1% were Muslims . Jews , Hindus , and Sikhs constitute around 0.20%. In 1871, the largest religious denominations were Presbyterian with 103,500 (27%); Roman Catholic with 102,000 (26%); Baptist with 73,295 (19%); Anglican with 55,124 (14%); Methodist with 40,748 (10%), Lutheran with 4,958 (1.3%); and Congregationalist with 2,538 (0.65%). Nova Scotia's per capita GDP in 2016
7360-516: The 800,000 gallons of Corexit applied at BP's Macondo well-head "did nothing to break up the oil and simply drifted into the ecosystem". In December 2012, a study found that Corexit may have been unnecessary, because the leaking jet of oil at the wellhead had sufficient turbulence to disperse the oil without chemical dispersant. In April 2012, Center for Biological Diversity , the Surfrider Foundation , and Pacific Environment filed
7520-572: The British deported the Acadians and recruited New England Planters to resettle the colony. The 75-year period of war ended with the Halifax Treaties between the British and the Mi'kmaq (1761). After the war, some Acadians were allowed to return. In 1763, most of Acadia (Cape Breton Island, St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island), and New Brunswick) became part of Nova Scotia. In 1765,
7680-576: The Chinese bulk carrier Shen Neng was grounded on Australia's Great Barrier Reef in 2010. Corexit EC9500A and Corexit EC9527A were used during the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill . More recently, Corexit has been used in Trinidad . In July 2014, a video released by Anonymous alleged that Corexit 9500 had been used in response to the Petrotrin oil spill , where 8,000 barrels of oil leaked into
7840-543: The Coast Guard was assured that no journalists were on board. In another example, a CBS News crew was denied access to the oil-covered beaches of the spill area. The CBS crew was told by the authorities, "This is BP's rules, not ours," when trying to film the area. Some members of Congress criticized the restrictions placed on access by journalists. The FAA denied that BP employees or contractors made decisions on flights and access, saying those decisions were made by
8000-624: The EPA that Corexit use continued after that date and a GAP investigation stated that "[a] majority of GAP witnesses cited indications that Corexit was used after [July 2010]". According to a NALCO manual obtained by GAP , Corexit 9527 is an "eye and skin irritant. Repeated or excessive exposure ... may cause injury to red blood cells (hemolysis), kidney or the liver". The manual adds: "Excessive exposure may cause central nervous system effects, nausea, vomiting, anesthetic or narcotic effects". It advises, "Do not get in eyes, on skin, on clothing", and "Wear suitable protective clothing". For Corexit 9500,
8160-418: The EPA told BP to reduce the use of Corexit by 75%; surface use was prohibited unless a request for exemption in specific circumstances was granted, while subsurface use was capped at 15,000 gallons per day. After May 26 daily average use decreased 9%, an average of slightly more than 23,000 gallons per day. On July 15, 2010, BP announced that it had capped the leaking well, and the application of dispersants by
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#17327795759748320-511: The EPA. Corexit is banned in the United Kingdom due to concerns about possible adverse health effects on people using it. Prior to the 2010 Gulf spill, the majority of studies performed on Corexit tested for effectiveness in dispersing oil, rather than for toxicity . The manufacturer's safety data sheet states "No toxicity studies have been conducted on this product," and later concludes "The potential human hazard is: Low." According to
8480-872: The Enjay Chemical Company (a subsidiary of the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey) each announced the development of Corexit 7664, describing it as non-toxic to marine life- even to shrimp at concentrations of 1% per volume of seawater. Ecotoxicological studies had been undertaken by the Institute of Marine Science at the University of Miami . Corexit 7664's point of difference was described by research chemist Dr Edward Corino to be its water base, where previous dispersants had been hydrocarbon-based and highly toxic. James Avery, Humble Oil and Refining Company's public relations representative for
8640-539: The FAA and Coast Guard. The FAA acknowledged that media access was limited to hired planes or helicopters, but was arranged through the Coast Guard. The Coast Guard and BP denied having a policy of restricting journalists; they noted that members of the media had been embedded with the authorities and allowed to cover response efforts since the beginning of the effort, with more than 400 embeds aboard boats and aircraft to date. They also said that they wanted to provide access to
8800-604: The Gulf of Mexico ecosystem" stemming from the use of Corexit. Of the eight European countries in the Bonn Agreement , France, Germany, and the Netherlands have provisions to use Corexit 9500 in an oil spill. Belgium and Norway do not have lists of approved dispersants, but Belgium has a stockpile of Corexit 9527. The UK and Denmark keep lists of approved dispersants and have not approved of Corexit. Sweden does not use dispersant at all. Approximately one week following
8960-646: The Gulf. The report led by the Department of the Interior and the NOAA said that "75% [of oil] has been cleaned up by Man or Mother Nature"; however, only about 25% of released oil was collected or removed while about 75% of oil remained in the environment in one form or another. In 2012, Markus Huettel, a benthic ecologist at Florida State University, maintained that while much of BP's oil was degraded or evaporated, at least 60% remains unaccounted for. In May 2010,
9120-469: The Macondo site as the waters off the Florida Panhandle and Tampa Bay , where scientists said the oil and dispersant mixture is embedded in the sand . In April 2013, it was reported that dolphins and other marine life continued to die in record numbers with infant dolphins dying at six times the normal rate. One study released in 2014 reported that tuna and amberjack exposed to oil from
9280-460: The Maine settlement the following year and, in 1605, established a settlement at Port Royal , which grew into modern-day Annapolis Royal . This would be the first permanent European settlement in what would later become Canada. The settlement was in the Mi'kmaw district of Kespukwitk and was the founding settlement of what would become Acadia . For the next 150 years, Mi'kmaq and Acadians would form
9440-486: The New York Times, "Nalco had previously declined to identify the third hazardous substance in the 9500 formula, but EPA's website reveals it to be dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate , a detergent and common ingredient in laxatives". Environmentalists also pressured NALCO to reveal to the public what concentrations of each chemical are in the product; NALCO considered such information a trade secret , but shared it with
9600-427: The Smithsonian's National Zoological Park , rescued animals to help with the spill cleanup, although there were many animals found dead. Nova Scotia Recognized Regional Languages: Nova Scotia is a province of Canada , located on its east coast. It is one of the three Maritime provinces and most populous province in Atlantic Canada , with an estimated population of over 1 million as of 2024; it
9760-401: The USCG conducted a subsea survey; no oil coming from the wells or the wreckage was found and its source remains unknown. In addition, a white, milky substance was observed seeping from the wreckage. According to BP and the USCG, it is "not oil and it's not harmful." In January 2013, BP said that they were continuing to investigate possible sources of the oil sheen. Chemical data implied that
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#17327795759749920-476: The United States government. BP and the Department of Justice agreed to a record-setting $ 4.525 billion in fines and other payments. As of 2018 , cleanup costs, charges and penalties had cost the company more than $ 65 billion. In September 2014, a United States District Court judge ruled that BP was primarily responsible for the oil spill because of its gross negligence and reckless conduct. In April 2016, BP agreed to pay $ 20.8 billion in fines,
10080-452: The amount of oil underwater. This also increases the surface area of the oil and, in theory, accelerates the destruction of oil by naturally occurring bacteria. Dispersants are themselves a form of pollution that can be toxic to marine life, and the increased activity of bacteria from their presence can deplete oxygen in nearby waters, causing further harm to marine life. There are important trade-offs that must be considered in their use, such as
10240-449: The appearance of underwater, horizontally-extended plumes of dissolved oil. Researchers concluded that deep plumes of dissolved oil and gas would likely remain confined to the northern Gulf of Mexico and that the peak impact on dissolved oxygen would be delayed and long-lasting. Two weeks after the wellhead was capped on 15 July 2010, the surface oil appeared to have dissipated, while an unknown amount of subsurface oil remained. Estimates of
10400-439: The beaches, and possibly groundwater supplies. The researchers found that Corexit 9500A allowed the toxic components of crude oil ( PAHs ) to permeate sand where, due to a lack of sunlight, degradation is slowed. The authors explained, "The causes of the reduced PAH retention after dispersant application has several reasons: 1) the dispersant transforms the oil containing the PAHs into small micelles that can penetrate through
10560-402: The booms would threaten wildlife. For a time, a group called Matter of Trust, citing insufficient availability of manufactured oil absorption booms, campaigned to encourage hair salons, dog groomers and sheep farmers to donate hair, fur and wool clippings, stuffed in pantyhose or tights, to help contain oil near impacted shores, a technique dating back to the Exxon Valdez disaster. The spill
10720-606: The bottom of the ocean or collecting in the water. None of the eight dispersants tested were "without toxicity", according to an EPA administrator. During the 2010 spill, the ecological effect of mixing the dispersants with oil was unknown, as was the toxicity of the breakdown products of the dispersant. Rhode Island Sen. Sheldon Whitehouse said the EPA was not prepared to responsibly authorize BP's use of Corexit, but did so anyway. He noted that manufacturers could nominate themselves to EPA's list of approved dispersants. Although they had to provide data on both efficacy and toxicity, there
10880-623: The capture of Port Royal in 1710, Francis Nicholson announced it would be renamed Annapolis Royal in honour of Queen Anne . As a result of Father Rale's War (1722–1725), the Mi'kmaq signed a series of treaties with the British in 1725. The Mi'kmaq signed a treaty of submission to the British crown. However, conflict between the Acadians, Mi'kmaq, French and the British persisted in the following decades with King George's War (1744–1748). Father Le Loutre's War (1749–1755) began when Edward Cornwallis arrived to establish Halifax with 13 transports on 21 June 1749. A General Court, made up of
11040-424: The clean-up efforts – only a third of the registered boats. Many local supporters were disappointed with BP's slow response, prompting the formation of The Florida Key Environmental Coalition. This coalition gained significant influence in the clean-up of the oil spill to try to gain some control over the situation. Containment booms stretching over 4,200,000 ft (1,300 km) were deployed, either to corral
11200-408: The containment cap was removed to replace it with a better-fitting cap ("Top Hat Number 10"). Mud and cement were later pumped in through the top of the well to reduce the pressure inside it (which did not work either). A final device was created to attach a chamber of larger diameter than the flowing pipe with a flange that bolted to the top of the blowout preventer and a manual valve set to close off
11360-440: The costs and benefits of its deployment. In April 1968, 300 barrels of Corexit were shipped to the scene of the stricken tanker Esso Essen off the African coast. 125 barrels of it was sprayed onto the slick by aircraft over two days, after which the slick was dispersed. Corexit was later used in response to the sinking of the Greek tanker Andron off the west African coast. Following these events, Humble Oil and Refining Co . and
11520-472: The county of Sunbury was created. This included the territory of present-day New Brunswick and eastern Maine as far as the Penobscot River . In 1769, St. John's Island became a separate colony. The American Revolution (1775–1783) had a significant impact on shaping Nova Scotia, with the colony initially displaying ambivalence over whether the colony should join the revolution; Rebellion flared at
11680-616: The creation of Acadia's capital, Port Royal . The Scots, English, then British, fought France for the territory on numerous occasions for over a century afterwards, having gained it from them in the 1713 Peace of Utrecht , which ended the War of the Spanish Succession . In subsequent years, the British began settling " foreign Protestants " in the region and deported the French-speaking Acadians en masse . During
11840-612: The digestion of the oil by microbes but conflicting results have been reported on this in the context of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Mixing dispersants with oil at the wellhead would keep some oil below the surface and, in theory, allow microbes to digest the oil before it reached the surface. Various risks were identified and evaluated, in particular, that an increase in microbial activity might reduce subsea oxygen levels, threatening fish and other animals. Several studies suggest that microbes successfully consumed part of
12000-490: The dispersant killed plankton and disrupted the Gulf of Mexico's food web , noting that it is "like the middle part of the food chain has been taken away". In late 2012, a study from Georgia Tech and Universidad Autonoma de Aguascalientes in Environmental Pollution journal reported that Corexit used during the BP oil spill had increased the toxicity of the oil by up to 52 times. The study looked at
12160-404: The dispersants add to the toxicity of a spill, increasing the threat to sea turtles and bluefin tuna . The dangers are even greater when poured into the source of a spill, because they are picked up by the current and wash through the Gulf. According to BP and federal officials, dispersant use stopped after the cap was in place; however, marine toxicologist Riki Ott wrote in an open letter to
12320-688: The eastern region confirmed that following the Torrey Canyon oil spill, another spill in the Fore River from a tanker en route to Weymouth , south of Boston hastened Corexit 7664's development. In February 1969, following application tests in Montreal, Quebec , Canada, the Imperial Oil company announced that it had equipped its fleet of tankers and barges with Corexit for the purpose of dispersing oil spills. In February 1970, Corexit
12480-428: The effects and effectiveness of Corexit. Studies have so far indicated that the dispersant is toxic to marine life . Corexit has been shown to exert a synergistic effect when mixed with oil, increasing its toxicity. Corexit was originally developed by the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey (SONJ) also known as Esso (phonetically derived from the acronym SO). The company later merged with Humble Oil to form Exxon, which
12640-400: The effects of the oil–Corexit combination on rotifers , which form the base of the food chain. Georgia Tech lab professor Terry Snell said, "There is a synergistic interaction between crude oil and the dispersant that makes it more toxic". He said the addition of Corexit to the gulf spill "probably put a big dent in the planktonic food web for some extended period of time, but nobody really made
12800-578: The efforts of Joseph Howe . Nova Scotia had established representative government in 1758, an achievement later commemorated by the erection of Dingle Tower in 1908. Nova Scotians fought in the Crimean War of 1853–1856. The 1860 Welsford-Parker Monument in Halifax is the second-oldest war monument in Canada and the only Crimean War monument in North America. It commemorates the 1854–55 Siege of Sevastopol . Thousands of Nova Scotians fought in
12960-487: The eggs of nesting pelicans that had migrated to the Gulf of Mexico and back to Minnesota. Because Corexit is an endocrine disruptor , researchers said the chemicals can disrupt hormone balance and affect embryo development. Toxins in the Corexit–oil mixture (PAHs) were found to permeate human skin at an accelerated pace due to the presence of the solvent. When oil is dispersed , it is distributed in three dimensions (in
13120-447: The flow once attached. On 15 July, the device was secured and time was taken closing the valves to ensure the attachment under increasing pressure until the valves were closed completing the temporary measures. Transocean's Development Driller III started drilling a first relief well on 2 May 2010. GSF Development Driller II started drilling a second relief on 16 May 2010. On 3 August 2010, first test oil and then drilling mud
13280-716: The governor and the council, was the highest court in the colony at the time. Jonathan Belcher was sworn in as chief justice of the Nova Scotia Supreme Court on 21 October 1754. The first legislative assembly in Halifax, under the Governorship of Charles Lawrence , met on 2 October 1758. During the French and Indian War of 1754–1763 (the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War ),
13440-421: The incident, subsidiaries of BP formally requested Nalco Company (an indirect subsidiary of Nalco Holding Company) to supply large quantities of Corexit 9500. Corexit 9500 was listed on the U.S. EPA National Contingency Plan Product Schedule and authority and direction for its use was provided by responding federal agencies. Nalco immediately provided available quantities of Corexit and increased production to supply
13600-506: The information while maintaining safety. On 15 April 2014, BP announced that cleanup along the coast was substantially complete, while the United States Coast Guard work continued using physical barriers such as floating booms, the cleanup workers' objective was to keep the oil from spreading any further. They used skimmer boats to remove a majority of the oil and they used sorbents to absorb any remnant of oil like
13760-477: The interstitial space of the sand. 2) the coating of the oil particles produced by the dispersant reduces the sorption to the sand grains, 3) saline conditions enhance the adsorption of dispersant to sand surfaces, thereby reducing the sorption of oil to the grains". A 2012 study clearly suggests that Corexit is highly toxic to early life stages of coral. From the paper, "Even at a low concentration (0.86 ppm) of oil-dispersant mixture diluted over 96 hours, most of
13920-400: The language is taught in a number of secondary schools throughout the province. In 2018 the government launched a new Gaelic vehicle licence plate to raise awareness of the language and help fund Gaelic language and culture initiatives. They estimated that there were 2,000 Gaelic speakers in the province. According to the 2021 census , religious groups in Nova Scotia included: According to
14080-528: The larger British settlements in North America, and infused Nova Scotia with additional capital and skills. The migration caused political tensions between Loyalist leaders and the leaders of the existing New England Planters settlement. The Loyalist influx also pushed Nova Scotia's 2000 Mi'kmaq People to the margins as Loyalist land grants encroached on ill-defined native lands. As part of the Loyalist migration, about 3,000 Black Loyalists arrived; they founded
14240-475: The largest environmental damage settlement in United States history. Deepwater Horizon was a 10-year-old semi-submersible, mobile, floating , dynamically positioned drilling rig that could operate in waters up to 10,000 ft (3,000 m) deep. Built by South Korean company Hyundai Heavy Industries and owned by Transocean , the rig operated under the Marshallese flag of convenience , and
14400-529: The largest free Black settlement in North America at Birchtown , near Shelburne. There are several Black Loyalists buried in unmarked graves in the Old Burying Ground in Halifax. Many Nova Scotian communities were settled by British regiments that fought in the war . During the War of 1812 , Nova Scotia's contribution to the British war effort involved communities either purchasing or building various privateer ships to attack U.S. vessels. Perhaps
14560-577: The latter option, sending its report the next day. BP's response to dispersant alternatives was judged to be deficient by both the EPA and the US Coast Guard, requiring EPA to perform its own analysis on the relative toxicity of dispersants. Their peer-reviewed conclusions on August 2, 2010 found that Corexit 9500A was generally neither more nor less toxic than the other available dispersants, and that dispersant-oil mixtures were not generally more nor less toxic to test species than oil alone. On May 26,
14720-638: The level certified as safe by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. During a Senate hearing on the use of dispersants, Senator Lisa Murkowski asked EPA administrator Lisa P. Jackson whether Corexit use should be banned, stating she didn't want dispersants to be "the Agent Orange of this oil spill". According to a NALCO manual obtained by GAP , Corexit 9527 is an “eye and skin irritant. Repeated or excessive exposure ... may cause injury to red blood cells (hemolysis), kidney or
14880-418: The liver.” The manual adds: “Excessive exposure may cause central nervous system effects, nausea, vomiting, anesthetic or narcotic effects.” It advises, “Do not get in eyes, on skin, on clothing,” and “Wear suitable protective clothing.” For Corexit 9500 the manual advised, “Do not get in eyes, on skin, on clothing,” “Avoid breathing vapor,” and “Wear suitable protective clothing.” Neither the protective gear, nor
15040-585: The majority of the population of the region. Warfare was a common in Nova Scotia during the 17th and 18th centuries. During the first 80 years the French and Acadians lived in Nova Scotia, nine significant military clashes took place as the English, Dutch, French and Mi'kmaq fought for possession of the area. These encounters happened at Port Royal, Saint John , Cap de Sable (present-day Pubnico to Port La Tour, Nova Scotia ), Jemseg (1674 and 1758) and Baleine (1629). The Acadian Civil War took place from 1640 to 1645. Beginning with King William's War in 1688,
15200-493: The manual advised, "Do not get in eyes, on skin, on clothing", "Avoid breathing vapor", and "Wear suitable protective clothing". According to FOIA requests obtained by GAP, neither the protective gear nor the manual were distributed to Gulf oil spill cleanup workers. Corexit EC9500A and Corexit EC9527A were the principal variants. The two formulations are neither the least toxic, nor the most effective, among EPA's approved dispersants, but BP said it chose to use Corexit because it
15360-644: The manual were distributed to Gulf oil spill cleanup workers, according to FOIA requests obtained by GAP. A study of 247 BP oil spill clean-up workers released in September 2013 by the American Journal of Medicine showed the workers were at an increased risk of developing cancer, leukemia and other illnesses. The study concluded that "clean-up workers exposed to the oil spill and dispersant experienced significantly altered blood profiles, liver enzymes, and somatic symptoms." Alabama researchers found that
15520-451: The manufacturer's website, workers applying Corexit should wear breathing protection and work in a ventilated area. Compared with 12 other dispersants listed by the EPA , Corexit 9500 and 9527 are either similarly toxic or 10 to 20 times more toxic. In a preliminary EPA study of eight different dispersants, Corexit 9500 was found to be less toxic to some marine life than other dispersants and to break down within weeks, rather than settling to
15680-421: The measurements to figure out the impact." The leader of the study, Roberto Rico-Martinez (UAA), said "Dispersants are pre-approved to help clean up oil spills and are widely used during disasters....but we have a poor understanding of their toxicity. Our study indicates the increase in toxicity may have been greatly underestimated following the Macondo well explosion." Snell commented: "What remains to be determined
15840-629: The medical community has long known." Deepwater Horizon oil spill The Deepwater Horizon oil spill (also referred to as the " BP oil spill ") was an environmental disaster which began on 20 April 2010, off the coast of the United States in the Gulf of Mexico on the BP -operated Macondo Prospect , considered the largest marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry and estimated to be 8 to 31 percent larger in volume than
16000-556: The microbial degradation of hydrocarbons in crude oil. Through the use of 'newly developed' UV light equipment, researchers were able to detect PAHs in sand and on human skin. Corexit, they said, allows these toxins to be absorbed into the skin and cannot be wiped off. The mixture of Corexit and crude is absorbed into wet skin faster than dry. In 2012, researchers for the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources found evidence of petroleum compounds and Corexit components in
16160-497: The mid 1970s. Corexit 9500 was designed to replace Corexit 9527. In 2002, Corexit 9527 and Corexit 9500 were the only two chemical dispersants stockpiled in large quantities in the U.S.A. An estimated 2.5 million gallons of chemicals were used in response to the supertanker SS Torrey Canyon oil spill in the United Kingdom in 1967 . The incident harmed marine life and triggered the first significant international public discussions about chemical dispersants' toxicity including
16320-409: The mid-temperate zone and, although the province is almost surrounded by water, the climate is closer to continental climate rather than maritime . The winter and summer temperature extremes of the continental climate are moderated by the ocean. However, winters are cold enough to be classified as continental—still being nearer the freezing point than inland areas to the west. The Nova Scotian climate
16480-615: The most dramatic moment in the war for Nova Scotia occurred when HMS Shannon escorted the captured American frigate USS Chesapeake into Halifax Harbour in 1813. Many of the U.S. prisoners were kept at Deadman's Island . Nova Scotia became the first colony in British North America and in the British Empire to achieve responsible government in January–February 1848 and become self-governing through
16640-410: The new oil. USGS director Marcia McNutt stated that the riser pipe could hold at most 1,000 bbl (160 m ) because it is open on both ends, making it unlikely to hold the amount of oil being observed. In October 2012, BP reported that they had found and plugged leaking oil from the failed containment dome, now abandoned about 1,500 ft (460 m) from the main well. In December 2012,
16800-471: The north, the Bay of Fundy to the west, the Gulf of Maine to the southwest, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. The province's mainland is the Nova Scotia peninsula and includes numerous bays and estuaries. Nowhere in Nova Scotia is more than 67 km (42 mi) from the ocean. Cape Breton Island , a large island to the northeast of the Nova Scotia mainland, is also part of the province, as
16960-417: The oil or as barriers to protect marshes, mangroves, shrimp/crab/oyster ranches or other ecologically sensitive areas. Booms extend 18–48 in (0.46–1.22 m) above and below the water surface and were effective only in relatively calm and slow-moving waters. Including one-time use sorbent booms, a total of 13,300,000 ft (4,100 km) of booms were deployed. Booms were criticized for washing up on
17120-501: The oil. The state of Louisiana received funding by BP to do regular testing of fish, shellfish, water, and sand. Initial testing regularly showed detectable levels of dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate , a chemical used in the clean up. Testing over 2019 reported by GulfSource.org, for the pollutants tested have not produced results. Due to the Deepwater Horizon spill, marine life was suffering. Thousands of animals were visibly covered in oil. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, working with
17280-410: The oil. By mid-September, other research claimed that microbes mainly digested natural gas rather than oil. David L. Valentine, a professor of microbial geochemistry at UC Santa Barbara , said that the capability of microbes to break down the leaked oil had been greatly exaggerated. However, biogeochemist Chris Reddy said natural microorganisms are a big reason why the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico
17440-483: The operations. Local and federal authorities citing BP's authority denied access to members of the press attempting to document the spill from the air, from boats, and on the ground, blocking access to areas that were open to the public. In some cases photographers were granted access only with BP officials escorting them on BP-contracted boats and aircraft. In one example, the U.S. Coast Guard stopped Jean-Michel Cousteau 's boat and allowed it to proceed only after
17600-407: The platform. Eleven missing workers were never found despite a three-day U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) search operation and are believed to have died in the explosion. Ninety-four crew members were rescued by lifeboat or helicopter, 17 of whom were treated for injuries. The Deepwater Horizon sank on the morning of 22 April 2010. The oil leak was discovered on the afternoon of 22 April 2010 when
17760-495: The previous largest, the Ixtoc I oil spill , also in the Gulf of Mexico. Caused in the aftermath of a blowout and explosion on the Deepwater Horizon oil platform , the United States federal government estimated the total discharge at 4.9 MMbbl (210,000,000 US gal; 780,000 m ). After several failed efforts to contain the flow, the well was declared sealed on 19 September 2010. Reports in early 2012 indicated that
17920-545: The product to BP’s subsidiaries. On May 19, 2010 the EPA gave BP 24 hours to choose less toxic alternatives to Corexit, selected from the list of EPA-approved dispersants on the National Contingency Plan Product Schedule, and begin applying them within 72 hours of EPA approval of their choices; or, if BP could not find an alternative, to provide a report on the alternative dispersants investigated and reasons for their rejection. BP took
18080-412: The product. Although usage of dispersants was described as "the most effective and fast moving tool for minimizing shoreline impact", the approach continues to be investigated. A 2011 analysis conducted by Earthjustice and Toxipedia showed that the dispersant could contain cancer-causing agents, hazardous toxins and endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Environmental scientists expressed concerns that
18240-411: The project. By 3 October 2012, federal response costs amounted to $ 850 million, mostly reimbursed by BP. As of January 2013 , 935 personnel were still involved. By that time cleanup had cost BP over $ 14 billion. It was estimated with plus-or-minus 10% uncertainty that 4.9 MMbbl (780,000 m ) of oil was released from the well; 4.1 MMbbl (650,000 m ) of oil went into
18400-628: The province were also hit hard, particularly during the last two decades: coal mining in Cape Breton and northern mainland Nova Scotia has virtually ceased, and a large steel mill in Sydney closed during the 1990s. More recently, the high value of the Canadian dollar relative to the US dollar has hurt the forestry industry, leading to the shutdown of a long-running pulp and paper mill near Liverpool . Mining, especially of gypsum and salt and to
18560-404: The province. Michelin is also the province's largest private-sector employer. In July 2024, the provincial government committed CAD$ 18.6 million to build 27 new telecommunication towers to upgrade cellular service province-wide. The Nova Scotia tourism industry includes more than 6,500 direct businesses, supporting nearly 40,000 jobs. Cruise ships pay regular visits to the province. In 2010,
18720-497: The provincial economy each year. To date, 40% of Canada's military assets reside in Nova Scotia. Nova Scotia has the fourth-largest film industry in Canada hosting over 100 productions yearly, more than half of which are the products of international film and television producers. In 2015, the government of Nova Scotia eliminated tax credits to film production in the province, jeopardizing the industry given most other jurisdictions continue to offer such credits. The province also has
18880-399: The region, while returning Cape Breton Island ( Île Royale ) and Prince Edward Island ( Île Saint-Jean ) to the French. Despite the British conquest of Acadia in 1710, Nova Scotia remained primarily occupied by Catholic Acadians and Mi'kmaq, who confined British forces to Annapolis and to Canso. Present-day New Brunswick formed a part of the French colony of Acadia. Immediately after
19040-434: The relative level of toxicity of the dispersant versus the relative toxicity of the spilled oil, to ensure that dispersant use mitigates an oil spill rather than making the problem worse. Corexit products have been used in oil spill response activities since the late 1960s. Early products in the line included Corexit 7664 and Corexit 8666. Corexit 9527 is one of the first modern concentrate dispersants and has been in use since
19200-476: The released amount is not enough to pose an added cancer risk to workers and coastal residents, while a second research team concluded that there was only a small added risk. Oil was collected from water by using skimmers . In total, 2,063 various skimmers were used. For offshore, more than 60 open-water skimmers were deployed, including 12 purpose-built vehicles. EPA regulations prohibited skimmers that left more than 15 parts per million (ppm) of oil in
19360-456: The residual ranged from a 2010 NOAA report that claimed about half of the oil remained below the surface to independent estimates of up to 75%. That means over 100 × 10 ^ US gal (380 Ml) (2.4 million barrels) remained in the Gulf. As of January 2011 , tar balls, oil sheen trails, fouled wetlands marsh grass and coastal sands were still evident. Subsurface oil remained offshore and in fine silts. In April 2012, oil
19520-431: The response and cleanup activities, extensive damage to marine and wildlife habitats and fishing and tourism industries was reported. In Louisiana , oil cleanup crews worked four days a week on 55 mi (89 km) of Louisiana shoreline throughout 2013. 4,900,000 lb (2,200 t) of oily material was removed from the beaches in 2013, over double the amount collected in 2012. Oil continued to be found as far from
19680-406: The response effort ceased shortly thereafter. The total used in the event was 1.84 million gallons of Corexit EC9500A and Corexit EC9527A, with roughly 58% sprayed from the air. At the beginning of the Gulf spill, the proprietary composition was not public, but the manufacturer's own safety data sheet identified the main components as 2-butoxyethanol and a proprietary organic sulfonate with
19840-709: The response effort. All flights in the operations' area were prohibited except flight authorized by air traffic control ; routine flights supporting offshore oil operations; federal, state, local and military flight operations supporting spill response; and air ambulance and law enforcement operations. Exceptions for these restrictions were granted on a case-by-case basis dependent on safety issues, operational requirements, weather conditions, and traffic volume. No flights, except aircraft conducting aerial chemical dispersing operations, or for landing and takeoff, were allowed below 1,000 m (3,300 ft). Notwithstanding restrictions, there were 800 to 1,000 flights per day during
20000-581: The response. The first video images were released on 12 May, and further video images were released by members of Congress who had been given access to them by BP. During the spill response operations, at the request of the Coast Guard, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) implemented a 900 sq mi (2,300 km ) temporary flight restriction zone over the operations area. Restrictions were to prevent civilian air traffic from interfering with aircraft assisting
20160-464: The shore with the oil, allowing oil to escape above or below the boom, and for ineffectiveness in more than three- to four-foot (90–120 cm) waves. The Louisiana barrier island plan was developed to construct barrier islands to protect the coast of Louisiana. The plan was criticised for its expense and poor results. Critics allege that the decision to pursue the project was political with little scientific input. The EPA expressed concern that
20320-442: The spill caused people "respiratory, nervous system, liver, kidney and blood disorders". In response to public pressure, the EPA and Nalco released the list of the six ingredients in Corexit 9500, revealing constituents including sorbitan , butanedioic acid , and petroleum distillates . Corexit EC9500A is made mainly of hydrotreated light petroleum distillates, propylene glycol and a proprietary organic sulfonate . According to
20480-421: The spill developed deformities of the heart and other organs which would be expected to be fatal or at least life-shortening; another study found that cardiotoxicity might have been widespread in animal life exposed to the spill. Numerous investigations explored the causes of the explosion and record-setting spill. The United States Government report, published in September 2011, pointed to defective cement on
20640-430: The substance might be residual oil leaking from the wreckage. If that proves to be the case, the sheen can be expected to eventually disappear. Another possibility is that it is formation oil escaping from the subsurface, using the Macondo well casing as flow conduit, possibly intersecting a naturally occurring fault, and then following that to escape at the surface some distance from the wellhead. If it proves to be oil from
20800-413: The subsurface, then that could indicate the possibility of an indefinite release of oil. The oil slick was comparable in size to naturally occurring oil seeps and was not large enough to pose an immediate threat to wildlife. The fundamental strategies for addressing the spill were containment, dispersal and removal. In summer 2010, approximately 47,000 people and 7,000 vessels were involved in
20960-438: The surface. Because the dispersants were applied at depth, much of the oil never rose to the surface. One plume was 22 mi (35 km) long, more than 1 mi (1,600 m) wide and 650 ft (200 m) deep. In a major study on the plume, experts were most concerned about the slow pace at which the oil was breaking down in the cold, 40 °F (4 °C) water at depths of 3,000 ft (900 m). In late 2012,
21120-425: The top of the blowout preventer and covered the pipe by the cap which connected it to another riser. On 16 June, a second containment system connected directly to the blowout preventer began carrying oil and gas to service vessels, where it was consumed in a clean-burning system. The United States government's estimates suggested the cap and other equipment were capturing less than half of the leaking oil. On 10 July,
21280-601: The town of Parrsboro , has yielded both Triassic - and Jurassic -age fossils. The highest point is White Hill at 533 m (1,749 ft) above sea level, situated amongst the Cape Breton Highlands in the far north of the province. Nova Scotia is located along the 45th parallel north , so it is midway between the Equator and the North Pole . The province contains 5,400 lakes. Nova Scotia lies in
21440-585: The toxin in their systems may end up with much higher levels in their flesh. The influence of Corexit on microbiological communities is a topic of ongoing research. Corexit 9527, considered by the EPA to be an acute health hazard , is stated by its manufacturer to be potentially harmful to red blood cells , the kidneys and the liver , and may irritate eyes and skin. Like 9527, 9500 can cause hemolysis (rupture of blood cells) and may also cause internal bleeding. According to BP data, 20 percent of offshore workers had levels of 2-Butoxyethanol two times higher than
21600-413: The water column) rather than just two (on the surface). USF scientists found that the untested undersea application of the dispersant created abundant oil plumes in the middle of the Gulf of Mexico. In 2013 it was reported that everywhere along the track that a plume had drifted, a massive die-off of benthic foraminifera was left in its wake. According to the EPA, Corexit EC9500A (formerly "Corexit 9500")
21760-451: The water. Many large-scale skimmers exceeded the limit. Due to use of Corexit , the oil was too dispersed to collect, according to a spokesperson for shipowner TMT . In mid-June 2010, BP ordered 32 machines that separate oil and water , with each machine capable of extracting up to 2,000 bbl/d (320 m /d). After one week of testing, BP began to proceed and, by 28 June, had removed 890,000 bbl (141,000 m ). After
21920-433: The well site was still leaking. The Deepwater Horizon oil spill is regarded as one of the largest environmental disasters in world history. A massive response ensued to protect beaches, wetlands and estuaries from the spreading oil utilizing skimmer ships, floating booms , controlled burns and 1,840,000 US gal (7,000 m ) of oil dispersant . Due to the months-long spill, along with adverse effects from
22080-452: The well was capped, the cleanup of shore became the main task of the response works. Two main types of affected coast were sandy beaches and marshes . On beaches, the main techniques were sifting sand, removing tar balls, and digging out tar mats manually or by using mechanical devices. For marshes, techniques such as vacuum and pumping, low-pressure flush, vegetation cutting, and bioremediation were used. Dispersants are said to facilitate
22240-451: The well, faulting mostly BP , but also rig operator Transocean and contractor Halliburton . Earlier in 2011, a White House commission likewise blamed BP and its partners for a series of cost-cutting decisions and an inadequate safety system, but also concluded that the spill resulted from "systemic" root causes and "absent significant reform in both industry practices and government policies, might well recur". In November 2012, BP and
22400-587: The west, and then lived alongside the Kwēdĕchk, the original inhabitants. The two tribes engaged in a war that lasted "many years", and involved the "slaughter of men, women, and children, and torture of captives", and the eventual displacement of the Kwēdĕchk by the victorious Mi’kmaq. The first Europeans to settle the area were the French, who sailed into the Annapolis Basin in 1604, but chose to settle at Saint Croix Island in Maine instead. They abandoned
22560-445: The world. Nevertheless, the province's imports far exceed its exports. While these numbers were roughly equal from 1992 until 2004, since that time the trade deficit has ballooned. In 2012, exports from Nova Scotia were 12.1% of provincial GDP, while imports were 22.6%. Nova Scotia's traditionally resource-based economy has diversified in recent decades. The rise of Nova Scotia as a viable jurisdiction in North America, historically,
22720-539: Was CA$ 44,924 , significantly lower than the national average per capita GDP of CA$ 57,574 . GDP growth has lagged behind the rest of the country for at least the past decade. As of 2017, the median family income in Nova Scotia was $ 85,970, below the national average of $ 92,990; in Halifax the figure rises to $ 98,870. The province is the world's largest exporter of Christmas trees , lobster , gypsum , and wild berries . Its export value of fish exceeds $ 1 billion, and fish products are received by 90 countries around
22880-607: Was 54.7% effective, while Corexit EC9527A was 63.4% effective in the dispersion of Louisiana crude . The EPA lists 12 other dispersants as being more effective in dealing with oil in a way that is safe for wildlife. Reports from Florida scientists showed Corexit "may not have done its job properly" and that the dispersant "does not seem to facilitate the degradation of the oil" by oil-eating bacteria. Evidence from researchers at Florida Institute of Oceanography showed Corexit did not degrade as promised. Studies by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute conducted in January 2011 indicated that
23040-502: Was administered during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. EPA whistleblower Hugh Kaufman gave an interview to Democracy Now during the height of the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill news coverage and explained his views on the use of Corexit, saying "EPA now is taking the position that they really don’t know how dangerous it is, even though if you read the label, it tells you how dangerous it is. And, for example, in
23200-724: Was air-dropped onto oil which leaked from the SS Puerto Rican as it sank off San Francisco later that year. Corexit 9580 was used during the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill disaster in Alaska. Corexit 7764 and Corexit 9527 were both used during the 1992 Port Bonython oil spill in South Australia . 45,000 litres of Corexit 9500 and 9527 were used in the response to the Montara oil spill off Australia's north-west shelf in 2009 and 2,000 litres of Corexit 9527 were used after
23360-490: Was also notable for the volume of Corexit oil dispersant used and for application methods that were "purely experimental." Altogether, 1.84 × 10 ^ US gal (7,000 m ) of dispersants were used; of this, 771,000 US gal (2,920 m ) were released at the wellhead. Subsea injection had never previously been tried but, due to the spill's unprecedented nature, BP, together with USCG and EPA, decided to use it. Over 400 sorties were flown to release
23520-549: Was assured in 1895 when Joshua Slocum became the first man to sail single-handedly around the world. International attention continued into the following century with the many racing victories of the Bluenose schooner. Nova Scotia was also the birthplace and home of Samuel Cunard , a British shipping magnate (born at Halifax , Nova Scotia) who founded the Cunard Line. In December 1917, about 2,000 people were killed in
23680-705: Was available the week of the rig explosion. On 19 May, the EPA gave BP 24 hours to choose less toxic alternatives to Corexit from the National Contingency Plan Product Schedule and begin applying them within 72 hours of EPA approval or provide a detailed reasoning why no approved products met the standards. On 20 May, BP determined that none of the alternative products met all three criteria of availability, non-toxicity and effectiveness. On 24 May, EPA Administrator Lisa P. Jackson ordered EPA to conduct its own evaluation of alternatives and ordered BP to reduce dispersant use by 75%. BP reduced Corexit use by 25,689 to 23,250 US gal (97,240 to 88,010 L) per day,
23840-568: Was chartered to BP from March 2008 to September 2013. It was drilling a deep exploratory well, 18,360 ft (5,600 m) below sea level, in approximately 5,100 ft (1,600 m) of water. The well is situated in the Macondo Prospect in Mississippi Canyon Block 253 (MC253) of the Gulf of Mexico , in the United States' exclusive economic zone . The Macondo well is found roughly 41 mi (66 km) off
24000-458: Was collected or burned before it could enter the Gulf waters. According to the satellite images, the spill directly affected 70,000 sq mi (180,000 km ) of ocean, comparable to the area of Oklahoma . By early June 2010, oil had washed up on 125 mi (201 km) of Louisiana's coast and along the Mississippi , Florida , and Alabama coastlines. Oil sludge appeared in
24160-539: Was collected, making it the world's largest accidental spill. BP challenged the higher figure, saying that the government overestimated the prefaced volume. Internal emails released in 2013 showed that one BP employee had estimates that matched those of the FRTG, and shared the data with supervisors, but BP continued with their lower number. The company argued that government figures do not reflect over 810,000 bbl (34 million US gal; 129,000 m ) of oil that
24320-532: Was deployed by aircraft onto an oil slick leaking from the stricken tanker Arrow in Nova Scotia , Canada. A month later, Chevron used Corexit and another chemical dispersant called Cold Clean on and beneath an oil platform off the Louisiana coast during a spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Corexit 9527 was applied to spilled oil in Galveston, Texas in August 1984 but was said to have failed. 2,000 gallons of Corexit
24480-517: Was driven by the ready availability of natural resources, especially the fish stocks off the Scotian Shelf . The fishery was a pillar of the economy since its development as part of New France in the 17th century; however, the fishery suffered a sharp decline due to overfishing in the late 20th century. The collapse of the cod stocks and the closure of this sector resulted in a loss of approximately 20,000 jobs in 1992. Other sectors in
24640-417: Was first named in the 1621 Royal Charter granting to Sir William Alexander the right to settle lands as a Scottish colony, including modern Nova Scotia, Cape Breton Island , Prince Edward Island , New Brunswick and the Gaspé Peninsula . Nova Scotia is Canada's second-smallest province in area, after Prince Edward Island . It is surrounded by four major bodies of water: the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to
24800-560: Was no official toxicity limit to bar approval. Chemist Wilma Subra expressed her concern about the danger of the Corexit-crude mixture, telling GAP investigators, “The short-term health symptoms include acute respiratory problems , skin rashes , cardiovascular impacts, gastrointestinal impacts, and short-term loss of memory....long-term impacts include cancer , decreased lung function, liver damage, and kidney damage.” Nalco spokesman Charlie Pajor said that oil mixed with Corexit
24960-654: Was not far worse. Genetically modified Alcanivorax borkumensis was added to the waters to speed digestion. The delivery method of microbes to oil patches was proposed by the Russian Research and Development Institute of Ecology and the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources . On 18 May 2010, BP was designated the lead "Responsible Party" under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 , which meant that BP had operational authority in coordinating
25120-406: Was pumped at a slow rate of approximately 2 bbl (320 L) per minute into the well-head. Pumping continued for eight hours, at the end of which the well was declared to be "in a static condition." On 4 August 2010, BP began pumping cement from the top, sealing that part of the flow channel permanently. On 3 September 2010, the 300- ton failed blowout preventer was removed from the well and
25280-679: Was recovered, including 5,000,000 US gal (19,000 m ) of oil. BP said 826,800 bbl (131,450 m ) had been recovered or flared. It is calculated that about 5% of leaked oil was burned at the surface and 3% was skimmed. On the most demanding day, 47,849 people were assigned on the response works and over 6,000 Marine vessels, 82 helicopters, and 20 fixed-wing aircraft were involved. From April to mid-July 2010, 411 controlled in-situ fires remediated approximately 265,000 bbl (11.1 million US gal; 42,100 m ). The fires released small amounts of toxins , including cancer-causing dioxins . According to EPA 's report,
25440-454: Was removed from the Louisiana coast. Although only "minute" quantities of oil continued to wash up in 2013, patches of tar balls were still being reported almost every day from Alabama and Florida Panhandle beaches. Regular cleanup patrols were no longer considered justified but cleanup was being conducted on an as-needed basis, in response to public reports. It was first thought that oil had not reached as far as Tampa Bay, Florida ; however,
25600-454: Was still found along as much as 200 mi (320 km) of Louisiana coastline and tar balls continued to wash up on the barrier islands. In 2013, some scientists at the Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill and Ecosystem Science Conference said that as much as one-third of the oil may have mixed with deep ocean sediments , where it risks damage to ecosystems and commercial fisheries. In 2013, more than 4,600,000 lb (2,100 t) of "oiled material"
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