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110-422: CESR pioneered several new accelerator techniques, including superconducting radio-frequency cavities and pretzel orbits. CESR was built in the already existing tunnel for the 10 GeV synchrotron and was originally constructed as an electron - positron collider . The project was led by Cornell physicist Maury Tigner who devised a "fiendishly clever" method of filling the ring with positrons generated by

220-473: A Schrödinger -like wave equation, had great success in explaining the macroscopic properties of superconductors. In particular, Abrikosov showed that Ginzburg–Landau theory predicts the division of superconductors into the two categories now referred to as Type I and Type II. Abrikosov and Ginzburg were awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize for their work (Landau had received the 1962 Nobel Prize for other work, and died in 1968). The four-dimensional extension of

330-591: A lanthanum -based cuprate perovskite material, which had a transition temperature of 35 K (Nobel Prize in Physics, 1987). It was soon found that replacing the lanthanum with yttrium (i.e., making YBCO) raised the critical temperature above 90 K. This temperature jump is of particular engineering significance, since it allows liquid nitrogen as a refrigerant, replacing liquid helium. Liquid nitrogen can be produced relatively cheaply, even on-site. The higher temperatures additionally help to avoid some of

440-427: A superinsulator state in some materials, with almost infinite electrical resistance . The first development and study of superconducting Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) in 2020 suggests that there is a "smooth transition between" BEC and Bardeen-Cooper-Shrieffer regimes. There are many criteria by which superconductors are classified. The most common are: A superconductor can be Type I , meaning it has

550-508: A center of mass energy ranging from 3.5 GeV to 12 GeV at its peak. This turned out to be ideal for the study of the B meson and data from these collisions provided physicists with many new insights into the physics of fundamental particles. The CLEO detector alone resulted in over 200 publications in Physical Review Letters . CESR installed sets of wiggler magnets in the early 2000s to allow operation at lower energies for

660-475: A combination of the two behaviours. In that case the superconductor is of Type-1.5 . A superconductor is conventional if it is driven by electron–phonon interaction and explained by the usual BCS theory or its extension, the Eliashberg theory . Otherwise, it is unconventional . Alternatively, a superconductor is called unconventional if the superconducting order parameter transforms according to

770-461: A conventional superconductor is 203 K for H 2 S, although high pressures of approximately 90 gigapascals were required. Cuprate superconductors can have much higher critical temperatures: YBa 2 Cu 3 O 7 , one of the first cuprate superconductors to be discovered, has a critical temperature above 90 K, and mercury-based cuprates have been found with critical temperatures in excess of 130 K. The basic physical mechanism responsible for

880-721: A current density of more than 100,000 amperes per square centimeter in a magnetic field of 8.8 tesla. Despite being brittle and difficult to fabricate, niobium–tin has since proved extremely useful in supermagnets generating magnetic fields as high as 20 tesla. In 1962, T. G. Berlincourt and R. R. Hake discovered that more ductile alloys of niobium and titanium are suitable for applications up to 10 tesla. Promptly thereafter, commercial production of niobium–titanium supermagnet wire commenced at Westinghouse Electric Corporation and at Wah Chang Corporation . Although niobium–titanium boasts less-impressive superconducting properties than those of niobium–tin, niobium–titanium has, nevertheless, become

990-505: A few hundred ohms . The major advantage of these is that they can dissipate a lot of energy, and they self-reset; after the voltage across the device drops below the threshold, its resistance returns to being high. This makes them ideal for surge-protection applications; as there is control over the threshold voltage and energy tolerance, they find use in all sorts of applications. The best demonstration of their ability can be found in electrical substations , where they are employed to protect

1100-514: A finer examination of the composition of ceramic artifacts and sherds to determine the source of the material and, through this, the possible manufacturing site. Key criteria are the composition of the clay and the temper used in the manufacture of the article under study: the temper is a material added to the clay during the initial production stage and is used to aid the subsequent drying process. Types of temper include shell pieces, granite fragments, and ground sherd pieces called ' grog '. Temper

1210-422: A furnace, a pyroelectric crystal allowed to cool under no applied stress generally builds up a static charge of thousands of volts. Such materials are used in motion sensors , where the tiny rise in temperature from a warm body entering the room is enough to produce a measurable voltage in the crystal. In turn, pyroelectricity is seen most strongly in materials that also display the ferroelectric effect , in which

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1320-669: A glassy surface, making a vessel less pervious to water. Ceramic artifacts have an important role in archaeology for understanding the culture, technology, and behavior of peoples of the past. They are among the most common artifacts to be found at an archaeological site, generally in the form of small fragments of broken pottery called sherds . The processing of collected sherds can be consistent with two main types of analysis: technical and traditional. The traditional analysis involves sorting ceramic artifacts, sherds, and larger fragments into specific types based on style, composition, manufacturing, and morphology. By creating these typologies, it

1430-494: A non-trivial irreducible representation of the point group or space group of the system. A superconductor is generally considered high-temperature if it reaches a superconducting state above a temperature of 30 K (−243.15 °C); as in the initial discovery by Georg Bednorz and K. Alex Müller . It may also reference materials that transition to superconductivity when cooled using liquid nitrogen – that is, at only T c  > 77 K, although this

1540-473: A phenomenon which has come to be known as the Meissner effect. In 1935, Fritz and Heinz London showed that the Meissner effect was a consequence of the minimization of the electromagnetic free energy carried by superconducting current. The theoretical model that was first conceived for superconductivity was completely classical: it is summarized by London constitutive equations . It was put forward by

1650-412: A possible explanation of high-temperature superconductivity in certain materials. From about 1993, the highest-temperature superconductor known was a ceramic material consisting of mercury, barium, calcium, copper and oxygen (HgBa 2 Ca 2 Cu 3 O 8+δ ) with T c = 133–138 K . In February 2008, an iron-based family of high-temperature superconductors was discovered. Hideo Hosono, of

1760-492: A rotation process called "throwing"), slip casting , tape casting (used for making very thin ceramic capacitors), injection molding , dry pressing, and other variations. Many ceramics experts do not consider materials with an amorphous (noncrystalline) character (i.e., glass) to be ceramics, even though glassmaking involves several steps of the ceramic process and its mechanical properties are similar to those of ceramic materials. However, heat treatments can convert glass into

1870-434: A semi-crystalline material known as glass-ceramic . Traditional ceramic raw materials include clay minerals such as kaolinite , whereas more recent materials include aluminium oxide, more commonly known as alumina . Modern ceramic materials, which are classified as advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide and tungsten carbide . Both are valued for their abrasion resistance and are therefore used in applications such as

1980-423: A signal). The unit of time measured is the natural interval required for electricity to be converted into mechanical energy and back again. The piezoelectric effect is generally stronger in materials that also exhibit pyroelectricity , and all pyroelectric materials are also piezoelectric. These materials can be used to inter-convert between thermal, mechanical, or electrical energy; for instance, after synthesis in

2090-407: A single critical field , above which all superconductivity is lost and below which the magnetic field is completely expelled from the superconductor; or Type II , meaning it has two critical fields, between which it allows partial penetration of the magnetic field through isolated points. These points are called vortices . Furthermore, in multicomponent superconductors it is possible to have

2200-431: A small electric charge. Even if the experiments were not carried out in a high-temperature environment, the results are correlated less to classical but high temperature superconductors, given that no foreign atoms need to be introduced. The superconductivity effect came about as a result of electrons twisted into a vortex between the graphene layers, called " skyrmions ". These act as a single particle and can pair up across

2310-418: A stable electric dipole can be oriented or reversed by applying an electrostatic field. Pyroelectricity is also a necessary consequence of ferroelectricity. This can be used to store information in ferroelectric capacitors , elements of ferroelectric RAM . The most common such materials are lead zirconate titanate and barium titanate . Aside from the uses mentioned above, their strong piezoelectric response

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2420-433: A superconducting niobium sphere with a mass of four grams. In a normal conductor, an electric current may be visualized as a fluid of electrons moving across a heavy ionic lattice. The electrons are constantly colliding with the ions in the lattice, and during each collision some of the energy carried by the current is absorbed by the lattice and converted into heat , which is essentially the vibrational kinetic energy of

2530-467: A superconductor is placed in a weak external magnetic field H , and cooled below its transition temperature, the magnetic field is ejected. The Meissner effect does not cause the field to be completely ejected but instead, the field penetrates the superconductor but only to a very small distance, characterized by a parameter  λ , called the London penetration depth , decaying exponentially to zero within

2640-638: A variational argument, could be obtained using a canonical transformation of the electronic Hamiltonian . In 1959, Lev Gor'kov showed that the BCS theory reduced to the Ginzburg–Landau theory close to the critical temperature. Generalizations of BCS theory for conventional superconductors form the basis for the understanding of the phenomenon of superfluidity , because they fall into the lambda transition universality class. The extent to which such generalizations can be applied to unconventional superconductors

2750-495: Is a phenomenon which can only be explained by quantum mechanics . It is characterized by the Meissner effect , the complete cancelation of the magnetic field in the interior of the superconductor during its transitions into the superconducting state. The occurrence of the Meissner effect indicates that superconductivity cannot be understood simply as the idealization of perfect conductivity in classical physics . In 1986, it

2860-490: Is applied which is greater than the critical magnetic field . This is because the Gibbs free energy of the superconducting phase increases quadratically with the magnetic field while the free energy of the normal phase is roughly independent of the magnetic field. If the material superconducts in the absence of a field, then the superconducting phase free energy is lower than that of the normal phase and so for some finite value of

2970-401: Is caused by an attractive force between electrons from the exchange of phonons . This pairing is very weak, and small thermal vibrations can fracture the bond. Due to quantum mechanics , the energy spectrum of this Cooper pair fluid possesses an energy gap , meaning there is a minimum amount of energy Δ E that must be supplied in order to excite the fluid. Therefore, if Δ E is larger than

3080-414: Is closely connected to the formation of Cooper pairs . The simplest method to measure the electrical resistance of a sample of some material is to place it in an electrical circuit in series with a current source I and measure the resulting voltage V across the sample. The resistance of the sample is given by Ohm's law as R = V / I . If the voltage is zero, this means that

3190-467: Is employed. Ice templating allows the creation of macroscopic pores in a unidirectional arrangement. The applications of this oxide strengthening technique are important for solid oxide fuel cells and water filtration devices. To process a sample through ice templating, an aqueous colloidal suspension is prepared to contain the dissolved ceramic powder evenly dispersed throughout the colloid, for example Yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ). The solution

3300-468: Is exploited in the design of high-frequency loudspeakers , transducers for sonar , and actuators for atomic force and scanning tunneling microscopes . Temperature increases can cause grain boundaries to suddenly become insulating in some semiconducting ceramic materials, mostly mixtures of heavy metal titanates . The critical transition temperature can be adjusted over a wide range by variations in chemistry. In such materials, current will pass through

3410-425: Is generally used only to emphasize that liquid nitrogen coolant is sufficient. Low temperature superconductors refer to materials with a critical temperature below 30 K, and are cooled mainly by liquid helium ( T c  > 4.2 K). One exception to this rule is the iron pnictide group of superconductors which display behaviour and properties typical of high-temperature superconductors, yet some of

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3520-446: Is lowered, even down to near absolute zero , a superconductor has a characteristic critical temperature below which the resistance drops abruptly to zero. An electric current through a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source. The superconductivity phenomenon was discovered in 1911 by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes . Like ferromagnetism and atomic spectral lines , superconductivity

3630-447: Is minuscule compared with that of non-superconducting materials, but must be taken into account in sensitive experiments. However, as the temperature decreases far enough below the nominal superconducting transition, these vortices can become frozen into a disordered but stationary phase known as a "vortex glass". Below this vortex glass transition temperature, the resistance of the material becomes truly zero. In superconducting materials,

3740-480: Is not understood, but there are two major families of superconducting ceramics. Piezoelectricity , a link between electrical and mechanical response, is exhibited by a large number of ceramic materials, including the quartz used to measure time in watches and other electronics. Such devices use both properties of piezoelectrics, using electricity to produce a mechanical motion (powering the device) and then using this mechanical motion to produce electricity (generating

3850-416: Is one of the pieces of evidence for the existence of the energy gap . The order of the superconducting phase transition was long a matter of debate. Experiments indicate that the transition is second-order, meaning there is no latent heat . However, in the presence of an external magnetic field there is latent heat, because the superconducting phase has a lower entropy below the critical temperature than

3960-491: Is possible to distinguish between different cultural styles, the purpose of the ceramic, and the technological state of the people, among other conclusions. Besides, by looking at stylistic changes in ceramics over time, it is possible to separate (seriate) the ceramics into distinct diagnostic groups (assemblages). A comparison of ceramic artifacts with known dated assemblages allows for a chronological assignment of these pieces. The technical approach to ceramic analysis involves

4070-568: Is responsible for such diverse optical phenomena as night-vision and IR luminescence . Thus, there is an increasing need in the military sector for high-strength, robust materials which have the capability to transmit light ( electromagnetic waves ) in the visible (0.4 – 0.7 micrometers) and mid- infrared (1 – 5 micrometers) regions of the spectrum. These materials are needed for applications requiring transparent armor, including next-generation high-speed missiles and pods, as well as protection against improvised explosive devices (IED). In

4180-518: Is still controversial. The first practical application of superconductivity was developed in 1954 with Dudley Allen Buck 's invention of the cryotron . Two superconductors with greatly different values of the critical magnetic field are combined to produce a fast, simple switch for computer elements. Soon after discovering superconductivity in 1911, Kamerlingh Onnes attempted to make an electromagnet with superconducting windings but found that relatively low magnetic fields destroyed superconductivity in

4290-460: Is the magnetic field and λ is the London penetration depth. This equation, which is known as the London equation , predicts that the magnetic field in a superconductor decays exponentially from whatever value it possesses at the surface. A superconductor with little or no magnetic field within it is said to be in the Meissner state. The Meissner state breaks down when the applied magnetic field

4400-425: Is then cooled from the bottom to the top on a platform that allows for unidirectional cooling. This forces ice crystals to grow in compliance with the unidirectional cooling, and these ice crystals force the dissolved YSZ particles to the solidification front of the solid-liquid interphase boundary, resulting in pure ice crystals lined up unidirectionally alongside concentrated pockets of colloidal particles. The sample

4510-475: Is then heated and at the same the pressure is reduced enough to force the ice crystals to sublime and the YSZ pockets begin to anneal together to form macroscopically aligned ceramic microstructures. The sample is then further sintered to complete the evaporation of the residual water and the final consolidation of the ceramic microstructure. During ice-templating, a few variables can be controlled to influence

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4620-518: Is too large. Superconductors can be divided into two classes according to how this breakdown occurs. In Type I superconductors, superconductivity is abruptly destroyed when the strength of the applied field rises above a critical value H c . Depending on the geometry of the sample, one may obtain an intermediate state consisting of a baroque pattern of regions of normal material carrying a magnetic field mixed with regions of superconducting material containing no field. In Type II superconductors, raising

4730-472: Is typically somewhere between the minimum wavelength of visible light and the resolution limit of the naked eye. The microstructure includes most grains, secondary phases, grain boundaries, pores, micro-cracks, structural defects, and hardness micro indentions. Most bulk mechanical, optical, thermal, electrical, and magnetic properties are significantly affected by the observed microstructure. The fabrication method and process conditions are generally indicated by

4840-399: Is usually identified by microscopic examination of the tempered material. Clay identification is determined by a process of refiring the ceramic and assigning a color to it using Munsell Soil Color notation. By estimating both the clay and temper compositions and locating a region where both are known to occur, an assignment of the material source can be made. Based on the source assignment of

4950-473: Is virtually lossless. Optical waveguides are used as components in Integrated optical circuits (e.g. light-emitting diodes , LEDs) or as the transmission medium in local and long haul optical communication systems. Also of value to the emerging materials scientist is the sensitivity of materials to radiation in the thermal infrared (IR) portion of the electromagnetic spectrum . This heat-seeking ability

5060-513: The Tokyo Institute of Technology , and colleagues found lanthanum oxygen fluorine iron arsenide (LaO 1−x F x FeAs), an oxypnictide that superconducts below 26 K. Replacing the lanthanum in LaO 1− x F x FeAs with samarium leads to superconductors that work at 55 K. In 2014 and 2015, hydrogen sulfide ( H 2 S ) at extremely high pressures (around 150 gigapascals)

5170-435: The resonating-valence-bond theory , and spin fluctuation which has the most support in the research community. The second hypothesis proposed that electron pairing in high-temperature superconductors is mediated by short-range spin waves known as paramagnons . In 2008, holographic superconductivity, which uses holographic duality or AdS/CFT correspondence theory, was proposed by Gubser, Hartnoll, Herzog, and Horowitz, as

5280-528: The thermal energy of the lattice, given by kT , where k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature , the fluid will not be scattered by the lattice. The Cooper pair fluid is thus a superfluid , meaning it can flow without energy dissipation. In the class of superconductors known as type II superconductors , including all known high-temperature superconductors , an extremely low but non-zero resistivity appears at temperatures not too far below

5390-468: The 1950s, theoretical condensed matter physicists arrived at an understanding of "conventional" superconductivity, through a pair of remarkable and important theories: the phenomenological Ginzburg–Landau theory (1950) and the microscopic BCS theory (1957). In 1950, the phenomenological Ginzburg–Landau theory of superconductivity was devised by Landau and Ginzburg . This theory, which combined Landau's theory of second-order phase transitions with

5500-886: The 1960s, scientists at General Electric (GE) discovered that under the right manufacturing conditions, some ceramics, especially aluminium oxide (alumina), could be made translucent . These translucent materials were transparent enough to be used for containing the electrical plasma generated in high- pressure sodium street lamps. During the past two decades, additional types of transparent ceramics have been developed for applications such as nose cones for heat-seeking missiles , windows for fighter aircraft , and scintillation counters for computed tomography scanners. Other ceramic materials, generally requiring greater purity in their make-up than those above, include forms of several chemical compounds, including: For convenience, ceramic products are usually divided into four main types; these are shown below with some examples: Frequently,

5610-432: The 1980s it was shown theoretically with the help of a disorder field theory , in which the vortex lines of the superconductor play a major role, that the transition is of second order within the type II regime and of first order (i.e., latent heat ) within the type I regime, and that the two regions are separated by a tricritical point . The results were strongly supported by Monte Carlo computer simulations. When

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5720-520: The CLEO-c project. The accelerator continued to provide useful data until the early 2000s when it was superseded by more powerful machines. CESR now powers the state of the art synchrotron light source called CHESS. This NSF user facility is one of only five in the world that can generate the high energy x-rays needed for research in fields such as solid state physics, biology, material science, art history, among others. Over 1000 scientists from all over

5830-531: The Ginzburg–Landau theory, the Coleman-Weinberg model , is important in quantum field theory and cosmology . Also in 1950, Maxwell and Reynolds et al. found that the critical temperature of a superconductor depends on the isotopic mass of the constituent element. This important discovery pointed to the electron – phonon interaction as the microscopic mechanism responsible for superconductivity. The complete microscopic theory of superconductivity

5940-532: The Hall-Petch equation, hardness , toughness , dielectric constant , and the optical properties exhibited by transparent materials . Ceramography is the art and science of preparation, examination, and evaluation of ceramic microstructures. Evaluation and characterization of ceramic microstructures are often implemented on similar spatial scales to that used commonly in the emerging field of nanotechnology: from nanometers to tens of micrometers (µm). This

6050-413: The applied field past a critical value H c1 leads to a mixed state (also known as the vortex state) in which an increasing amount of magnetic flux penetrates the material, but there remains no resistance to the flow of electric current as long as the current is not too large. At a second critical field strength H c2 , superconductivity is destroyed. The mixed state is actually caused by vortices in

6160-494: The artifact, further investigations can be made into the site of manufacture. The physical properties of any ceramic substance are a direct result of its crystalline structure and chemical composition. Solid-state chemistry reveals the fundamental connection between microstructure and properties, such as localized density variations, grain size distribution, type of porosity, and second-phase content, which can all be correlated with ceramic properties such as mechanical strength σ by

6270-513: The brightness and contrast of a digital image. Guided lightwave transmission via frequency selective waveguides involves the emerging field of fiber optics and the ability of certain glassy compositions as a transmission medium for a range of frequencies simultaneously ( multi-mode optical fiber ) with little or no interference between competing wavelengths or frequencies. This resonant mode of energy and data transmission via electromagnetic (light) wave propagation , though low powered,

6380-403: The brothers Fritz and Heinz London in 1935, shortly after the discovery that magnetic fields are expelled from superconductors. A major triumph of the equations of this theory is their ability to explain the Meissner effect, wherein a material exponentially expels all internal magnetic fields as it crosses the superconducting threshold. By using the London equation, one can obtain the dependence of

6490-436: The bulk of the material. The Meissner effect is a defining characteristic of superconductivity. For most superconductors, the London penetration depth is on the order of 100 nm. The Meissner effect is sometimes confused with the kind of diamagnetism one would expect in a perfect electrical conductor: according to Lenz's law , when a changing magnetic field is applied to a conductor, it will induce an electric current in

6600-418: The ceramic family. Highly oriented crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a great range of processing. Methods for dealing with them tend to fall into one of two categories: either making the ceramic in the desired shape by reaction in situ or "forming" powders into the desired shape and then sintering to form a solid body. Ceramic forming techniques include shaping by hand (sometimes including

6710-441: The characteristics of superconductivity appear when the temperature T is lowered below a critical temperature T c . The value of this critical temperature varies from material to material. Conventional superconductors usually have critical temperatures ranging from around 20  K to less than 1 K. Solid mercury , for example, has a critical temperature of 4.2 K. As of 2015, the highest critical temperature found for

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6820-400: The chemical elements, as they are composed entirely of carbon ). Several physical properties of superconductors vary from material to material, such as the critical temperature, the value of the superconducting gap , the critical magnetic field, and the critical current density at which superconductivity is destroyed. On the other hand, there is a class of properties that are independent of

6930-471: The chemical erosion that occurs in other materials subjected to acidic or caustic environments. Ceramics generally can withstand very high temperatures, ranging from 1,000 °C to 1,600 °C (1,800 °F to 3,000 °F). The crystallinity of ceramic materials varies widely. Most often, fired ceramics are either vitrified or semi-vitrified, as is the case with earthenware, stoneware , and porcelain. Varying crystallinity and electron composition in

7040-534: The class of ceramic matrix composite materials, in which ceramic fibers are embedded and with specific coatings are forming fiber bridges across any crack. This mechanism substantially increases the fracture toughness of such ceramics. Ceramic disc brakes are an example of using a ceramic matrix composite material manufactured with a specific process. Scientists are working on developing ceramic materials that can withstand significant deformation without breaking. A first such material that can deform in room temperature

7150-436: The conductor that creates an opposing magnetic field. In a perfect conductor, an arbitrarily large current can be induced, and the resulting magnetic field exactly cancels the applied field. The Meissner effect is distinct from this – it is the spontaneous expulsion that occurs during transition to superconductivity. Suppose we have a material in its normal state, containing a constant internal magnetic field. When

7260-517: The discovery were only reconstructed a century later, when Onnes's notebook was found. In subsequent decades, superconductivity was observed in several other materials. In 1913, lead was found to superconduct at 7 K, and in 1941 niobium nitride was found to superconduct at 16 K. Great efforts have been devoted to finding out how and why superconductivity works; the important step occurred in 1933, when Meissner and Ochsenfeld discovered that superconductors expelled applied magnetic fields,

7370-457: The electrical properties that show grain boundary effects. One of the most widely used of these is the varistor. These are devices that exhibit the property that resistance drops sharply at a certain threshold voltage . Once the voltage across the device reaches the threshold, there is a breakdown of the electrical structure in the vicinity of the grain boundaries, which results in its electrical resistance dropping from several megohms down to

7480-414: The electronic superfluid, sometimes called fluxons because the flux carried by these vortices is quantized . Most pure elemental superconductors, except niobium and carbon nanotubes , are Type I, while almost all impure and compound superconductors are Type II. Conversely, a spinning superconductor generates a magnetic field, precisely aligned with the spin axis. The effect, the London moment,

7590-410: The facility which will enable more scientists to share the powerful x-ray beam at the same time. Superconductivity Superconductivity is a set of physical properties observed in superconductors : materials where electrical resistance vanishes and magnetic fields are expelled from the material. Unlike an ordinary metallic conductor , whose resistance decreases gradually as its temperature

7700-790: The graphene's layers, leading to the basic conditions required for superconductivity. Ceramic A ceramic is any of the various hard, brittle , heat-resistant , and corrosion-resistant materials made by shaping and then firing an inorganic, nonmetallic material, such as clay , at a high temperature. Common examples are earthenware , porcelain , and brick . The earliest ceramics made by humans were fired clay bricks used for building house walls and other structures. Other pottery objects such as pots, vessels, vases and figurines were made from clay , either by itself or mixed with other materials like silica , hardened by sintering in fire. Later, ceramics were glazed and fired to create smooth, colored surfaces, decreasing porosity through

7810-460: The group as a whole. General properties such as high melting temperature, high hardness, poor conductivity, high moduli of elasticity , chemical resistance, and low ductility are the norm, with known exceptions to each of these rules ( piezoelectric ceramics , low glass transition temperature ceramics, superconductive ceramics ). Composites such as fiberglass and carbon fiber , while containing ceramic materials, are not considered to be part of

7920-452: The group have critical temperatures below 30 K. Superconductor material classes include chemical elements (e.g. mercury or lead ), alloys (such as niobium–titanium , germanium–niobium , and niobium nitride ), ceramics ( YBCO and magnesium diboride ), superconducting pnictides (like fluorine-doped LaOFeAs) or organic superconductors ( fullerenes and carbon nanotubes ; though perhaps these examples should be included among

8030-425: The high critical temperature is not yet clear. However, it is clear that a two-electron pairing is involved, although the nature of the pairing ( s {\displaystyle s} wave vs. d {\displaystyle d} wave) remains controversial. Similarly, at a fixed temperature below the critical temperature, superconducting materials cease to superconduct when an external magnetic field

8140-632: The infrastructure from lightning strikes. They have rapid response, are low maintenance, and do not appreciably degrade from use, making them virtually ideal devices for this application. Semiconducting ceramics are also employed as gas sensors . When various gases are passed over a polycrystalline ceramic, its electrical resistance changes. With tuning to the possible gas mixtures, very inexpensive devices can be produced. Under some conditions, such as extremely low temperatures, some ceramics exhibit high-temperature superconductivity (in superconductivity, "high temperature" means above 30 K). The reason for this

8250-468: The ionic and covalent bonds cause most ceramic materials to be good thermal and electrical insulators (researched in ceramic engineering ). With such a large range of possible options for the composition/structure of a ceramic (nearly all of the elements, nearly all types of bonding, and all levels of crystallinity), the breadth of the subject is vast, and identifiable attributes ( hardness , toughness , electrical conductivity ) are difficult to specify for

8360-405: The lattice ions. As a result, the energy carried by the current is constantly being dissipated. This is the phenomenon of electrical resistance and Joule heating . The situation is different in a superconductor. In a conventional superconductor, the electronic fluid cannot be resolved into individual electrons. Instead, it consists of bound pairs of electrons known as Cooper pairs . This pairing

8470-466: The lifetime of a persistent current can exceed the estimated lifetime of the universe, depending on the wire geometry and the temperature. In practice, currents injected in superconducting coils persisted for 28 years, 7 months, 27 days in a superconducting gravimeter in Belgium, from August 4, 1995 until March 31, 2024. In such instruments, the measurement is based on the monitoring of the levitation of

8580-477: The magnetic field (proportional to the square root of the difference of the free energies at zero magnetic field) the two free energies will be equal and a phase transition to the normal phase will occur. More generally, a higher temperature and a stronger magnetic field lead to a smaller fraction of electrons that are superconducting and consequently to a longer London penetration depth of external magnetic fields and currents. The penetration depth becomes infinite at

8690-666: The magnetic field inside the superconductor on the distance to the surface. The two constitutive equations for a superconductor by London are: ∂ j ∂ t = n e 2 m E , ∇ × j = − n e 2 m B . {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \mathbf {j} }{\partial t}}={\frac {ne^{2}}{m}}\mathbf {E} ,\qquad \mathbf {\nabla } \times \mathbf {j} =-{\frac {ne^{2}}{m}}\mathbf {B} .} The first equation follows from Newton's second law for superconducting electrons. During

8800-559: The material is cooled below the critical temperature, we would observe the abrupt expulsion of the internal magnetic field, which we would not expect based on Lenz's law. The Meissner effect was given a phenomenological explanation by the brothers Fritz and Heinz London , who showed that the electromagnetic free energy in a superconductor is minimized provided ∇ 2 H = λ − 2 H {\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}\mathbf {H} =\lambda ^{-2}\mathbf {H} \,} where H

8910-486: The material near its critical temperature, the dielectric effect remains exceptionally strong even at much higher temperatures. Titanates with critical temperatures far below room temperature have become synonymous with "ceramic" in the context of ceramic capacitors for just this reason. Optically transparent materials focus on the response of a material to incoming light waves of a range of wavelengths. Frequency selective optical filters can be utilized to alter or enhance

9020-445: The material until joule heating brings it to the transition temperature, at which point the circuit will be broken and current flow will cease. Such ceramics are used as self-controlled heating elements in, for example, the rear-window defrost circuits of automobiles. At the transition temperature, the material's dielectric response becomes theoretically infinite. While a lack of temperature control would rule out any practical use of

9130-408: The materials he investigated. Much later, in 1955, G. B. Yntema succeeded in constructing a small 0.7-tesla iron-core electromagnet with superconducting niobium wire windings. Then, in 1961, J. E. Kunzler , E. Buehler, F. S. L. Hsu, and J. H. Wernick made the startling discovery that, at 4.2 kelvin, niobium–tin , a compound consisting of three parts niobium and one part tin, was capable of supporting

9240-410: The mechanical performance of materials and components. It applies the physics of stress and strain , in particular the theories of elasticity and plasticity , to the microscopic crystallographic defects found in real materials in order to predict the macroscopic mechanical failure of bodies. Fractography is widely used with fracture mechanics to understand the causes of failures and also verify

9350-412: The microstructure. The root cause of many ceramic failures is evident in the cleaved and polished microstructure. Physical properties which constitute the field of materials science and engineering include the following: Mechanical properties are important in structural and building materials as well as textile fabrics. In modern materials science , fracture mechanics is an important tool in improving

9460-569: The most accurate available measurements of the magnetic flux quantum Φ 0  =  h /(2 e ), where h is the Planck constant . Coupled with the quantum Hall resistivity , this leads to a precise measurement of the Planck constant. Josephson was awarded the Nobel Prize for this work in 1973. In 2008, it was proposed that the same mechanism that produces superconductivity could produce

9570-520: The most widely used "workhorse" supermagnet material, in large measure a consequence of its very high ductility and ease of fabrication. However, both niobium–tin and niobium–titanium find wide application in MRI medical imagers, bending and focusing magnets for enormous high-energy-particle accelerators, and a host of other applications. Conectus, a European superconductivity consortium, estimated that in 2014, global economic activity for which superconductivity

9680-434: The nominal superconducting transition when an electric current is applied in conjunction with a strong magnetic field, which may be caused by the electric current. This is due to the motion of magnetic vortices in the electronic superfluid, which dissipates some of the energy carried by the current. If the current is sufficiently small, the vortices are stationary, and the resistivity vanishes. The resistance due to this effect

9790-408: The normal phase. It has been experimentally demonstrated that, as a consequence, when the magnetic field is increased beyond the critical field, the resulting phase transition leads to a decrease in the temperature of the superconducting material. Calculations in the 1970s suggested that it may actually be weakly first-order due to the effect of long-range fluctuations in the electromagnetic field. In

9900-489: The phase transition. The onset of superconductivity is accompanied by abrupt changes in various physical properties, which is the hallmark of a phase transition . For example, the electronic heat capacity is proportional to the temperature in the normal (non-superconducting) regime. At the superconducting transition, it suffers a discontinuous jump and thereafter ceases to be linear. At low temperatures, it varies instead as e for some constant, α . This exponential behavior

10010-718: The pore size and morphology of the microstructure. These important variables are the initial solids loading of the colloid, the cooling rate, the sintering temperature and duration, and the use of certain additives which can influence the microstructural morphology during the process. A good understanding of these parameters is essential to understanding the relationships between processing, microstructure, and mechanical properties of anisotropically porous materials. Some ceramics are semiconductors . Most of these are transition metal oxides that are II-VI semiconductors, such as zinc oxide . While there are prospects of mass-producing blue LEDs from zinc oxide, ceramicists are most interested in

10120-450: The problems that arise at liquid helium temperatures, such as the formation of plugs of frozen air that can block cryogenic lines and cause unanticipated and potentially hazardous pressure buildup. Many other cuprate superconductors have since been discovered, and the theory of superconductivity in these materials is one of the major outstanding challenges of theoretical condensed matter physics . There are currently two main hypotheses –

10230-480: The resistance is zero. Superconductors are also able to maintain a current with no applied voltage whatsoever, a property exploited in superconducting electromagnets such as those found in MRI machines. Experiments have demonstrated that currents in superconducting coils can persist for years without any measurable degradation. Experimental evidence points to a lifetime of at least 100,000 years. Theoretical estimates for

10340-694: The root ceram- is the Mycenaean Greek ke-ra-me-we , workers of ceramic, written in Linear B syllabic script. The word ceramic can be used as an adjective to describe a material, product, or process, or it may be used as a noun, either singular or, more commonly, as the plural noun ceramics . Ceramic material is an inorganic, metallic oxide, nitride, or carbide material. Some elements, such as carbon or silicon , may be considered ceramics. Ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression, and weak in shearing and tension. They withstand

10450-567: The synchrotron. It delivered its first collisions in April 1979 setting the world record for the highest luminosity electron-positron collisions. From this point on, the accelerator provided a reliable beam of high energy electrons and positrons to the CLEO and CUSB particle detectors. The name CLEO is a play on words and not an acronym. The name was chosen because it is short for Cleopatra due to her relationship with Caesar . Collisions occurred at

10560-453: The theoretical failure predictions with real-life failures. Ceramic materials are usually ionic or covalent bonded materials. A material held together by either type of bond will tend to fracture before any plastic deformation takes place, which results in poor toughness in these materials. Additionally, because these materials tend to be porous, the pores and other microscopic imperfections act as stress concentrators , decreasing

10670-460: The toughness further, and reducing the tensile strength . These combine to give catastrophic failures , as opposed to the more ductile failure modes of metals. These materials do show plastic deformation . However, because of the rigid structure of crystalline material, there are very few available slip systems for dislocations to move, and so they deform very slowly. To overcome the brittle behavior, ceramic material development has introduced

10780-529: The underlying material. The Meissner effect, the quantization of the magnetic flux or permanent currents, i.e. the state of zero resistance are the most important examples. The existence of these "universal" properties is rooted in the nature of the broken symmetry of the superconductor and the emergence of off-diagonal long range order . Superconductivity is a thermodynamic phase , and thus possesses certain distinguishing properties which are largely independent of microscopic details. Off diagonal long range order

10890-565: The use of glassy, amorphous ceramic coatings on top of the crystalline ceramic substrates. Ceramics now include domestic, industrial, and building products, as well as a wide range of materials developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering, such as semiconductors . The word ceramic comes from the Ancient Greek word κεραμικός ( keramikós ), meaning "of or for pottery " (from κέραμος ( kéramos )  'potter's clay, tile, pottery'). The earliest known mention of

11000-446: The wear plates of crushing equipment in mining operations. Advanced ceramics are also used in the medical, electrical, electronics, and armor industries. Human beings appear to have been making their own ceramics for at least 26,000 years, subjecting clay and silica to intense heat to fuse and form ceramic materials. The earliest found so far were in southern central Europe and were sculpted figures, not dishes. The earliest known pottery

11110-570: The world visit CHESS to perform their research every year. Data gathered at CHESS has contributed to the multiple Nobel Prizes including the 2003 and 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry . In 2017, CHESS received a $ 15 million award (called CHESS-U) from the state of New York to help upgrade their facility. CHESS-U will increase the brightness of the x-ray source by a factor of 1,000 allowing CHESS to maintain world leadership as an x-ray user facility. In addition, several more x-ray hutches will be added to

11220-460: Was discovered on April 8, 1911, by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who was studying the resistance of solid mercury at cryogenic temperatures using the recently produced liquid helium as a refrigerant . At the temperature of 4.2 K, he observed that the resistance abruptly disappeared. In the same experiment, he also observed the superfluid transition of helium at 2.2 K, without recognizing its significance. The precise date and circumstances of

11330-571: Was discovered that some cuprate - perovskite ceramic materials have a critical temperature above 90 K (−183 °C). Such a high transition temperature is theoretically impossible for a conventional superconductor , leading the materials to be termed high-temperature superconductors . The cheaply available coolant liquid nitrogen boils at 77 K (−196 °C) and thus the existence of superconductivity at higher temperatures than this facilitates many experiments and applications that are less practical at lower temperatures. Superconductivity

11440-437: Was finally proposed in 1957 by Bardeen , Cooper and Schrieffer . This BCS theory explained the superconducting current as a superfluid of Cooper pairs, pairs of electrons interacting through the exchange of phonons. For this work, the authors were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1972. The BCS theory was set on a firmer footing in 1958, when N. N. Bogolyubov showed that the BCS wavefunction, which had originally been derived from

11550-593: Was first predicted and then confirmed to be a high-temperature superconductor with a transition temperature of 80 K. Additionally, in 2019 it was discovered that lanthanum hydride ( LaH 10 ) becomes a superconductor at 250 K under a pressure of 170 gigapascals. In 2018, a research team from the Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology , discovered superconductivity in bilayer graphene with one layer twisted at an angle of approximately 1.1 degrees with cooling and applying

11660-425: Was found in 2024. If a ceramic is subjected to substantial mechanical loading, it can undergo a process called ice-templating , which allows some control of the microstructure of the ceramic product and therefore some control of the mechanical properties. Ceramic engineers use this technique to tune the mechanical properties to their desired application. Specifically, the strength is increased when this technique

11770-464: Was indispensable amounted to about five billion euros, with MRI systems accounting for about 80% of that total. In 1962, Josephson made the important theoretical prediction that a supercurrent can flow between two pieces of superconductor separated by a thin layer of insulator. This phenomenon, now called the Josephson effect , is exploited by superconducting devices such as SQUIDs . It is used in

11880-503: Was made by mixing animal products with clay and firing it at up to 800 °C (1,500 °F). While pottery fragments have been found up to 19,000 years old, it was not until about 10,000 years later that regular pottery became common. An early people that spread across much of Europe is named after its use of pottery: the Corded Ware culture . These early Indo-European peoples decorated their pottery by wrapping it with rope while it

11990-581: Was put to good use in Gravity Probe B . This experiment measured the magnetic fields of four superconducting gyroscopes to determine their spin axes. This was critical to the experiment since it is one of the few ways to accurately determine the spin axis of an otherwise featureless sphere. Until 1986, physicists had believed that BCS theory forbade superconductivity at temperatures above about 30 K. In that year, Bednorz and Müller discovered superconductivity in lanthanum barium copper oxide (LBCO),

12100-528: Was still wet. When the ceramics were fired, the rope burned off but left a decorative pattern of complex grooves on the surface. The invention of the wheel eventually led to the production of smoother, more even pottery using the wheel-forming (throwing) technique, like the pottery wheel . Early ceramics were porous, absorbing water easily. It became useful for more items with the discovery of glazing techniques, which involved coating pottery with silicon, bone ash, or other materials that could melt and reform into

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