121-465: Konstantinos " Kostas " Gavras ( Greek : Κωνσταντίνος "Κώστας" Γαβράς ; born 12 February 1933), known professionally as Costa-Gavras , is a Greek-French film director, screenwriter, and producer who lives and works in France. He is known for political films, such as the political thriller Z (1969), which won an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film , and Missing (1982), for which he won
242-855: A "fundamental" role in Horman's murder. In January 2015, two former Chilean intelligence officials were sentenced in Chile for the murders of Charles Horman and Frank Teruggi . Horman was born in New York City , the son of Elizabeth Horman and Edmund Horman . An only child, he attended the Allen-Stevenson School , where he was a top student in English as well as an excellent cellist; he graduated in 1957. He then graduated cum laude (top 15%) from Phillips Exeter Academy in 1960 and summa cum laude from Harvard University in 1964, where he
363-471: A Chilean intelligence officer claimed an agent of the CIA was present when a Chilean general made the decision to execute Horman because he "knew too much." In 2001, Chilean judge Juan Guzmán Tapia opened an investigation into Charles Horman's death. Among five Americans who gave evidence was Joyce Horman , who had filed a criminal suit against Augusto Pinochet the previous December. The investigation included
484-545: A Consular Associate, they pretended to assist the Horman family in their quest for the truth. Anderson pleaded complete ignorance about Horman when he told The Washington Post on September 17, 2000, that neither the U.S. Consulate nor the CIA were even aware that Horman and Teruggi were in Chile until they were reported missing. A captain in the Chilean Navy, he played a key role in the coup conspiracy by falsely informing
605-577: A basis for coinages: anthropology , photography , telephony , isomer , biomechanics , cinematography , etc. Together with Latin words , they form the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary ; for example, all words ending in -logy ('discourse'). There are many English words of Greek origin . Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient language most closely related to it may be ancient Macedonian , which, by most accounts,
726-685: A big embrace and until today he remains one of my best friends: this man is the former member of the General Staff of the National Defence, Rafael González, who was later dismissed from his institution and had to go into exile". After the coup, Gen. Palacios was appointed Vice President of Corfo. In retaliation for having disobeyed the order to execute Jorquera, González was dismissed from his government posting in Corfo. In his memoirs, former senator Alberto Jerez Horta recounts that despite
847-597: A complaint of embezzlement at the FACH, Rafael González was fired without explanation by FACH on September 2, 1975, marking an end to his career as an intelligence agent. Tipped off by the Vice-Director of the Intelligence Service (SICAR), Col. Pablo Navarrete, that an order had been given by the newly created Air Force Directorate of Intelligence (DIFA) to eliminate him, González sought political asylum at
968-569: A corner of the General Cemetery (Cementerio General) since October 18, 1973, one month after Horman's death. This was the day the U.S. Consul General Frederick Purdy officially informed Horman's father (Edmund) and widow (Joyce) while they were declaring a "missing person report" with Police Inspector Mario Rojas Chávez at the headquarters of the Investigations Police (Policía de Investigaciones). In April 1977, Carvajal
1089-626: A documentary. It was a fiction film but it was made like it was actually happening. Like the camera didn't know what was gonna happen next. And that is an induced technique. It looks like he happened upon the scene and captured what was going on as you do in a documentary. My first films were documentaries too. So I understood what he was doing but I never thought you could do that in a feature at that time until I saw Z ." The American filmmaker Steven Soderbergh listed Z as an inspiration on his film Traffic and even stated that he "wanted to make it like [Costa-Gavras's] Z ". In 2020, Costa Gavras wrote
1210-558: A fairly stable set of consonantal contrasts . The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see Koine Greek phonology for details): In all its stages, the morphology of Greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes , a limited but productive system of compounding and a rich inflectional system. Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in
1331-560: A faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use of ink and quill . The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with an uppercase ( majuscule ) and lowercase ( minuscule ) form. The letter sigma has an additional lowercase form (ς) used in the final position of a word: In addition to the letters, the Greek alphabet features a number of diacritical signs : three different accent marks ( acute , grave , and circumflex ), originally denoting different shapes of pitch accent on
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#17328009143761452-524: A foreign detainee, was made by Department II of the EMDN." Judge Zepeda named Pedro Espinoza, DINA's Vice-Director, as the individual responsible for ordering the execution of Charles Horman; however, critics said no evidence was provided to show that the murder had been committed at the National Stadium or that Espinoza was there at the time of the murder. None of the thousands of detainees held at
1573-540: A foreign language. It is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, " Homeric Greek is probably closer to Demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English ". Greek is spoken today by at least 13 million people, principally in Greece and Cyprus along with a sizable Greek-speaking minority in Albania near
1694-539: A four-hour re-enactment of the scene in the Estadio Nacional where Horman was killed, one of 10,000 who suffered there. The judge also considered extradition proceedings against former U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger after receiving no cooperation from him nor from Nathaniel Davis in the wake of requests from the Supreme Court of Chile . "At the time of his death, Horman was investigating
1815-882: A high-ranking official in the department's Latin American division, the August document described the Horman case as "bothersome," given reports in the press and Congressional investigations alleging that the affair had involved "negligence on our part, or worse, complicity in Horman's death." The State Department, the memo declared, had the responsibility to "categorically refute such innuendoes in defense of U.S. officials." It went on, however, to acknowledge that these "innuendoes" were well founded. The three State Department officials said they had evidence that "The GOC [Government of Chile] sought Horman and felt threatened enough to order his immediate execution. The GOC might have believed this American could be killed without negative fall-out from
1936-996: A reporter for INNOVATION magazine. Charles protested against the Vietnam War at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago , and was honorably discharged from the Air National Guard in 1969. In December 1971, Charles and his wife, Joyce, left New York on a journey that eventually led them to Chile. The pair studied Spanish in Cuernavaca, Mexico at the Ivan Illich school for a month, before proceeding southward through Central America. In Panama , they sold their camper and flew to Medellin, Colombia . They arrived in Santiago in
2057-769: A significant influence on political cinema . Wade Major of the Directors Guild of America mentioned that, "With films like Z and Missing, Costa-Gavras almost single-handedly created the modern political thriller". When German Director Wim Wenders paid tribute to him in 2018 at the 31st European Film Awards in Seville, Spain, Wenders called him "One of the greatest filmmakers of our time." He has influenced directors such as Oliver Stone , William Friedkin , Steven Soderbergh , Rachid Bouchareb , Mathieu Kassovitz , and Ben Affleck . Stone mentioned that Costa-Gavras "was certainly one of my earliest role models, ... I
2178-533: A version of whose character had been portrayed in the movie (under a different name), filed a US$ 150 million libel suit , Davis v. Costa-Gavras , 619 F. Supp. 1372 (1985), against the studio and the director, which was eventually dismissed. The film won an Oscar for Best Screenplay Adaptation and the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival (with Yılmaz Güney 's movie Yol ). Betrayed (1988)
2299-804: Is also found in Bulgaria near the Greek-Bulgarian border. Greek is also spoken worldwide by the sizable Greek diaspora which has notable communities in the United States , Australia , Canada , South Africa , Chile , Brazil , Argentina , Russia , Ukraine , the United Kingdom , and throughout the European Union , especially in Germany . Historically, significant Greek-speaking communities and regions were found throughout
2420-773: Is an Indo-European language, constituting an independent Hellenic branch within the Indo-European language family. It is native to Greece , Cyprus , Italy (in Calabria and Salento ), southern Albania , and other regions of the Balkans , Caucasus , the Black Sea coast, Asia Minor , and the Eastern Mediterranean . It has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning at least 3,400 years of written records. Its writing system
2541-479: Is an Indo-European language, but also includes a number of borrowings from the languages of the populations that inhabited Greece before the arrival of Proto-Greeks, some documented in Mycenaean texts ; they include a large number of Greek toponyms . The form and meaning of many words have changed. Loanwords (words of foreign origin) have entered the language, mainly from Latin, Venetian , and Turkish . During
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#17328009143762662-565: Is an account of the undermining in the 1960s of democratic government in Greece, his homeland and place of birth. The format, however, is a mystery-thriller combination that transforms an uncomfortable history into a fast-paced story. This is a clear example of how he pours politics into plot, "bringing epic conflicts into the sort of personal conflicts we are accustomed to seeing on screen." His accounts of corruption propagated, in their essence, by European and American powers ( Z , State of Siege and Missing ) highlight problems buried deep in
2783-632: Is inspired by the arrest and trial of Ukrainian immigrant John Demjanjuk and screenwriter Joe Eszterhas ' realisation that his father had been a member of the Hungarian Arrow Cross Party . The film won the Golden Bear at the 40th Berlin International Film Festival . La Petite Apocalypse (1993) was entered into the 43rd Berlin International Film Festival . Amen. (2003), was based in part on
2904-519: Is protected and promoted officially as a regional and minority language in Armenia, Hungary , Romania, and Ukraine. It is recognized as a minority language and protected in Turkey by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne . The phonology , morphology , syntax , and vocabulary of the language show both conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the language from the ancient to
3025-504: Is roughly based upon the terrorist activities of American neo-Nazi and white supremacist Robert Mathews and his group The Order . In Music Box (1989), a respected Hungarian immigrant ( Armin Mueller-Stahl ) is accused of having commanded an Anti-Semitic death squad during World War II . His daughter, a Chicago defence attorney played by Jessica Lange , agrees to defend him at his denaturalization hearing. The film
3146-927: Is sometimes called aljamiado , as when Romance languages are written in the Arabic alphabet. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Greek: Transcription of the example text into Latin alphabet : Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: Proto-Greek Mycenaean Ancient Koine Medieval Modern Charles Horman Charles Edmund Lazar Horman (May 15, 1942 – September 19, 1973 )
3267-526: Is spoken by at least 13.5 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey , and the many other countries of the Greek diaspora . Greek roots have been widely used for centuries and continue to be widely used to coin new words in other languages; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of international scientific vocabulary . Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around
3388-708: Is still used internationally for the writing of Ancient Greek . In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (•), known as the ano teleia ( άνω τελεία ). In Greek the comma also functions as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι ( ó,ti , 'whatever') from ότι ( óti , 'that'). Ancient Greek texts often used scriptio continua ('continuous writing'), which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries. Boustrophedon , or bi-directional text,
3509-650: Is the Greek alphabet , which has been used for approximately 2,800 years; previously, Greek was recorded in writing systems such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary . The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin , Cyrillic , Coptic , Gothic , and many other writing systems. The Greek language holds a very important place in the history of the Western world. Beginning with
3630-672: The Benson Latin American Collection at The University of Texas - Austin. The collection includes biographical files, correspondence, Freedom of Information Act request documents, press clippings, and case files from Joyce Horman's lawsuit against Henry Kissinger. The Horman case was made into the Hollywood movie Missing (1982), directed by Greek filmmaker Costa-Gavras . It starred Jack Lemmon and Sissy Spacek as Horman's father and wife, who attempt to discover what had happened to Charles. Horman himself
3751-599: The Best Director award as well. Costa-Gavras has received an honorary doctorate from the Film School of the Aristotle University in 2013. He was interviewed extensively by The Times cultural correspondent Melinda Camber Porter and was featured prominently in her book Through Parisian Eyes: Reflections on Contemporary French Arts and Culture (1993, Da Capo Press). Costa-Gavras received
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3872-495: The Eastern Mediterranean , in what are today Southern Italy , Turkey , Cyprus , Syria , Lebanon , Israel , Palestine , Egypt , and Libya ; in the area of the Black Sea , in what are today Turkey, Bulgaria , Romania , Ukraine , Russia , Georgia , Armenia , and Azerbaijan ; and, to a lesser extent, in the Western Mediterranean in and around colonies such as Massalia , Monoikos , and Mainake . It
3993-516: The Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ), but little definitive evidence has been found. In addition, Albanian has also been considered somewhat related to Greek and Armenian, and it has been proposed that they all form a higher-order subgroup along with other extinct languages of the ancient Balkans; this higher-order subgroup is usually termed Palaeo-Balkan , and Greek has a central position in it. Linear B , attested as early as
4114-647: The Magritte Honorary Award in 2013. He was the first filmmaker to receive the Catalonia International Prize (2017). His daughter Julie Gavras and his sons Romain Gavras and Alexandre Gavras are also directors. He is the first cousin of Penelope Spheeris , Jimmie Spheeris and Chris Spheeris . In 2009, Costa-Gavras signed a petition in support of film director Roman Polanski , calling for his release after Polanski
4235-789: The Palme d'Or and an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay . Most of his films have been made in French, but six of them were made in English, including Hanna K. . Costa-Gavras was born in Loutra Iraias , Arcadia . His family spent the Second World War in a village in the Peloponnese , and moved to Athens after the war. His father had been a member of the Pro-Soviet branch of the Greek Resistance , and
4356-593: The Slánský 'show trial' in 1952. State of Siege (1972) takes place in Uruguay under the civic-military dictatorship of Uruguay in the early 1970s. In a plot loosely based on the case of US police official and alleged torture expert Dan Mitrione , an American embassy official (played by Yves Montand ) is kidnapped by the Tupamaros , a radical leftist urban guerilla group, which interrogates him in order to reveal
4477-492: The nominal and verbal systems. The major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the dative case (its functions being largely taken over by the genitive ). The verbal system has lost the infinitive , the synthetically -formed future, and perfect tenses and the optative mood . Many have been replaced by periphrastic ( analytical ) forms. Pronouns show distinctions in person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), number (singular, dual , and plural in
4598-462: The 1940s. In this political context, L'Aveu ( The Confession ) provides the exception, dealing as it does with oppression on the part of a Communist regime during the Stalinist period. Costa-Gavras has brought attention to international issues, some urgent, others merely problematic, and he has done this in the tradition of cinematic story-telling. Z (1969), one of his most well-known works,
4719-470: The 3rd millennium BC, or possibly earlier. The earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the world's oldest recorded living language . Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now-extinct Anatolian languages . The Greek language is conventionally divided into
4840-563: The Admiralty on September 9 that the army had confirmed its participation in the coup; accompanied by Admiral Sergio Huidobro, he convinced Pinochet to join the coup by threatening to lead the marine forces from Valparaíso to the capital himself if the former did not do so. After the coup and as chief of EMDN intelligence, he organized the enforcement of “new interrogation techniques” (torture) in cooperation with Brazilian intelligence agents. In 1973, U.S. authorities sought information about
4961-596: The CIA. His name appears in Colonia Dignidad 's archive of files written and compiled by Gerd Seewald, a collaborator of the notorious sect leader and child sex offender Paul Schäfer ; on some occasions, Monsalve visited Albert Schreiber (a leader in Schafer's sect); on others, as on November 31, 1975, he was accompanied by American intelligence agents. Monsalve also participated in the persecution and extermination of dissidents, according to Juan R. Muñoz Alarcón,
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5082-524: The Chilean Army of being involved. Prior to the coup, Carvajal had been the Chief of the EMDN. In that capacity, he had ordered an investigation of the “foreign radicals” working for Chile Films, Charles Horman's company, between May and June 1973. In all likelihood, that order was given to the Chief of Department II of EMDN, Ariel González. On March 21, 1974, Carvajal ordered Rafael González to assist
5203-591: The Cinematheque was Erich von Stroheim 's Greed , and I was astonished to see you could do long movies with no happy ending. Kurosawa , no doubt, was a big influence. Movies sometimes more than directors have influenced me: The Grapes of Wrath , by John Ford , was an extraordinary discovery. Sergei Eisenstein , of course. Later on, [Ingmar] Bergman . He also listed René Clément , Jacques Demy , and Gillo Pontecorvo 's film The Battle of Algiers as an influence on his filmmaking. Costa-Gavras films have been
5324-668: The EMDN, accusing him of having informed the Interior Minister, Gen. Óscar Bonilla, about the serious human rights violations taking place in Regimiento Tejas Verdes, San Antonio, under commanding officer Col. Manuel Contreras , chief of the newly created DINA . In April 1974, González was reassigned to the Chilean Air Force ( FACH ) and remained inactive; he did not take part in any repressive activities. After visiting Tejas Verdes and witnessing
5445-486: The Greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century BC. It was created by modifying the Phoenician alphabet , with the innovation of adopting certain letters to represent the vowels. The variant of the alphabet in use today is essentially the late Ionic variant, introduced for writing classical Attic in 403 BC. In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed. The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit
5566-425: The Greek language are often emphasized. Although Greek has undergone morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other languages, never since classical antiquity has its cultural, literary, and orthographic tradition been interrupted to the extent that one can speak of a new language emerging. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than
5687-495: The Greek language was the Cypriot syllabary (also a descendant of Linear A via the intermediate Cypro-Minoan syllabary ), which is closely related to Linear B but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to represent phoneme sequences. The Cypriot syllabary is attested in Cyprus from the 11th century BC until its gradual abandonment in the late Classical period, in favor of the standard Greek alphabet. Greek has been written in
5808-629: The Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history but with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression. Greek verbs have synthetic inflectional forms for: Many aspects of the syntax of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow
5929-685: The Greek-Albanian border. A significant percentage of Albania's population has knowledge of the Greek language due in part to the Albanian wave of immigration to Greece in the 1980s and '90s and the Greek community in the country. Prior to the Greco-Turkish War and the resulting population exchange in 1923 a very large population of Greek-speakers also existed in Turkey , though very few remain today. A small Greek-speaking community
6050-405: The Horman case from Vice Admiral Ismael Huerta, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Vice Admiral Patricio Carvajal, the Minister of Defense, and reportedly Pinochet himself through U.S. Ambassador Nathaniel Davis. González, who was then chief of EMDN intelligence and Carvajal's subordinate (both naval officers), declared that he did not know anything about the Horman case until 2004. However, his account
6171-407: The Italian Chancery in Santiago under the protection of Father Baldo Santi , then President of CARITAS Chile, who acted on express instructions from Cardinal Raúl Silva Henríquez . While at the Italian Chancery, González revealed to CBS and Washington Post journalists that he had seen Charles Horman inside the Ministry of Defense building one week after the coup. This became the starting point of
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#17328009143766292-406: The Italian Chancery with the help of Octavio Abarca, a former Regional Secretary of the Chilean Community Party. However, due to opposition from General Gustavo Leigh and Col Contreras, his application to leave Chile for Italy was not approved until three years later when DINA was dismantled and Leigh sacked as Commander in Chief of FACH. From September 3, 1975, to May 13, 1978, Gonzalez remained in
6413-405: The U.S. Vice-consul in Chile, James Anderson, in the search for Charles Horman's remains for repatriation to the United States. Gonzalez has stated that by ordering him to “look for them”, they could lay blame on him afterwards and cover up the American and Chilean personnel involved in the murder since Chilean and American authorities already knew the whereabouts of Horman's remains: they had lain in
6534-406: The U.S. military group in Chile in September 1973. Davis was charged with complicity in Horman's murder; he had driven Horman from Vina del Mar, in the coastal area where the coup was launched, to Santiago during the coup. On October 17, 2012, Chile's Supreme Court approved a request to seek Davis's extradition from the United States. As of September 11, 2013, the U.S. had not yet been served with
6655-409: The USG [US Government]." The report went on to declare that circumstantial evidence indicated "U.S. intelligence may have played an unfortunate part in Horman's death. At best, it was limited to providing or confirming information that had helped motivate his murder by the GOC. At worst, U.S. intelligence was aware the GOC saw Horman in a rather serious light and U.S. officials did nothing to discourage
6776-404: The acute during the late 20th century, and it has only been retained in typography . After the writing reform of 1982, most diacritics are no longer used. Since then, Greek has been written mostly in the simplified monotonic orthography (or monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis. The traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system),
6897-538: The affair. However, in October 1999, Washington finally released a document admitting that CIA agents may have played an unintentional role in his death. The State Department memo, dated August 25, 1976, was declassified on October 8, 1999, together with 1,100 other documents released by various U.S. agencies, which dealt primarily with the years leading up to the military coup. Written by three State Department functionaries — Rudy Fimbres, R.S. Driscolle and W.V. Robertson — and addressed to Harry Schlaudeman,
7018-402: The ancient language; singular and plural alone in later stages), and gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and decline for case (from six cases in the earliest forms attested to four in the modern language). Nouns, articles, and adjectives show all the distinctions except for a person. Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree with the noun. The inflectional categories of
7139-485: The country's economic situation, such as removing Pedro Vuskovic from Corfo and replacing him with José Cademartori , there would be a coup d'état in September 1973”. González's opposition to the abuses of the new authorities was clear from the start of the dictatorship. As one newspaper noted, “After the coup, he saved dozens of Unidad Popular supporters from being unjustly dismissed from their jobs, imprisoned or from certain death, including journalist Carlos Jorquera, who
7260-410: The coup d'état conspiracy, argue that General Lutz was not assigned any role in it. After the coup, Lutz interceded on behalf of various detainees, as well as others he had helped to free. Lutz did not last more than a month as Director of Army Intelligence; by the following year, he was found dead in mysterious circumstances. Judge Zepeda's ruling noted that "the decision to execute Charles Horman,
7381-399: The coup d'état of September 11, 1973, González worked as an agent in Department II (Intelligence) at the General Staff of the National Defense (Spanish: Estado Mayor de la Defensa Nacional, or EMDN). While there, he sought to counteract the CIA's attempts to sabotage the Chilean economy. This included dismantling the CIA's espionage networks associated with Project Camelot in Chile in 1968. At
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#17328009143767502-531: The details of secret American support for repressive regimes in Latin America . Missing , originally released in 1982 and based on the book The Execution Of Charles Horman , concerns an American journalist, Charles Horman (played by John Shea in the film), who disappeared in the 1973 coup d'état led by General Augusto Pinochet in Chile . Horman's father, played by Jack Lemmon , and wife, played by Sissy Spacek , search in vain to determine his fate. Nathaniel Davis, US ambassador to Chile from 1971 to 1973,
7623-446: The dire human rights circumstances surrounding him, González continued to save the lives of people who were persecuted by the dictatorship: “Rafael himself made sure that files on Guillermo Sáez Pardo, Juan Ibáñez Elgueta, Héctor Ortega Fuentes and Carlos Morales Salazar were incinerated in the boiler at the Air Force Hospital, thereby saving them from danger". In April 1974, Vice-Admiral Patricio Carvajal dismissed Rafael González from
7744-404: The early 19th century that was used for literary and official purposes in the newly formed Greek state. In 1976, Dimotiki was declared the official language of Greece, after having incorporated features of Katharevousa and thus giving birth to Standard Modern Greek , used today for all official purposes and in education . The historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of
7865-448: The epics of Homer , ancient Greek literature includes many works of lasting importance in the European canon . Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science and philosophy were originally composed. The New Testament of the Christian Bible was also originally written in Greek. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world , the Greek texts and Greek societies of antiquity constitute
7986-426: The exact role that Espinoza played in the murders of Horman and Frank Teruggi or what his functions had been at the time. The weekly newspaper El Siglo , the official organ of the Central Committee of the Chilean Communist Party , called the judgment a disaster and implied that Pedro Espinoza's imputation was a smoke screen designed to cover up the search for the truth. “Judge Zepeda's ruling provides no justice to
8107-461: The facts relating to the death of those who resisted the coup in Moneda Palace." On September 11, at Moneda Palace , Gen. Javier Palacios gave Rafael González a direct order to execute Allende's press secretary, journalist Carlos Jorquera. However, González refused. Jorquera has recounted that "a military man recognized me but didn't obey the order to kill me then and there. I owe him my life [...] Years later, when Aylwin won, we met. We gave each other
8228-452: The following periods: In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia : the coexistence of vernacular and archaizing written forms of the language. What came to be known as the Greek language question was a polarization between two competing varieties of Modern Greek: Dimotiki , the vernacular form of Modern Greek proper, and Katharevousa , meaning 'purified', a compromise between Dimotiki and Ancient Greek developed in
8349-413: The highly controversial 1963 play, Der Stellvertreter. Ein christliches Trauerspiel ( The Deputy, a Christian Tragedy ), by Rolf Hochhuth . The film plot alleges that Pope Pius XII was aware of the plight of the Jews in Nazi concentration camps during World War II , but failed to take public action to publicise or condemn the Holocaust. Gavras won César Award for Best Writing for this film. He
8470-439: The infinitive entirely (employing a raft of new periphrastic constructions instead) and uses participles more restrictively. The loss of the dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well). Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, but neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO. Modern Greek inherits most of its vocabulary from Ancient Greek, which in turn
8591-441: The inhumane conditions of the prisoners, Gen. Bonilla ordered Col. Contreras' arrest. However, Pinochet canceled the order, and shortly thereafter, Bonilla died in a mysterious helicopter accident. The French technicians sent by the helicopter manufacturing company to investigate the accident also died under dubious circumstances. Pinochet assigned Gen. Herman Brady to Bonilla's posting in the Ministry of Defense. While investigating
8712-590: The investigation into Horman's death, for American and Chilean authorities could no longer claim ignorance of the facts. Granted asylum in Spain in 1978, González was contacted by former socialist senator Erich Schnake on behalf of Charles Horman's father, Edmund, who invited him to the United States to provide testimony in a lawsuit against Henry Kissinger, the CIA and the U.S. State Department. Joyce Horman, Charles' widow, told CNN that Rafael González's testimony
8833-467: The late 15th century BC, was the first script used to write Greek. It is basically a syllabary , which was finally deciphered by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick in the 1950s (its precursor, Linear A , has not been deciphered and most likely encodes a non-Greek language). The language of the Linear B texts, Mycenaean Greek , is the earliest known form of Greek. Another similar system used to write
8954-543: The late spring of 1972 and settled temporarily in Santiago, where Charles worked as a freelance writer. On September 16, 1973, six days after the military coup, Horman was detained by Chilean soldiers and taken to the National Stadium in Santiago , which had been converted into an ad hoc prison camp. Prisoners were interrogated and tortured, and many were executed. For close to a month after Horman's death,
9075-557: The logical outcome of GOC paranoia." After the release of the State Department memo, Horman's widow Joyce described it as "close to a smoking pistol." The same memo had been released to the Horman family more than twenty years earlier, but the above-mentioned paragraphs had been blacked out by the State Department. The latest version still contains blacked-out passages for reasons of "national security," but it reveals more. Several other documents released in 1999 revealed that
9196-640: The membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the organization's 24 official languages . Greek is recognized as a minority language in Albania, and used co-officially in some of its municipalities, in the districts of Gjirokastër and Sarandë . It is also an official minority language in the regions of Apulia and Calabria in Italy. In the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages , Greek
9317-441: The modern period. The division into conventional periods is, as with all such periodizations, relatively arbitrary, especially because, in all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed heavily from it. Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows a mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas. It has only oral vowels and
9438-533: The murder of René Schneider , the Commander-in-Chief in the Chilean army whose support for Allende and the constitution was seen as an obstacle to the coup." On November 29, 2011, a Chilean court indicted Pedro Espinoza, Rafael González Verdugo and Ray E. Davis. Espinoza was a general in the Chilean army and Verdugo, a Chilean intelligence officer. Davis was a retired U.S. military officer who headed
9559-549: The murder of opponents of the Chilean dictatorship, given his opposition to the Pinochet regime. They claim that his death was precisely caused by his opposition to Pinochet and DINA . Researchers, including Patricia Verdugo ( Interferencia secreta ), Ignacio González Camus ( El día que murió Allende ), Mónica González ( La conjura: los mil y un días del golpe ), and Ascanio Cavallo, Manuel Salazar, and Óscar Sepúlveda ( La historia oculta del régimen militar ), who have examined
9680-399: The noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause-initial. However, the morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language . Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks
9801-536: The objects of study of the discipline of Classics . During antiquity , Greek was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world . It eventually became the official language of the Byzantine Empire and developed into Medieval Greek . In its modern form , Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union . It
9922-706: The older periods of Greek, loanwords into Greek acquired Greek inflections, thus leaving only a foreign root word. Modern borrowings (from the 20th century on), especially from French and English, are typically not inflected; other modern borrowings are derived from Albanian , South Slavic ( Macedonian / Bulgarian ) and Eastern Romance languages ( Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian ). Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English. Example words include: mathematics , physics , astronomy , democracy , philosophy , athletics , theatre, rhetoric , baptism , evangelist , etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as
10043-556: The predominant theory surrounding the execution of Horman and Teruggi was that the order was given by General Augusto Lutz during his period as head of the Directorate of Army Intelligence (Spanish: Dirección de Inteligencia del Ejército or DINE), also known as the Army Intelligence Service (Spanish: Servicio de Inteligencia Militar, or SIM). In 2003, judge Juan Guzmán was removed from the case after which it
10164-501: The preface to the book Opération Condor , by French writer and journalist Pablo Daniel Magee . The French filmmaker Mathieu Kassovitz listed Costa-Gavras films (such as Z and The Confession ) as influential to his work. The French filmmaker Rachid Bouchareb listed Z as an influence on his film Outside the Law . The American actor and filmmaker Ben Affleck listed Costa-Gavras's films as influences for his film Argo . In
10285-514: The real culprits unpunished and impugned him in a crime in which he was not involved. Despite his, González was one of only two to be convicted for a crime related to Hormann's murder and was sentenced in January 2015 to two years of police supervision after it was determined that he was an accomplice. His sentence would be increased to three years by the Supreme Court of Chile in July 2016. During
10406-748: The request of Allende's Minister of Defense, González acted as an advisor to the Director of Police Investigations, Dr. Eduardo Paredes, from March to September 1971. As a cover for his work as a secret agent, González posed as a civil servant in Corfo. Due to the accuracy of González's reports, the head of the EMDN's intelligence service scheduled an appointment with the Undersecretary of the Interior, Daniel Vergara, in December 1972, where he pointed out that if certain key changes were not made to improve
10527-474: The request. It was later revealed that Davis had been living secretly in Chile and had died in a Santiago nursing home in 2013. In 2015, the court sentenced Espinoza and Verdugo to prison for 7 years and 2 years, respectively. However, Chile's Supreme Court reviewed the case in 2016 and increased the sentences to 15 years and 3 years, respectively. In addition, the two were ordered to pay $ 196,000 to Horman's widow and $ 151,000 to Teruggi's sister. For 30 years,
10648-682: The resort town of Viña del Mar near the port of Valparaíso , a key base for American and Chilean coup plotters. U.S. officials speculated at the time that Horman had been a victim of "Chilean paranoia," but did nothing to intervene. It is unlikely that Horman would have been killed without the knowledge or permission of the CIA, according to papers released in 1999 under the Freedom of Information Act . Efforts to determine his fate were initially met with resistance and duplicity by U.S. embassy officials in Santiago. Joyce and Edmund Horman donated their extensive files related to their pursuit of justice to
10769-600: The stadium gave testimony (in this or in other cases) stating that they had seen or heard about Espinoza being there; many said they had seen Jorge Espinoza, the Army colonel in charge of the stadium. Peter Kornbluh , a researcher linked to the Horman Foundation and the director of the National Security Archive 's Chile Documentation Project, has stated that "the details of his death and why he
10890-437: The stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks ( rough and smooth breathing ), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-initial /h/; and the diaeresis , used to mark the full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong. These marks were introduced during the course of the Hellenistic period. Actual usage of the grave in handwriting saw a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of
11011-554: The structures of these societies, problems which he deems not everyone is comfortable addressing. The approach he adopted in L'Aveu also "subtly invited the audience to a critical look focused on structural issues, delving this time into the opposite Communist bloc." Until 2019's Adults in the Room , Costa-Gavras had never worked in Greece or made a film in the Greek language. When Costa-Gavras asked about some of his biggest cinematic influences, he replied: The first movie I saw at
11132-424: The studio, despite not having been named directly in the movie (he had been named in the book). A court eventually dismissed Davis's suit. The movie was removed from the market during the lawsuit but re-released upon its dismissal. In season 10 of Law & Order , the season finale " Vaya Con Dios " was based on this murder. For many years thereafter, the U.S. government steadfastly maintained its ignorance of
11253-635: The targets of Costa-Gavras's work have been right wing or far right movements and regimes, including the Greek military in Z , and right-wing dictatorships that ruled much of Latin America during the height of the Cold War, as in State of Siege and Missing . In a broader sense, this emphasis continues with Amen. given its focus on the conservative leadership of the Catholic Church during
11374-525: The television show “Chuck”, season 3 episode 3 “ Chuck Versus the Angel de la Muerte ” featured the fictional leader Alejandro Goya who was looking to convert his nation of “Costa Gravis” from communism to democratic. Alejandro’s wife and one of his body guards attempt to undermine this effort, seemingly a reference to Costa-Gravis’ movie “Z”. Costa-Gavras's debut film, Compartiment Tueurs , won National Board of Review Award for Best Foreign Language Film and
11495-615: The time of its release, Greece had been ruled for two years by the "Regime of the Colonels" . Z won the Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film . Costa-Gavras and co-writer Jorge Semprún won an Edgar Award from the Mystery Writers of America for Best Film Screenplay. L'Aveu ( The Confession , 1970) follows the path of Artur London , a Czechoslovakian communist minister falsely arrested and tried for treason and espionage in
11616-530: The trial, several high-ranking officers of the Chilean Navy, whose names had been kept in the dark for decades, were mentioned in connection to the death of the American journalist. They were: Vice Admiral Patricio Carvajal , Corvette Captain Raúl Monsalve and Navy Captain Ariel González. In their statements, the latter two (Carvajal committed suicide in 1994) claimed they were innocent and accused
11737-439: The victims, nor does it provide the truth to their relatives and to the community". On December 30, 2011, a Court of Appeals upheld the ruling, with the dissenting judge stating that no link had been shown to connect Espinoza to the crime. In January 2015, Espinoza was sentenced to serve seven years for Hormann's murder. His sentence would later increased to 15 years by the Supreme Court of Chile in July 2016. From 1954 until
11858-409: The whereabouts of his body were purportedly unknown to American officials. However, it was later determined that he had been executed on September 19 and his remains buried inside a wall in the national stadium, after which the body was transferred to a morgue in the Chilean capital. A second American journalist, Frank Teruggi , met a similar fate. At the time of the military coup , Horman had been in
11979-478: Was Captain Ray Davis. Monsalve had been working for years as a liaison with the CIA, to the extent that the U.S. Embassy described him in a report as the "most pro-American" officer of the Chilean Navy, as revealed by research carried out by Universidad Arcis and published in the journal Estudios Político Militares: Programa de Estudios Fuerzas Armadas y Sociedad . After the coup, Monsalve maintained contact with
12100-596: Was President of Pendulum literary magazine. Working as filmmaker at King TV in Portland Oregon, Charles created the short documentary "Napalm", which won a Grand Prize at the Cracow Film Festival in 1967. Upon returning to New York City, Charles wrote articles as an investigative journalist for magazines in the United States such as Commentary and The Nation , and newspapers, including The Christian Science Monitor . In 1967–68, he worked as
12221-574: Was a distinct dialect of Greek itself. Aside from the Macedonian question, current consensus regards Phrygian as the closest relative of Greek, since they share a number of phonological, morphological and lexical isoglosses , with some being exclusive between them. Scholars have proposed a Graeco-Phrygian subgroup out of which Greek and Phrygian originated. Among living languages, some Indo-Europeanists suggest that Greek may be most closely related to Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian ) or
12342-578: Was a film student at NYU when Z came out, which we studied. Costa actually came over with Yves Montand for a screening and was such a hero to us. He was in the tradition of Gillo Pontecorvo 's The Battle of Algiers and was the man in that moment ... it was a European moment." The American filmmaker William Friedkin listed Z as one of his favorite films and mentioned the film's influence on him when directing his film The French Connection : "After I saw Z , I realized how I could shoot The French Connection . Because he [Costa-Gavras] shot 'Z' like
12463-568: Was also used as the official language of government and religion in the Christian Nubian kingdoms , for most of their history. Greek, in its modern form, is the official language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population. It is also the official language of Cyprus (nominally alongside Turkish ) and the British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia (alongside English ). Because of
12584-557: Was also used in Ancient Greek. Greek has occasionally been written in the Latin script , especially in areas under Venetian rule or by Greek Catholics . The term Frankolevantinika / Φραγκολεβαντίνικα applies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism (because Frankos / Φράγκος is an older Greek term for West-European dating to when most of (Roman Catholic Christian) West Europe
12705-430: Was an American journalist and documentary filmmaker. He was executed in Chile in the days following the 1973 Chilean coup d'état led by General Augusto Pinochet , which overthrew the socialist president Salvador Allende . Horman's death was the subject of the 1982 Costa-Gavras film Missing , in which he was portrayed by actor John Shea . In June 2014, a Chilean court ruled that U.S. authorities had played
12826-469: Was arrested in Switzerland in relation to his 1977 charge for drugging and raping a 13-year-old girl. He argued that "the crime could not be considered rape because the teenage girl was 13 years old but looked 25". Greek language Greek ( Modern Greek : Ελληνικά , romanized : Elliniká , [eliniˈka] ; Ancient Greek : Ἑλληνική , romanized : Hellēnikḗ )
12947-602: Was assigned to judge Jorge Zepeda. Zepeda's opinion represented a break with the previous investigation. His view was that Department II (Intelligence) of the General Staff of the National Defense (Spanish: Estado Mayor de la Defensa Nacional, or EMDN) would have been the organization responsible for Horman's death. This theory has been questioned from various standpoints. Since the 1970s, the Lutz-Herrera family has insisted that Lutz could not have been involved in
13068-485: Was based on a book first published in 1978 under the title The Execution Of Charles Horman: An American Sacrifice, and written by Thomas Hauser ; this book was later republished under the title Missing in 1982. When the movie was released by Universal Studios , Nathaniel Davis , the United States Ambassador to Chile from 1971 to 1973, filed a US$ 150 million libel suit against the director and
13189-479: Was decorated by dictator Francisco Franco . Following Spain's return to democracy, Carvajal served for two consecutive terms (1988-1989 and 1989–1993) as a member of the Supreme Tribunal of the right-wing party Independent Democratic Union (Spanish: UDI). James Anderson was a CIA agent who operated under cover as a U.S. Vice-consul. Together with John S. Hall, another CIA agent who posed under cover as
13310-493: Was entered into the 5th Moscow International Film Festival . In Z (1969), an investigating judge, played by Jean-Louis Trintignant , tries to uncover the truth about the murder of a prominent leftist politician, played by Yves Montand , while government officials and the military attempt to cover up their roles. The film is a fictionalised account of the events surrounding the assassination of Greek politician Grigoris Lambrakis in 1963. It had additional resonance because, at
13431-842: Was imprisoned during the Greek Civil War . His father's Communist Party membership made it impossible for Costa-Gavras to attend university in Greece or to be granted a visa to the United States, so after high school he settled in France, where he began studying literature at the Sorbonne in 1951. In 1956, he abandoned his university studies to study film at the French national film school, IDHEC . After film school, he apprenticed under Yves Allégret , and became an assistant director for Jean Giono and René Clair . After several further appointments as first assistant director, he directed his first feature film, Compartiment Tueurs , in 1965. His 1967 film Shock Troops ( Un homme de trop )
13552-483: Was killed are still murky" and that although the judge quoted several declassified documents in his ruling, “none of them tie Davis or Espinoza to the crimes”, adding that, "the judge will have to present concrete evidence". Even Punto Final , a newspaper linked to the Revolutionary Left Movement (Movimiento de Izquierda Revolucionario, MIR), regretted that in his ruling, Zepeda did not reveal
13673-537: Was never interrogated by the judge and assigned no responsibility for the crime. On September 11, 1973, Corvette Captain Raúl Monsalve was posted at the General Staff of the Navy (Spanish: Estado Mayor General de la Armada, or EMGA) as a liaison officer with the U.S. Military Group (almost all of whom were U.S. Navy officers linked to the Defense Intelligence Agency, DIA). The head of the U.S. group
13794-815: Was nominated for the Edgar Award for Best Screenplay in 1967. The film Z was the first film to be nominated for both the Best Picture and Best Foreign Language Film . It won the latter, as well as the Jury Prize at the Cannes Film Festival , and the Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Film . Z was also the first foreign-language film to win the Best Film award from the New York Film Critics Circle . Gavras won
13915-469: Was portrayed by John Shea . In the film, Horman is depicted as having spoken with several U.S. operatives who assisted the Chilean military government. The movie alleges that Horman's discovery of U.S. complicity in the coup led to his secret arrest, disappearance and execution. American complicity in the Chilean coup was later confirmed in documents declassified during the Clinton administration . The movie
14036-487: Was president of the Cinémathèque Française from 1982 to 1987, and again since 2007. Costa-Gavras is known for merging controversial political issues with the entertainment value of commercial cinema. Law and justice, oppression, legal/illegal violence, and torture are common subjects in his work, especially relevant to his earlier films. Costa-Gavras is an expert of the "statement" picture. In most cases,
14157-489: Was questioned and found to be implausible. Researcher Jonathan Haslam notes that according to the son-in-law of Gen. William Westmoreland (commanding officer of American forces in Vietnam between 1964 and 1968), Vernon Walters (Deputy Director of CIA between 1972 and 1976) operated in Chile through Ariel González. In the thirteen years in which Zepeda presided over the judicial inquiry on Charles Horman's murder, González
14278-476: Was saved on 11 September from suffering the fate of his comrades at Peldehue”, all of whom were assassinated on September 12 in the Regimiento Tacna on the orders of Gen. Herman Brady, Head of the Army's Second Division in Santiago, Commanding officer of the capital's garrison and military judge of Santiago, making him the sole decider of the fate of all detainees. González's testimony has helped clarify
14399-417: Was the only thing that allowed the family to bring its case to court against them. Following the prosecutions in the Horman case, Rafael González created a blog ("Justicia para Horman, justicia para González") where he recounted his professional career as an intelligence agent (1954-1975) and commented on Judge Jorge Zepeda's rulings, calling them a judicial farce that denied justice to the Horman family, left
14520-580: Was under the control of the Frankish Empire ). Frankochiotika / Φραγκοχιώτικα (meaning 'Catholic Chiot') alludes to the significant presence of Catholic missionaries based on the island of Chios . Additionally, the term Greeklish is often used when the Greek language is written in a Latin script in online communications. The Latin script is nowadays used by the Greek-speaking communities of Southern Italy . The Yevanic dialect
14641-673: Was written by Romaniote and Constantinopolitan Karaite Jews using the Hebrew Alphabet . In a tradition, that in modern time, has come to be known as Greek Aljamiado , some Greek Muslims from Crete wrote their Cretan Greek in the Arabic alphabet . The same happened among Epirote Muslims in Ioannina . This also happened among Arabic-speaking Byzantine rite Christians in the Levant ( Lebanon , Palestine, and Syria ). This usage
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