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107-1021: In the United States as of 2008, an occupational license is required in all states to be a cosmetologist, with the average cost of a certificate from a for-profit school being $ 17,000 and 1,500 required hours (ten times the hours required for an EMT ) with cosmetologists making a median wage of $ 25,000. Cosmetologists are trained and licensed to perform cosmetic treatments to the hair, skin, and nails. This can be expanded into multiple parts including cutting and chemically treating hair, chemical hair removal, fashion trends, wigs, nails and skin care, skin and hair analysis; relaxation techniques including head, neck, scalp, hand and feet basic massage and aroma therapies; plus ability to expertly apply makeup applications to cover up dark spots or promote and can expand into further specialties such as reflexology; theatrical applications; cosmetics and others as listed below. A hair color specialist, or hair colorist, specializes in

214-477: A is estimated using acidity trends to be approximately 43 in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and its ion pair acidity is extrapolated to be 41.2 in cyclohexylamine (Cesium Cyclohexylamide) using a Bronsted correlation. Toluene is miscible (soluble in all proportions) with ethanol , benzene , diethyl ether , acetone , chloroform , glacial acetic acid and carbon disulfide , but immiscible with water. Toluene occurs naturally at low levels in crude oil and

321-428: A catalyst . The C-H bonds of the methyl group in toluene are benzylic , therefore they are weaker than C-H bonds in simpler alkanes. Reflecting this weakness, the methyl group in toluene undergoes a variety of free radical reactions. For example, when heated with N -bromosuccinimide (NBS) in the presence of AIBN , toluene converts to benzyl bromide . The same conversion can be effected with elemental bromine in

428-400: A solid acid to give toluene and water: Toluene is one of the most abundantly produced chemicals. Its main uses are (1) as a precursor to benzene and xylenes , (2) as a solvent for thinners, paints, lacquers , adhesives, and (3) as an additive for gasoline. Toluene is converted to benzene via hydrodealkylation : Its transalkylation gives a mixture of benzene and xylenes . Toluene

535-649: A business leading to an additional 1.4% of national income going to the top 10% of earners. A 2019 National Bureau of Economic Research paper found that occupational licensing contributed to an average welfare loss of 12 percent. The empirical work on the effects of licensing on employment levels or growth rates, but the existing estimates suggest that they could be large. Kleiner (2006) examined employment growth rates in states and occupations with stronger versus weaker occupational licensing requirements. Specifically, he compares employment growth between 1990 and 2000 of occupations that are licensed in some states to

642-600: A cheaper but (allegedly) sub-standard service. Organizations such as the American Medical Association were explicitly set up to restrict the number of practitioners. However, libertarians like Milton Friedman have argued that this process is counterproductive as it seriously restricts the number of active professionals working in society and thus unnecessarily inhibits the working of a free enterprise economy. A 2011 U.S. study estimated that occupational licenses result in 2.8 million fewer jobs, and cost

749-527: A cosmetology certificate. Community colleges would be cheaper, but when Iowa Central Community College applied to the state cosmetology board in 2004 to start a program, the Iowa Cosmetology School Association and La’ James International College sued, arguing that the state code prohibits public entities from competing with private entities. The community college agreed not to give certificate programs. According to The Times ,

856-618: A dermatologist or other medical professional. Estheticians are also referred to as beauticians within North America. Many chemicals in salon products pose potential health risks. Examples of hazardous chemicals found in common treatments (e.g. hair coloring, straightening, perms, relaxers, keratin treatments, Brazilian Blowouts, and nail treatments) include dibutyl phthalate, formaldehyde, lye (sodium hydroxide), ammonia, and coal tar. Allergies and dermatitis have forced approximately 20% of hairdressers to stop practicing their profession. In

963-753: A gas. Formaldehyde is a common ingredient in Brazilian blowouts, Cadiveu, and Keratin Complete Smoothing Therapies. Four laboratories in California, Oregon, and Canada, confirmed a popular hair straightening treatment, the Brazilian Blowout , contained between 4% and 12% formaldehyde. Oregon OSHA demonstrated that other keratin-based hair smoothing products also contain formaldehyde, with concentrations from 1% to 7%. Formaldehyde may be present in hair smoothing solutions or as

1070-496: A greater profit margin for fuel suppliers. The extent of toluene substitution is claimed to be 60%. In the laboratory, toluene is used as a solvent for carbon nanomaterials, including nanotubes and fullerenes, and it can also be used as a fullerene indicator. The color of the toluene solution of C 60 is bright purple. Toluene is used as a cement for fine polystyrene kits (by dissolving and then fusing surfaces) as it can be applied very precisely by brush and contains none of

1177-529: A hydrocarbon from balsam of Tolu (an aromatic extract from the tropical Colombian tree Myroxylon balsamum ), which Deville recognized as similar to Walter's rétinnaphte and to benzene; hence he called the new hydrocarbon benzoène . In 1843, Jöns Jacob Berzelius recommended the name toluin . In 1850, French chemist Auguste Cahours isolated from a distillate of wood a hydrocarbon which he recognized as similar to Deville's benzoène and which Cahours named toluène . The distance between carbon atoms in

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1284-520: A jurisdiction with more stringent licensing. This can be particularly burdensome on families where one spouse has no choice with regard to location of work (such as military servicemembers), when the second spouse is in a licensed profession. These problems can be avoided by harmonizing laws across jurisdictions, or with reciprocity agreements where licenses from one jurisdiction are recognized in others. With occupational licensing varying by state, another channel through which licensing can affect employment

1391-752: A large part of the working population. Many cosmetologists begin their careers before reproductive age and before family planning, which may put them at higher risk for reproductive health effects from exposure to workplace cosmetology chemicals. In the United States the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is responsible for public safety regarding cosmetic products and the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act regulates these products. The Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) utilizes an "Expert Panel" to review available data on cosmetic ingredients and determine whether or not chemical ingredients in cosmetic products are safe to use considering how they are currently utilized. However, this protocol

1498-422: A licensed cosmetologist opens the door to becoming self-employed and working at high-end salons. As a licensed cosmetologist, each has the option to choose which salon fits best to work in but a self-employed salon will bring more income as long as having the right business plan for it to succeed. Each candidate registering for a salon has to obtain a certificate of registration and present all required paperwork with

1605-466: A lifelong privilege, but increasingly nowadays, it requires periodic review by peers and renewal. It is very common for license renewal to depend, at least in part, on academia . In the United Kingdom such regular upgrading of skills is often termed continuous professional development , or CPD. In many professions this is fast becoming a standard, mandatory and annual requirement. For example, in

1712-515: A means of excluding competition. Licensure restricts entry into professional careers in medicine , nursing , law , business , pharmacy , psychology , social work , teaching , engineering , surveying , and architecture . Advocates claim that licensure protects the consumer through the application of professional, educational and/or ethical standards of practice. Economist Milton Friedman opposed this practice, believing that licensure effectively raises professional salary by placing limits on

1819-514: A more recent study from 2009 found the opposite. To distinguish various forms of regulation, there are three forms of government regulation of occupations: In contrast to government regulation, voluntary professional certification can be used to demonstrate competence without the harmful economic effects of legalized occupational barriers. Examples of professional associations and trade associations that provide voluntary professional certification in various fields include: Research funded by

1926-407: A much wider range of professions, such as florists and hairdressers. Some studies find consumers are more responsive to reviews than to occupational licensing status. Licensing creates a regulatory barrier to entry into licensed occupations. Licensing advocates argue that it protects the public interest by keeping incompetent and unscrupulous individuals from working with the public. However, there

2033-425: A natural experiment. It finds that this policy change increased the propensity to work as self-employed substantially. Because it restricts employment, licensing can also lead to higher prices for services faced by consumers . While it is not possible to precisely estimate the effects of substantially reducing occupational licensing at the present time, both theory and the available evidence suggest that such

2140-521: A number of cases at different stages of licensing reduces employment, but does not result in better services. For example, Kleiner and Kudrle (2000) find that occupational licensing of dentists does not lead to improved measured dental outcomes of patients, but is associated with higher prices of certain services, likely because there are fewer dentists. In the case of midwifery, the introduction of occupation licensing led to substantial reductions in maternal mortality. Many professions involving risk to

2247-439: A number of processes including electrosurgery, and can be removed from the air with an activated carbon filter. Similarly to many other solvents such as 1,1,1-trichloroethane and some alkylbenzenes , toluene has been shown to act as a non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist and GABA A receptor positive allosteric modulator . Additionally, toluene has been shown to display antidepressant -like effects in rodents in

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2354-991: A particular profession or to obtain a privilege such as to drive a car or truck. Many other privileges and professions require a license, generally from the state or provincial government, in order to ensure that the public will not be harmed by the incompetence of the practitioners, and to limit supply to incumbent practitioners and thus increase wages. Examples of professions that require licensure in some jurisdictions include: actuary , architect , certified public accountant , electrician , engineering , general contractors , financial analyst , geologists , hedge fund manager, insurance agent , interior design , investment banker , licensed professional counselor , nurse , physical therapist , plumber , private investigator , psychologist , landscape architect , lawyer , nutritionist , physician , real estate broker , speech-language pathologist , school counselor , social worker , stockbroker , surveyor , and teacher . Licensure

2461-420: A particular political jurisdiction where the pass rate is low because both the economic and shame costs may be high. Conversely, efforts can be made at interstate reciprocity, so that a license or a certification earned in one federated state or province qualifies the holder to practice in any of the other states or provinces of the federation , which can lower the overall cost and burden of adequately staffing

2568-567: A premises be licensed to oversee unlicensed practitioners, permitting of the business overall, random health and safety inspections, general consumer protection laws, and deregulation in favor of voluntary professional certification schemes or free market mechanisms such as customer review sites. Traditionally, occupations in the crafts professions and in the liberal professions organize their respective industries in guilds and chambers in European countries like Germany and Austria. One of

2675-528: A product containing any of these names should be treated as a product containing formaldehyde. OSHA's Hazard Communication standard ( Right to Know ) states that salon owners and other employers' must have a SDS for products containing hazardous chemicals. If salon owners or other employers decide to use products that contain or release formaldehyde they are required to follow the guidelines in OSHA's Formaldehyde standard. The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA),

2782-586: A qualified beautician to gain public liability insurance cover. Similarly, in India, there are many beauty and wellness training academies that provide a foundation and advanced courses in cosmetology. On graduating, students in India can work as professional cosmetologists in cosmetology schools, spas and wellness centres, beauty parlours, skin clinics, cosmetic companies, film and fashion industry, or as independent cosmetologists. Occupational licensing Occupational licensing , also called licensure ,

2889-498: A reduction could translate into significantly higher employment, better job matches, and improved customer satisfaction . Low-income consumers, in particular, would benefit because reduced barriers to entry would reduce the prices of services provided. Without doing a detailed analysis at the occupation-by-occupation and state level, economists cannot say which occupations can be justified based on quality-consideration, though studies have been conducted they have found at least in

2996-939: A referent group of teachers and salesclerks where the only occupational difference were exposure to the toxic trio. Hairdressers and cosmetologists have a slightly increased risk of having an infant with small gestational age. Reproductive disorders in relation to low birth weight were examined and found an increased risk of having infant with low birth weight; three of these studies showed a significant increase. Case studies on toluene exposures have found increased incidences of urogenital, gastrointestinal, and cardiac anomalies among children of mothers who were exposed to organic solvents, such as toluene. Associations were found between pregnant women who inhaled Formaldehyd, phthalates, and toluene and adverse reproductive outcomes such as intrauterine growth retardation and premature delivery. Hairdressers report premature ovarian failure five times more frequently than women in non-cosmetologist occupations. In

3103-493: A vapor in the air. Stylists and clients may inhale formaldehyde as a gas or a vapor into the lungs and respiratory tract. Formaldehyde vapor can also make contact with mucous membranes in the eyes, nose, or throat. Formaldehyde solutions may be absorbed through the skin during the application process of liquid hair straighteners. Solutions of formaldehyde can release formaldehyde gas at room temperature and heating such solutions can speed up this process. Exposure often occurs when heat

3210-444: Is a byproduct in the production of gasoline by a catalytic reformer or ethylene cracker . It is also a byproduct of the production of coke from coal . Final separation and purification is done by any of the distillation or solvent extraction processes used for BTX aromatics (benzene, toluene, and xylene isomers). Toluene can be prepared by a variety of methods. For example, benzene reacts with methanol in presence of

3317-650: Is a common solvent , e.g. for paints , paint thinners, silicone sealants, many chemical reactants , rubber , printing ink, adhesives (glues), lacquers , leather tanners , and disinfectants . Toluene is an octane booster in gasoline fuels for internal combustion engines as well as jet fuel and turbocharged engines in Formula One . In Australia in 2003, toluene was found to have been illegally combined with petrol in fuel outlets for sale as standard vehicular fuel. Toluene incurs no fuel excise tax, while other fuels are taxed at more than 40%, providing

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3424-461: Is a form of government regulation requiring a license to pursue a particular profession or vocation for compensation. It is related to occupational closure . Some claim higher public support for the licensing of professions whose activities could be a health or safety threat to the public, such as practicing medicine, and doctors require occupational licenses in most developed countries . However, some jurisdictions also require licenses for

3531-439: Is a manufactured chemical used as a plasticizer. It is used to make plastics more flexible and can be found in paints, glue, insect repellents, hair spray, nail polish, and rocket fuel. Due to its flexibility and film forming properties, it is an ideal ingredient in cosmetics and cosmetology products. DBP is mainly used in nail products as a solvent for dyes and as a plasticizer that prevents nail polishes from becoming brittle, but

3638-402: Is already strongly encouraged within the medical profession. One simple theory of occupational licensing envisions a costless supply of unbiased , capable gatekeepers , and enforcers . The gatekeepers screen entrants to the occupation, barring those whose skills or character suggest a tendency toward low-quality output. The enforcers monitor incumbents and discipline those whose performance

3745-489: Is also able to perform corrective color applications and create special effects using foiling techniques or any other advanced color application methods. A shampoo technician shampoos and conditions a client's hair in preparation for the hair stylist. This is generally an apprentice position and a first step for many just out of cosmetology school. Estheticians are licensed professionals who are experts in maintaining and improving skin. An esthetician's general scope of practice

3852-425: Is also known that, "more than 9,000 chemicals are found in cosmetic products". Hairdressers use a wide range of products containing chemicals. "Hair dyes represent the largest segment of chemical products in the hair market today. As such, they are the main source of chemical exposure among hairdressers". Toluene is a clear, water insoluble liquid with a distinct and pungent smell, similar to paint thinners. Toluene

3959-484: Is also used in hair sprays, to help avoid stiffness by allowing them to form a flexible film on the hair. Dibutyl phthalate has been linked to reproductive issues in humans if the mother is exposed while pregnant and has been banned for use by the European Union and certain phthalate esters have been shown to cause reproductive toxicity in animal models. Formaldehyde is a colorless, strong smelling liquid that

4066-423: Is applied to the treatment, via blow drying and flat ironing. Stylists and clients have reported acute health problems while using or after using certain hair smoothing treatments containing formaldehyde. Reported problems include nose-bleeds, burning eyes and throat, skin irritation and asthma attacks. Other symptoms related to formaldehyde exposure include watery eyes; runny nose; burning sensation or irritation in

4173-416: Is below standard with punishments that may include revocation of the license needed to practise. Assuming that entry and performance are controlled in these ways, the quality of service in the profession will almost automatically be maintained at or above standards that are set by the gatekeeper to the profession . Within this approach, only those who have the funds to invest in training and the ability to do

4280-493: Is commonly found in nail polish and is used as a binder to increase the amount of time that the polish stays on the nail. Toluene is an industrial solvent and is usually in nail polish removers. Formaldehyde can be found in a variety of beauty products but is generally found in hair straightening products and hair dyes as well as in some nail polishes. Each chemical member of the toxic trio has independently been found to have adverse reproductive effects in humans, so there concern that

4387-420: Is found in cosmetic products such as nail polish, nail glue, and hair dyes and is widely used as an industrial solvent and is used to make fingernail polishes, lacquers, adhesives, rubber, and paint thinners. It is used in the production of benzene, gasoline, nylon, plastics, and polyurethane. Toluene can be found on cosmetic labels under the names, benzene, toluol, phenylmethane, and methylbenzene. Toluene enters

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4494-631: Is highly volatile, making exposure to both workers and clients potentially unhealthy. Both the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) classify formaldehyde as a human carcinogen. Formaldehyde has been linked to nasal and lung cancer, with possible links to brain cancer and leukemia. Growing evidence reveals that various popular hair-smoothing treatments contain formaldehyde and release formaldehyde as

4601-758: Is irritating to the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract. It is absorbed slowly through the skin. It can cause systemic toxicity by inhalation or ingestion. Inhalation is the most common route of exposure. Symptoms of toluene poisoning include central nervous system effects (headache, dizziness, drowsiness, ataxia , euphoria , tremors , hallucinations , seizures , and coma), chemical pneumonitis , respiratory depression, ventricular arrhythmias , nausea, vomiting, and electrolyte imbalances . Inhalation of toluene in low to moderate levels can cause tiredness, confusion, weakness, drunken-type actions, memory loss, nausea, loss of appetite, hearing loss , and colour vision loss. Some of these symptoms usually disappear when exposure

4708-727: Is limited to the epidermis (the outer layer of skin). Estheticians work in many different environments such as salons, medi-spas, day spas, skin care clinics, and private practices. Estheticians may also specialize in treatments such as microdermabrasion , microcurrent (also known as non-surgical "face lifts"), cosmetic electrotherapy treatments ( galvanic current , high frequency), LED ( light-emitting diode ) treatments, ultrasound /ultrasonic (low level), and mechanical massage (vacuum and G8 muscle vibrating). An esthetician may undergo special training for treatments such as laser hair removal, permanent makeup application, light chemical peels, eyelash extensions, microblading, and electrology . In

4815-450: Is little evidence that it affects the overall quality of services provided to customers by members of the regulated occupation. It can also harm consumers by raising prices and reducing innovation by new market entrants, and may slow overall economic growth. Some occupational licensing can violate competition law due to anti-competitive practices . Alternatives to individual licensing include only requiring that at least one person on

4922-581: Is only helpful if applied to all cosmetology workplaces in the United States. An investigation carried out by the Environmental Working Group revealed only 11% of more than 10,000 cosmetic ingredients documented by the FDA were evaluated in a CIR review. Research studies have shown that although "toxicological considerations play an increasingly significant role in product formulation; reproductive risks are not typically taken into account. It

5029-523: Is predominantly used as an industrial feedstock and a solvent . As the solvent in some types of paint thinner , permanent markers , contact cement and certain types of glue, toluene is sometimes used as a recreational inhalant and has the potential of causing severe neurological harm. The compound was first isolated in 1837 through a distillation of pine oil by Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Filip Neriusz Walter , who named it rétinnaphte . In 1841, Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville isolated

5136-577: Is responsible for inspections of worker health and safety. It is estimated 375,000 nail technicians work in nail salons in the United States. Yet in 2005, OSHA inspected only 18 nail salons because businesses are exempt from inspection if they have 10 employees or less. According to the Asian American Resource Workshop, Vietnamese nail salon workers hold 40% of nail technician licenses in the United States. "It's long hours, low hourly pay, and fierce competition from every corner of

5243-521: Is similar to professional certification , and sometimes synonymous (such as in the case with teacher licensure/certification); however, certification is an employment qualification and not a legal requirement for practicing a profession. In many cases, an individual must complete certain steps, such as training, acquiring an academic degree in a particular area of study, and/or passing an exam , before becoming eligible to receive their license. There are various resources available to assist professionals with

5350-417: Is sometimes required when specializing in areas such as medical esthetics (working in a doctor's office). Estheticians work under a dermatologist 's supervision only when employed by the dermatologist's practice. Estheticians treat a wide variety of skin issues that are cosmetic in nature, such as mild acne , hyperpigmentation , and aging skin; therefore, clients with skin disease and disorders are referred to

5457-577: Is stopped. Inhaling high levels of toluene in a short time may cause light-headedness, nausea, or sleepiness, unconsciousness, and even death . Toluene is, however, much less toxic than benzene , and as a consequence, largely replaced it as an aromatic solvent in chemical preparation. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states that the carcinogenic potential of toluene cannot be evaluated due to insufficient information. In 2013, worldwide sales of toluene amounted to about 24.5 billion US dollars. Toluene occurs as an indoor air pollutant in

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5564-406: Is through reduced mobility. The patchwork of regulations raises the cost of cross-state mobility for workers in these occupations. This will result in slower adjustment costs to regional economic shocks which can result in higher unemployment . A 1983 study found that some occupational licensing schemes tended to exclude minorities and disadvantaged populations from entering such trades. However,

5671-416: Is well understood that occupational licensing can serve as a barrier to occupational entry resulting in reduced employment , monopoly rents for workers in the occupation, and higher prices for consumers. Kleiner and Krueger (2010 and 2013) show that after controlling for education, labor market experience, occupation, and other controls, licensing is associated with a 15 to 18 percent wage premium in

5778-399: Is widely used in the paint, dye , rubber, chemical, glue, printing, and pharmaceutical industries as a solvent. Nail polish, paintbrush cleaners, and stain removers may contain toluene. Manufacturing of explosives (TNT) uses it as well. Toluene is also found in cigarette smoke and car exhaust. If not in contact with air, toluene can remain unchanged in soil or water for a long time. Toluene

5885-576: The UK medical licensing system has largely been a response to public and government unease about a series of recent and well-publicised cases of alleged medical incompetence, including the Harold Shipman case, the Alder Hey organs scandal and those involving David Southall , Rodney Ledward and Richard Neale. Such cases of medical malpractice in the 1990s are widely considered to have inspired

5992-417: The chemical formula C 6 H 5 CH 3 , often abbreviated as PhCH 3 , where Ph stands for the phenyl group. It is a colorless, water -insoluble liquid with the odor associated with paint thinners . It is a mono-substituted benzene derivative, consisting of a methyl group (CH 3 ) attached to a phenyl group by a single bond . As such, its systematic IUPAC name is methylbenzene . Toluene

6099-472: The forced swim test (FST) and the tail suspension test (TST), likely due to its NMDA antagonist properties. Toluene is sometimes used as a recreational inhalant ("glue sniffing"), likely on account of its euphoric and dissociative effects. Toluene inhibits excitatory ion channels such as the NMDA receptor , nicotinic acetylcholine receptor , and the serotonin 5-HT 3 receptor . It also potentiates

6206-500: The professionalization process by which trades have transformed themselves into true professions, licensing fast became the method of choice in obtaining the occupational closure required by barring competition from entry to the rites and privileges of a professional group. This was initially the preferred route of regulation whether for physicians, lawyers, the clergy, accountants, bankers, scientists or architects. However, licensing has given way to membership of professional bodies, as

6313-435: The supply of specific occupations. "It is hard to regard altruistic concern for their customers as the primary motive behind their determined efforts to get legal power to decide who may be a plumber." Restricting entry by licensing is arguably a convenient and effective method of maintaining the high standards, high status and elite privileges of a profession as well as acting to eliminate competition from those who provide

6420-573: The EU enacted Directive 2005/36/EC , which "enables the free movement of professionals" across Member States, by allowing licensed workers to have their professional qualifications recognised by other countries in the bloc. The European Commission records occupational licensing restrictions across the EU on its Regulated Professions Database . The subsequent 'Proportionality Directive' passed in 2018 requires national governments to assess whether new barriers to practice are proportionate to achieve objectives in

6527-632: The European Commission in 2016 estimated that around 22% of workers in the European Union were affected by occupational licensing. This varied significantly between member states, with Germany having the highest proportion (33%) affected, and Denmark the lowest (14%). The same paper also found the 'Health and Social Work' sector generally had the most licensing, but in general there was "considerably large variation" in which professions were licensed in different member states. In 2005,

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6634-524: The European Union approaches cosmetics and their production under the precautionary principle. The EU has banned 1,328 chemicals from use in cosmetics and does not permit animal testing for cosmetics. OSHA requires manufacturers, importers, and distributors to identify formaldehyde on any product that contains more than 0.1% formaldehyde (as a gas or in a solution), or if the product can release formaldehyde at concentrations greater than 0.1 parts per million ( ppm ). Safety data sheets (SDS) must also accompany

6741-447: The FDA as registration is purely voluntary. The FDA cannot legally order a recall of cosmetic products in the U.S. even if they have been shown to have poor health outcomes. A product recall relies on the cosmetic manufacturer and is therefore completely voluntary. In contrast, the European Union requires cosmetic products to undergo premarket safety testing and requires mandatory cosmetology product and ingredient registration. In general,

6848-504: The FEIN, Federal employer identification number to Illinois Department of Labor . However, according to The New York Times , cosmetology schools are expensive and train students for low-paid jobs that do not allow students to pay back the debt. Iowa has the strictest requirements for a cosmetology degree: 2,100 hours of instruction. The Times interviewed over twenty former students. One typical student paid $ 21,000 for tuition and supplies at

6955-546: The Iowa School of Beauty. After getting her license in 2005, she was hired at a local Great Clips, at $ 9 an hour. Thirteen years after graduating, she owes more than $ 8,000 on her loans. In contrast, an Iowa emergency medical technician certification at a community college requires only 132 hours, according to the Times. Iowa is particularly expensive, but for-profit beauty schools across the U.S. charge an average of $ 17,000 for

7062-411: The U.S. workforce in the 1950s, but declined to less than 12 percent of the U.S. workforce by 2008. In April 2019, Arizona became the first US state to recognize out-of-state occupational licenses. Toluene Toluene ( / ˈ t ɒ l . j u iː n / ), also known as toluol ( / ˈ t ɒ l . j u . ɒ l , - ɔː l , - oʊ l / ), is a substituted aromatic hydrocarbon with

7169-532: The U.S., the FDA does not mandate premarket approval for cosmetic ingredients or products, with the exception of color. Additionally, the FDA is not legally responsible for cosmetic product or ingredient safety and does not have the authority to require manufactures to submit their safety data to the FDA. Instead, the cosmetic manufacturer is legally responsible for correctly labeling and producing their products with safe ingredients. U.S. cosmetic companies are also not required to register their product or ingredients with

7276-573: The US, educators are subject to state re-certification requirements in order to continue teaching. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, enacted to improve performance in US schools, has led to an intensification of license requirements for both beginning and experienced educators. In the case of UK medical practitioners , the government has recently proposed that they should all be legally required to produce formal proof, every five years, that they are upgrading their standard of practise. This tightening of

7383-518: The US, estheticians must be licensed in the state in which they are working and are governed by the cosmetology board requirements of that state. Estheticians must complete a minimum 260–1500 hours of training and pass both a written and hands-on exam in order to be licensed in a given state. Utah , Virginia and Washington are the only states at this time to adopt the Master Esthetician License. Additional post graduate training

7490-483: The United States, the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act) defines cosmetics as “articles intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled, or sprayed on, introduced into, or otherwise applied to the human body…for cleansing, beautifying promoting attractiveness, or altering appearance”. Products such as nail polish, hair coloring, straightening formulas, and shampoos fall under this definition of cosmetics. In

7597-506: The United States, whether planning to study cosmetology or specialize in a specific area, each state has different requirements that must be fulfilled before obtaining a license. For example, the State of Illinois Department of Financial and Professional Regulations requires each candidate to complete their hours through a licensed cosmetology school program where new skills are taught and learned such as hair coloring , styling, hair cutting and

7704-408: The beauty and cosmetology industries, some of the products used in hair dyes and nail applications contain chemicals that have been shown to have adverse health effects for cosmetologists. A chemical combination known as the toxic trio is often part of the ingredient list in nail polish, hair dyes, and nail polish removers. The toxic trio consists of formaldehyde, toluene and dibutyl phthalate (DBP). DBP

7811-422: The block" and with such fierce competition between businesses, salaries are reduced even further. As a result, a majority of these immigrants are subject to low socioeconomic status; which subsequently reduces opportunity to be educated about the occupational chemicals they are exposed to in the workplace and reduces opportunity to seek health care if adverse health effects are experienced from chemical exposure. In

7918-500: The bulk of an adhesive. Toluene can be used to break open red blood cells in order to extract hemoglobin in biochemistry experiments. Toluene has also been used as a coolant for its good heat transfer capabilities in sodium cold traps used in nuclear reactor system loops. Toluene had also been used in the process of removing the cocaine from coca leaves in the production of Coca-Cola syrup. The environmental and toxicological effects of toluene have been extensively studied. Toluene

8025-421: The completion of these steps. Professional associations are often a tremendous resource to individuals looking to obtain a special level of certification or licensure. Upon the successful attainment of a license, individuals append an acronym to their name, such as CPA ( Certified Public Accountant ) or LPD and PI ( Private Detective and Investigator ) PE ( Professional Engineer ). In places, licensure may still be

8132-421: The cosmetology schools have prevented efforts to lower the number of hours required for a certificate. In the United Kingdom, Typically there are two routes to training in cosmetology. An NVQ (National Vocational Qualification) is a backbone qualification designed for those starting out in the industry. Short courses are bolt-on courses that specialise into further fields of cosmetology. Both of these options allow

8239-400: The difference in growth rates between these sets of states of fully licensed and fully unlicensed occupations. This estimate implies that a licensed occupation that grew at a 10 percent rate between 1990 and 2000 would have grown at a 12 percent rate if it were unregulated. For Germany, a study exploits the deregulation of occupational licenses called Meister for 53 occupations in 2004 as

8346-638: The economy $ 203 billion per year. The number of jobs requiring a professional licensed represents an increasing fraction of the workforce, from 5% in 1950 to 22% in 2010s. Critics say that low-income consumers, who pay higher prices than required for the level of quality they might require, and low-income job seekers, are disproportionately affected. In the United States, critics have pointed out that (as of 2018) only 60 professions are licensed by all 50 states, but about 1100 by at least one state, including tour guides, bartenders, and interior designers. If many professions are functioning satisfactorily unlicensed in

8453-478: The environment when materials like fingernail polish, paints, paint thinners, and adhesives are used. It rapidly mixes with the air and individuals who work with paint, lacquer, or dyes have greater exposures to toluene via dermal and respiratory routes. Toluene inhalation during pregnancy has led to neonatal effects, including intrauterine growth retardation, premature delivery, congenital malformations, and postnatal developmental retardation. Dibutyl phthalate (DBP)

8560-501: The eyes, nose, and throat; dry and sore throat; respiratory tract irritation; coughing; chest pain; shortness of breath; wheezing; loss of sense of smell; headaches; and fatigue. The presence of Formaldehyde, phthalates, and toluene (the toxic trio) in the work environment play a role in the risk of reproductive health effects for cosmetologists. Studies shows that there is a significant increase in premature birth and an increased risk of pregnancy disorders when hairdressers were compared to

8667-572: The function of inhibitory ion channels, such as the GABA A and glycine receptors . In addition, toluene disrupts voltage-gated calcium channels and ATP-gated ion channels. Toluene is used as an intoxicative inhalant in a manner unintended by manufacturers. People inhale toluene-containing products (e.g., paint thinner , contact cement , correction pens, model glue, etc.) for its intoxicating effect . The possession and use of toluene and products containing it are regulated in many jurisdictions, for

8774-404: The government to tighten professional control of medical practitioners and monitor the quality of their practice for their entire working life. One qualification for life is no longer deemed sufficient. Consequently, medical licenses can now be withdrawn when evidence of serious malpractice emerges. Currently, though such reviews of CPD are entirely voluntary, some form of professional development

8881-400: The imposition of fines, improved screening to prevent expelled practitioners from re-entering the occupation, or requiring all incumbents to put up capital that would be forfeited upon loss of the license. To offset the possibility that incumbents could shift to other occupations with little loss of income, entry requirements could be tightened to limit supply and create monopoly rents within

8988-523: The labor market. This estimate may partially reflect a premium for higher unmeasured human capital, but it is also consistent and likely in large part due to rents. A 2016 paper studying occupational licensing in the European Union estimated a wage premium of 4%, with significant variation across professions. A study from the Mercatus Center showed that occupational licensing can lead to greater income inequality, with each step needed to open

9095-655: The licensed occupation ( rent-seeking ). The threat of losing these monopoly rents could, in principle, give incentives to incumbents to maintain quality standards . This may also result in some increases in human capital investments in order to attain additional requirements. The rents could also motivate potential entrants to invest in high levels of training in order to gain admittance. This suggests that licensing can raise quality within an industry by restricting supply, raising labor wages, and raising output prices. Increasing prices may signal either enhanced quality due to perceived or actual skill enhancements or restrictions on

9202-489: The majority of states, this implies to critics that the licensing is unnecessary for consumer protection. The administrations of both President Obama and President Trump have tried to pressure state and local authorities to reduce overly burdensome licensing requirements. Excessive requirements include requiring hair braiders to have a full cosmetology license and learn about many unrelated tasks, and requiring casket salespersons to be full licensed funeral directors. It

9309-632: The modification of natural hair color utilizing various application methods while using a colorant product from a professional company. In the US, some colorists are qualified through the American Board of Certified Hair Colorists. This designation is used to recognize colorists that have a greater level of competency in the industry through a written exam and a practical exam. A hair color specialist's duties might include, but are not limited to, basic color applications, like covering grey, and lightening or darkening natural hair color. A color specialist

9416-459: The most important changes in licensing has been the 2004 reform in Germany, where workers in 53 of 94 crafts professions were not required to be licensed anymore in order to start a business. In 2020, 12 of these deregulated professions reinstated the licensing requirement. In the United States and Canada, licensing (the term registration is sometimes used) is usually required by law to work in

9523-695: The new requirements) is the norm when occupations seek to become licensed , incumbent workers are usually supportive of the regulation process. In the absence of grandfathering, lower-skilled workers in the occupation may have to seek alternative employment. For example, if sales skills are the key to both providing licensed sales of heart monitors and the non-licensed selling of shoes or cars , then individuals may shift between these lines of work with little loss of income. Under these circumstances, meaningful discipline for license holders may require deliberate steps to ensure that loss of license entails significant financial loss. Such additional steps could include

9630-429: The presence of FeCl 3 to give ortho and para isomers of chlorotoluene . Nitration of toluene gives mono-, di-, and trinitrotoluene, all of which are widely used. Dinitrotoluene is the precursor to toluene diisocyanate , a precursor to polyurethane foam. Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is an explosive. Complete hydrogenation of toluene gives methylcyclohexane . The reaction requires a high pressure of hydrogen and

9737-588: The presence of UV light or even sunlight. Toluene may also be brominated by treating it with HBr and H 2 O 2 in the presence of light. Benzoic acid and benzaldehyde are produced commercially by partial oxidation of toluene with oxygen . Typical catalysts include cobalt or manganese naphthenates . Related but laboratory-scale oxidations involve the use of potassium permanganate to yield benzoic acid and chromyl chloride to yield benzaldehyde ( Étard reaction ). The methyl group in toluene undergoes deprotonation only with very strong bases; its p K

9844-433: The presence of all three chemicals in cosmetologist supplies could pose a detrimental health risk for cosmetologists. As a profession, cosmetology is predominantly female, most of whom are of reproductive age. There are more than one million women registered and licensed as cosmetologists in the United States and roughly several million more work as hair stylists. Among cosmetologists, hairdressers and nail technicians make up

9951-554: The product and kept on premises with the product at all times. The SDS must explain why a chemical in the product is hazardous, how it is harmful, how workers can protect themselves, and what they should do in an emergency. Salon owners and stylists are advised to look closely at the hair smoothing products they use (read product labels and SDS sheets) to see if they contain methylene glycol, formalin, methylene oxide, paraform, formic aldehyde, methanal, oxomethane, oxymethylene, or CAS Number 50-00-0. According to OSHA's Formaldehyde standard,

10058-685: The profession in all regions. For example, high demand and low supply for nurses or for teachers , in any particular region, can be alleviated if the red tape is reduced, as long as that reduction does not truly harm competence and preparedness. The effect of not reducing that administrative burden has been measured by a 2017 analysis that found that occupational licensing in different American states reduced between-state migration of individuals in professions with divergent licensing by 36 percent relative to members of other occupations, while workers in nationally licensed occupations showed no evidence of reduced interstate migration. A 2020 follow up study by

10165-412: The public do not require professional licenses. For example, chefs are generally unlicensed, though opening a restaurant may require permits, inspection, and employee training or instructional signage. Becoming a brain surgeon typically only requires a medical license; the substantial additional training and experience required to perform this operation competently is managed by the hospitals who employ

10272-487: The public interest. In the United States , licensing has been among the fastest-growing labor market institutions. The figure shows the growth of occupational licensing relative to the decline of union membership since the 1950s. By 2008 occupational licensing in the U.S. had grown to 29 percent of the workforce, up from below five percent in the 1950s. In contrast, unions represented as much as 33 percent of

10379-442: The public might also be restricted by licensure, including a barber , cosmetologist , or massage therapist . Occupations that bring a person into the home might also be screened through licensure, including a chauffeur , landscape architect , or arborist . Individuals practicing a profession in one jurisdiction where no license is required, or where licensing requirements are more lax, face problems with employment when moving to

10486-415: The same authors found that "the magnitude of the effect can only account for a small part of the overall decline in [interstate migration] seen in recent decades." "People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices." Adam Smith , The Wealth of Nations Historically, in

10593-474: The same occupations that are not licensed in other states. In order to account for differential growth rates between states, he also compared the growth rate of occupations that are either fully licensed or fully unlicensed in both sets of states. Using a " difference-in-difference " regression analysis , Kleiner found that partially licensed occupations had a 20 percent lower growth rate in states with licensing relative to states without licensing and relative to

10700-493: The standards of the new entrants. Individuals who attempt to enter the occupation in the future will need to balance the economic rents of the field's increased monopoly power against the greater difficulty of meeting the entrance requirements. Once an occupation is regulated, members of that occupation in a geographic or political jurisdiction can implement tougher statutes or examination pass rates and may gain relative to those who have easier requirements by further restricting

10807-435: The supply of labor and obtaining economic rents for incumbents ( credentialism and educational inflation ). Restrictions would include raising the pass rate on licensing exams, imposing higher general and specific requirements, and implementing tougher residency requirements that limit new arrivals in the area from qualifying for a license. Moreover, individuals who have finished schooling in the occupation may decide not to go to

10914-422: The supply of regulated workers. State-regulated occupations can use political institutions to restrict supply and raise the wages of licensed practitioners. There is assumed to be a once-and-for-all income gain that accrues to current members of the occupation who are "grandfathered" in, and do not have to meet the newly established standard. Generally, workers who are "grandfathered" are not required to ever meet

11021-576: The supposed reason of preventing minors from obtaining these products for recreational drug purposes. As of 2007, 24 US states had laws penalizing use, possession with intent to use, and/or distribution of such inhalants. In 2005 the European Union banned the general sale of products consisting of greater than 0.5% toluene. Several types of fungi including Cladophialophora , Exophiala , Leptodontidium ( syn. Leptodontium ), Pseudeurotium zonatum , and Cladosporium sphaerospermum , and certain species of bacteria can degrade toluene using it as

11128-470: The surgeons. Restrictions to employment without licensure can prevent people with criminal records or severe mental health issues from working in occupations that require public trust. Occupations of or affected by the gambling industry, may be restricted by licensure, such as a racing secretary in horseracing , or people in the boxing , mixed martial arts , and professional wrestling industry. People whose occupations put them in physical contact with

11235-507: The toluene ring is 0.1399 nm. The C-CH 3 bond is longer at 0.1524 nm, while the average C-H bond length is 0.111 nm. Toluene reacts as a normal aromatic hydrocarbon in electrophilic aromatic substitution . Because the methyl group has greater electron-releasing properties than a hydrogen atom in the same position, toluene is more reactive than benzene toward electrophiles. It undergoes sulfonation to give p -toluenesulfonic acid , and chlorination by Cl 2 in

11342-463: The usage of hazardous chemicals. After completing the minimum hours to obtain a state license, an online examination is required and is submitted via mail with other supported documentation. Bureau of Labor Statistics states that the median salary for a licensed cosmetologist is $ 28,770 as of May 2015. Illinois Metropolitan Division Areas, Chicago - Naperville - Arlington Heights has one of the highest employment rates with an annual rate of $ 27,750. Being

11449-422: The work are able to enter the occupation. Introducing economics to this otherwise mechanical model by noting that a key discipline on incumbents—the threat of revoking one's license—may not mean much if incumbents can easily re-enter the profession, such as by moving to a new firm, or by shifting to an alternative occupation with little loss of income. Since grandfathering (i.e., allowing current workers to bypass

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