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113-695: It was produced by the Majorcan cartographic school , possibly by Cresques Abraham , a Jewish book illuminator who was described by a contemporary as a master of mappae mundi as well as of compasses. It was in the royal library of France by 1380, during the reign of King Charles V , and is still preserved in the Bibliothèque nationale de France . The Catalan Atlas originally consisted of six vellum leaves (each circa 64.5 by 50 cm [25.4 by 19.7 in]) folded vertically, painted in various colours including gold and silver. They were later mounted on

226-574: A noyan of the Chagatai Khanate raided Punjab, advancing as far as Kasur . Alauddin's forces, led by Ulugh Khan, defeated the Mongols on 6 February 1298. According to Amir Khusrow , 20,000 Mongols were killed in the battle, and many more were killed in Delhi after being brought there as prisoners. In 1298–99, another Mongol army (possibly Neguderi fugitives) invaded Sindh , and occupied

339-514: A basis of the agrarian reforms introduced by the later rulers such as Sher Shah Suri and Akbar . However, his other regulations, including price control, were revoked by his son Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah a few months after his death. The countryside and agricultural production during Alauddin's time was controlled by the village headmen, the traditional Hindu authorities. He viewed their haughtiness and their direct and indirect resistance as

452-532: A blue dome and shows Muslim prayer. The text next to the image is: In this town is the shrine of Mohammed the Prophet of the Saracens, who come here on pilgrimages from every country. And they say that, having seen something so precious, they are no longer worthy of seeing anything more at all, and they blind themselves in honor of Mohammed." While the areas under Muslim control were marked with domes, Jerusalem

565-430: A cross, other cities with a dome—and with each city's political allegiance indicated by a flag. Wavy blue vertical lines are used to symbolise oceans. Place names of important ports are transcribed in red, while others are indicated in black. The illustrations and most of the text are oriented towards the edges of the map, suggesting it was intended to be used by laying it flat and walking around it. The oriental portion of

678-529: A decisive victory. The invaders ransacked Delhi and its neighbourhoods, but ultimately decided to retreat after being unable to breach Siri. The Mongol invasion of 1303 was one of the most serious invasions of India, and prompted Alauddin to take several steps to prevent its repeat. He strengthened the forts and the military presence along the Mongol routes to India. He also implemented a series of economic reforms to ensure sufficient revenue inflows for maintaining

791-583: A gold mine and the ship of Jaume Ferrer . Although the Italian school largely adhered to its sparse style, some later Italian cartographers, such as the Pizzigani brothers and Battista Beccario toyed with Majorcan themes, and introduced some of their features into their own maps. Although some historians like to distinguish the Italian maps as "nautical" and the Majorcan maps as "nautico-geographic", it

904-582: A large tract of fertile land under the directly governed crown territory, by eliminating iqta's , land grants and vassals in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab region. He imposed a 50% kharaj tax on the agricultural produce in a substantial part of northern India: this was the maximum amount allowed by the Hanafi school of Islam, which was dominant in Delhi at that time. Alauddin Khalji's taxation system

1017-478: A letter of pardon signed by the Sultan, which the Sultan immediately despatched through messengers. At Kara, Jalaluddin's messengers learned of Alauddin's military strength and of his plans to dethrone the Sultan. However, Alauddin detained them and prevented them from communicating with the Sultan. Meanwhile, Alauddin's younger brother Almas Beg (later Ulugh Khan), who was married to a daughter of Jalaluddin, assured

1130-676: A lifelong vassal of Alauddin. Meanwhile, a section of Alauddin's army had been besieging the fort of Siwana in Marwar region unsuccessfully for several years. In August–September 1308, Alauddin personally took charge of the siege operations in Siwana. The Delhi army conquered the fort in the Siege of Siwana , and the defending ruler Sitaladeva was killed in November 1308. The plunder obtained from Devagiri prompted Alauddin to plan an invasion of

1243-511: A lot more inland detail and was replete with rich colorful illustrations, depicting cities, mountain ranges, rivers and some miniature people. Among the quintessential features replicated in almost all Majorcan charts: Among the miniature people routinely found in many Majorcan maps are depictions of the traders on the Silk Road and the trans-Saharan route , the Emperor of Mali seated on

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1356-455: A lot of money to raise a large army and stage a successful coup: Malik Chajju's revolt had failed for want of resources. To finance his plan to dethrone Jalaluddin, Alauddin decided to raid the neighboring Hindu kingdoms. In 1293, he raided Bhilsa , a wealthy town in the Paramara kingdom of Malwa , which had been weakened by multiple invasions. At Bhilsa, he learned of the immense wealth of

1469-693: A march to Delhi, and ordered his officers to recruit as many soldiers as possible, without fitness tests or background checks . His objective was to cause a change in the general political opinion, by portraying himself as someone with huge public support. To portray himself as a generous king, he ordered 5 manns of gold pieces to be shot from a manjaniq ( catapult ) at a crowd in Kara. One section of his army, led by himself and Nusrat Khan , marched to Delhi via Badaun and Baran (modern Bulandshahr ). The other section, led by Zafar Khan , marched to Delhi via Koil (modern Aligarh ). As Alauddin marched to Delhi,

1582-658: A peculiar flag ( [REDACTED] ), while coastal cities are under the black flag of the Delhi Sultanate ( [REDACTED] ). Devagiri was ultimately captured by Alauddin Khalji of the Delhi Sultanate in 1307. The trading ship raises the flag of the Ilkhanate ( [REDACTED] ). Its caption reads: Let it be known that these ships are named nichi, and measure sixty cubits in depth and thirty-four cubits in length; there are few with less than four masts and some even have ten. The sails are made of reed and palm leafs. To

1695-491: A sharp departure from all earlier maps. Unlike the circular mappa mundi of Christian academic tradition, the portolan was oriented towards the north, and focused on a realistic depiction of geographic distances with a degree of accuracy that is astounding, even by modern standards. Historians speculate that the portolan was constructed from the first-hand information of mariners and merchants, possibly assisted by astronomers , and were geared for navigational use, in particular

1808-567: A smaller body of around 1,000 soldiers. On 20 July 1296, Alauddin had Jalaluddin killed, after pretending to greet the Sultan, and declaring himself the new king. Jalaluddin's companions were also killed, while Ahmad Chap's army retreated to Delhi. Alauddin, known as Ali Gurshasp until his ascension in July 1296, was formally proclaimed as the new king with the title Alauddunya wad Din Muhammad Shah-us Sultan at Kara . Meanwhile,

1921-650: A special order. John I of Aragon advised the authorities that he needed to get a map, which would show the Strait of Gibraltar , the Atlantic coast and the ocean itself. The map they made was named the Catalan Atlas , and it is the most important Catalan map of the medieval period. The first two leaves, forming the oriental portion of the Catalan Atlas, illustrate numerous religious references as well as

2034-583: A strong army. In 1304, Alauddin appears to have ordered a second invasion of Gujarat , which resulted in the annexation of the Vaghela kingdom to the Delhi Sultanate. In 1305, he launched an invasion of Malwa in central India, which resulted in the defeat and death of the Paramara king Mahalakadeva . The Yajvapala dynasty , which ruled the region to the north-east of Malwa, also appears to have fallen to Alauddin's invasion. In December 1305,

2147-495: A synthesis of medieval mappae mundi (Jerusalem located close to the center) and the travel literature of the time, notably Marco Polo 's Book of Marvels and the Travels , and Voyage of Sir John Mandeville . Many Indian and Chinese cities can be identified. The explanatory texts report customs described by Marco Polo . Cresques, who knew Arabic , also used the travel narratives of Moroccan explorer Ibn Battuta . Mecca has

2260-538: A tributary of Alauddin. From Dwarasamudra, Malik Kafur marched to the Pandya kingdom, where he raided several towns reaching as far as Madurai . Both Vira and Sundara fled their headquarters, and thus, Kafur was unable to make them Alauddin's tributaries. Nevertheless, the Delhi army looted many treasures, elephants and horses. The Delhi chronicler Ziauddin Barani described this seizure of wealth from Dwarasamudra and

2373-409: A week in a city named Lop. Here, expeditions and their animals relax/enjoy themselves. After that, they procure what is needed for the next seven months of the journey, because in the desert one travels an entire day and night before reaching potable water; however, every day and a half, they can find plenty of it, enough for fifty or a hundred people or even more. And if it happens that a rider, tired by

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2486-399: Is a great sultan, powerful and very rich: the sultan has seven hundred elephants and a hundred thousand horsemen under his command. He also has countless foot soldiers. In this part of the land there is a lot of gold and precious stones. In the center of India appears the traditional Yadava capital of Diogil ("Deogiri", or Devagiri [REDACTED] ). On top of the city of Diogil floats

2599-806: Is important to note that the Majorcan portolans did not sacrifice the essential nautical function of their portolans. Lift the entertaining illustrations, and the Majorcan maps are as nautically detailed and serviceable as the Italian. Major members of the Majorcan school of cartography include: Unlike in Italy, where the crafts of instrument-making and cartography were distinct, most of the Majorcan cartographers also worked as makers of nautical instruments - often appearing in civic records, as both master map-maker and bruixoler ("compass-maker"). Some were also amateur or professional cosmographers , with expertise in astrology and astronomy , frequently inserting astronomical calendars in their atlases. Most members of

2712-804: Is named Siras , and in antiquity, it was named the City of Grace because it was there where astronomy was invented by the great wise man Ptolemy . Two ships with flags of the Ilkhanate appears on the India Ocean , sailing to and from the Indian coast, where appear flags of the Delhi Sultanate . The label attached to one of the ships reads: Know that these ships are called junks ( inchi ) and have sixty-cubit hulls with thirty-four cubits of freeboard. They have on top of this between four and ten masts, and their sails are of canes and palm. The Mongol polity of

2825-444: Is one of style rather than range. Italian portolan charts were sparse and restrained, strictly focused on coastal detail, with the inland areas left largely or wholly empty, and the charts largely bereft of illustrations. The Majorcan style, its beginnings already decipherable in the 1339 chart of Angelino Dulcert , and finding its epitome in the Catalan Atlas of 1375, attributed to Majorcan cartographer Abraham Cresques , contained

2938-590: Is richer than any other emperor in the world. This emperor is protected by twelve thousand horsemen with their four captains that stay at the court three months of the year. The Antichrist appears beyond the Great Wall of China, next to the territory of Gog and Magog . The label reads: Antichrist. He will be raised in Goraym of Galilea, and at the age of thirty he will start to preach in Jerusalem; contrary to

3051-400: Is similar to contemporary portolan charts , but contains the first compass rose known to have been used on such a chart. The Mali Empire and its riches are shown under the rule of Mansa Musa . The caption reads: This black Lord is called Musse Melly and is the sovereign of the land of the black people of Gineva ( Ghana ). This king is the richest and noblest of all these lands due to

3164-791: The Chahamanas of Ranastambhapura and Jalore , the Rawal branch of the Guhilas , and possibly the Yajvapalas . His slave-general Malik Kafur led multiple campaigns to the south of the Vindhyas , obtaining a considerable amount of wealth from Devagiri (1308), Warangal (1310) and Dwarasamudra (1311). These victories forced the Yadava king Ramachandra , the Kakatiya king Prataparudra , and

3277-586: The Crown of Aragon . This coincided with a period of Aragonese expansionism across the Mediterranean to Sardinia and Corsica , Sicily and Greece ( Athens and Neopatria ), in which Majorcan nautical, cartographic and mercantile expertise was often called upon. Majorcan merchants and seafarers spearheaded the attempt by the Aragonese crown to seize the newly discovered Canary Islands in the Atlantic from

3390-580: The Golden Horde is accurately depicted north of the Caspian Sea . The ruler named Jani Beg has been identified in this representation, being mentioned as "Jambech senyor de Sarra " , and the flag of the Golden Horde also appears ( [REDACTED] ). The caption to the right reads: Here resides the emperor of this northern region whose empire starts in the province of Bulgaria and ends at

3503-637: The Hoysala king Ballala III to become Alauddin's tributaries . Kafur also raided the Pandya kingdom (1311), obtaining much treasure, elephants, and horses. During the last years of his life, Alauddin had an illness and relied on Malik Kafur to handle the administration. After his death in 1316, Malik Kafur appointed Shihabuddin , son of Alauddin and his Hindu wife Jhatyapali, as a puppet monarch . Alauddin's elder son Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah seized power shortly after his death. Contemporary chroniclers did not write much about Alauddin's childhood. According to

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3616-482: The Khalji revolution of 1290. The marriage, however, was not a happy one. Having suddenly become a princess after Jalaluddin's rise as a monarch, she was very arrogant and tried to dominate Alauddin. According to Haji-ud-Dabir, Alauddin married a second woman, named Mahru, who was the sister of Malik Sanjar alias Alp Khan . Malika-i-Jahan was greatly infuriated by her husband taking a second wife. According to Dabir, this

3729-590: The "Italian school". Both Italian and Majorcan portolan charts focus on the same geographic area, what is sometimes called the "Normal Portolan": the Mediterranean Sea , the Black Sea and the Atlantic Ocean coast up to the environs of Flanders - the area frequently travelled by contemporary Mediterranean merchants and sailors. As time and knowledge progressed, some cartographers stretched

3842-588: The 1340s to the 1360s. Majorcan cosmographers and cartographers experimented and developed their own cartographic techniques. According to some scholars (e.g. Nordenskiold), the Majorcans were responsible for the invention (c. 1300) of the "normal portolan chart ". The portolan was a realistic, detailed nautical chart, gridded by a rhumbline network with compass lines that could be used to deduce exact sailing directions between any two points. Portolan charts, which appeared rather suddenly after 1300, constitute

3955-589: The 13th, 14th and 15th centuries until the expulsion of the Jews . The label is usually inclusive of those who worked in Catalonia . The Majorcan school is frequently contrasted with the contemporary Italian cartography school. The island of Majorca , the largest of the Balearic islands in the western Mediterranean , had a long history of seafaring. Muslim and Jewish merchants participated in extensive trade across

4068-544: The 14th century they started doing business with England and Netherlands . These groups were not limited by the rules imposed by the Christian framework, and their maps were way ahead of their time. Professor Gerald Crone, who wrote books on medieval mapping, said of these cartographers, they "...threw off the bounds of tradition and anticipated the achievements of the Renaissance ". The maps they made were prized by

4181-532: The 14th century, seem to have been constructed by Genoese cartographers, with Majorcan charts making their appearance only in the latter half of the century. As a result, many historians have argued that the Majorcan cartography derived from the Genoese, citing the mysterious figure of Angelino Dulcert , possibly a Genoese immigrant working in Majorca in the 1330s, as the key intermediary in the transmission. On

4294-505: The 16th/17th-century chronicler Haji-ud-Dabir, Alauddin was 34 years old when he started his march to Ranthambore (1300–1301). Assuming this is correct, Alauddin's birth can be dated to 1266–1267. His original name was Ali Gurshasp. He was the eldest son of Shihabuddin Mas'ud, who was the elder brother of the Khalji dynasty 's founder Sultan Jalaluddin . He had three brothers: Almas Beg (later Ulugh Khan), Qutlugh Tigin, and Muhammad. Alauddin

4407-445: The Catalan Atlas illustrates numerous religious references as well as a synthesis of medieval mappae mundi and the travel literature of the time, especially Marco Polo 's Book of Marvels and Mandeville 's Travels and Voyage of Sir John Mandeville . Many Indian and Chinese cities can be identified. The explanatory texts report customs described by Polo and catalogue local economic resources, real or supposed. The Western portion

4520-612: The Catalan. Italian medieval cartographers came mostly from Genoa and Venice . Catalan charts were made in Majorca and Barcelona . Beside these two major schools, some maps were made in Portugal , but no examples survive. The inhabitants of Majorca were great navigators and cartographers. Their geographical knowledge was earned from their own experience and developed in a multicultural atmosphere. Muslim and Jewish merchants participated in extensive trade with Egypt and Tunisia, and in

4633-688: The Chagatai flag ( [REDACTED] ). The cities of Cathay, at that time the Empire of the Great Khan ( Yuan China ), are shown raising a flag with three red crescent moons ( [REDACTED] ). The flag is seen all over eastern Asian cities in the Catalan Atlas. Kubilai Khan appears enthroned and wearing a green coat, with the following caption: The most powerful prince of the Tartars is named Holubeim [Kubilay Khan], that means Great Khan. This emperor

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4746-505: The Jalore fort after defeating and killing Kanhadadeva. During the siege of Warangal, Malik Kafur had learned about the wealth of the Hoysala and Pandya kingdoms located further south. After returning to Delhi, he took Alauddin's permission to lead an expedition there. Kafur started his march from Delhi in November 1310, and crossed Deccan in early 1311, supported by Alauddin's tributaries Ramachandra and Prataparudra. At this time,

4859-770: The Kakatiya king Prataparudra agreed to become a tributary of Alauddin, and surrendered a large amount of wealth (possibly including the Koh-i-Noor diamond) to the invaders. Meanwhile, after conquering Siwana, Alauddin had ordered his generals to subjugate other parts of Marwar, before returning to Delhi. The raids of his generals in Marwar led to their confrontations with Kanhadadeva , the Chahamana ruler of Jalore . In 1311, Alauddin's general Malik Kamaluddin Gurg captured

4972-465: The Majorcan school had an autonomous origin, at best "inspired", but not derived, from the Genoese. Recent research tends to lean towards the first interpretation, but at the same time curbing some of the more extreme Italian claims and recognizing distinctively Majorcan development. Regardless of the exact origin, historians agree that the Majorcans developed their own distinctive style or "school" of portolan cartography, which can be distinguished from

5085-588: The Majorcan school, with the exception of Soler, were Jews , whether practicing or conversos . As a result, the school suffered heavily and eventually expired with the extension of force-conversion, expulsions and the Spanish Inquisition into the realms of the Crown of Aragon in the late 15th century. The production of medieval Portolan charts can be divided in two major schools: the Italian and

5198-655: The Mediterranean Sea with Italy , Egypt and Tunisia . In the 14th century their commerce entered into the Atlantic, reaching as far as England and the Low Countries . Ruled as an independent Muslim kingdom through much of the Early Middle Ages, Majorca came under Christian rule in 1231. It retained its independence as the Kingdom of Majorca until 1344, when it was permanently annexed to

5311-527: The Mongol territories located in present-day Afghanistan. Around 1308, Alauddin sent Malik Kafur to invade Devagiri , whose king Ramachandra had discontinued the tribute payments promised in 1296, and had granted asylum to the Vaghela king Karna at Baglana . Kafur was supported by Alauddin's Gujarat governor Alp Khan, whose forces invaded Baglana, and captured Karna's daughter Devaladevi (later married to Alauddin's son Khizr Khan). At Devagiri, Kafur achieved an easy victory, and Ramachandra agreed to become

5424-510: The Mongols include Zafar Khan , Ulugh Khan , and Alauddin's slave-general Malik Kafur . Alauddin conquered the kingdoms of Gujarat (raided in 1299 and annexed in 1304), Jaisalmer (1299), Ranthambore (1301), Chittor (1303), Malwa (1305), Siwana (1308), and Jalore (1311). These victories ended several Rajput and other Hindu dynasties, including the Paramaras , the Vaghelas ,

5537-595: The Mongols invaded India again. Instead of attacking the heavily guarded city of Delhi, the invaders proceeded south-east to the Gangetic plains along the Himalayan foothills . Alauddin's 30,000-strong cavalry, led by Malik Nayak, defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Amroha . Many Mongols were taken captive and killed; the 16th-century historian Firishta claims that the heads ( sir ) of 8,000 Mongols were used to build

5650-592: The Pandya kingdom as the greatest one since the Muslim capture of Delhi. During this campaign, the Mongol general Abachi had conspired to ally with the Pandyas, and as a result, Alauddin ordered him to be executed in Delhi. This, combined with their general grievances against Alauddin, led to resentment among Mongols who had settled in India after converting to Islam. A section of Mongol leaders plotted to kill Alauddin, but

5763-531: The Pandya kingdom was reeling under a war of succession between the two brothers Vira and Sundara, and taking advantage of this, the Hoysala king Ballala had invaded the Pandyan territory. When Ballala learned about Kafur's march, he hurried back to his capital Dwarasamudra . However, he could not put up a strong resistance, and negotiated a truce after a short siege , agreeing to surrender his wealth and become

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5876-438: The Siri Fort commissioned by Alauddin. In 1306, another Mongol army sent by Duwa advanced up to the Ravi River , ransacking the territories along the way. Alauddin's forces, led by Malik Kafur , decisively defeated the Mongols . Duwa died next year, and after that the Mongols did not launch any further expeditions to India during Alauddin's reign. On the contrary, Alauddin's Dipalpur governor Malik Tughluq regularly raided

5989-437: The Sultan granted Alauddin's request to use the revenue surplus for hiring additional troops. After years of planning and preparation, Alauddin successfully raided Devagiri in 1296. He left Devagiri with a huge amount of wealth, including precious metals, jewels, silk products, elephants, horses, and slaves. When the news of Alauddin's success reached Jalaluddin, the Sultan came to Gwalior , hoping that Alauddin would present

6102-400: The Sultan of Alauddin's loyalty. He convinced Jalaluddin to visit Kara and meet Alauddin, saying that Alauddin would commit suicide out of guilt if the Sultan did not pardon him personally. A gullible Jalaluddin set out for Kara with his army. After reaching close to Kara, he directed Ahmad Chap to take his main army to Kara by land route, while he himself decided to cross the Ganges river with

6215-548: The Sultan of Delhi after deposing the Mamluks , Alauddin was given the position of Amir-i-Tuzuk (equivalent to master of ceremonies ). After suppressing a revolt against Jalaluddin, Alauddin obtained the governorship of Kara in 1291, and the governorship of Awadh in 1296, after a profitable raid on Bhilsa . In 1296, Alauddin raided Devagiri , and used the acquired loot to stage a successful revolt against Jalaluddin. After killing Jalaluddin, he consolidated his power in Delhi, and subjugated Jalaluddin's sons in Multan . Over

6328-478: The Sultan's desire to subjugate the Hindus by "depriving them of that wealth and property which fosters rebellion". According to historian Satish Chandra , Alauddin's reforms were based on his conception of fear and control as the basis of good government as well as his military ambitions: the bulk of the measures were designed to centralise power in his hands and to support a large military. Some of Alauddin's land reforms were continued by his successors, and formed

6441-426: The Sultan. According to the 16th-century historian Firishta , she warned Jalaluddin that Alauddin was planning to set up an independent kingdom in a remote part of the country. She closely monitored Alauddin and encouraged her daughter's arrogant behavior toward him. In 1291, Alauddin played an important role in crushing a revolt by the governor of Kara Malik Chajju. Jalaluddin rewarded Alauddin by appointing him as

6554-484: The Vaghela queen Kamala Devi and slave Malik Kafur , who later led Alauddin's southern campaigns. During the army's return journey to Delhi, some of its Mongol soldiers staged an unsuccessful mutiny near Jalore , after the generals forcibly tried to extract a share of loot ( khums ) from them. Alauddin's administration meted out brutal punishments to the mutineers' families in Delhi, including killings of children in front of their mothers. According to Ziauddin Barani ,

6667-445: The abundance of gold that is extracted from his lands. The Catalan Atlas makes allusion to the Ife Empire under the name Ray de Organa . The western part of the Indian subcontinent is clearly depicted, and several of the location names are accurate. To the north appears the Sultan of Delhi ( Rey de delli ), the ruler of the contemporary Delhi Sultanate , with his flag on numerous cities ( [REDACTED] ). The caption reads: Here

6780-404: The age of discovery . Another famous Jewish cartographer was Haym ibn Risch. He was forced to convert to Christianity and took the name Juan de Vallsecha. He was probably the father of Gabriel de Vallseca , author of yet another famous mapamundi, one later used by Amerigo Vespucci . Gabriel also produced a very accurate maps of Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea . Another Jewish cartographer

6893-431: The areas east of the Ravi river . The region beyond Lahore suffered from Mongol raids and Khokhar rebellions. Multan was controlled by Jalaluddin's son Arkali, who harbored the fugitives from Delhi. In November 1296, Alauddin sent an army led by Ulugh Khan and Zafar Khan to conquer Multan . On his orders, Nusrat Khan arrested, blinded, and/or killed the surviving members of Jalaluddin's family. Shortly after

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7006-405: The army had lost several men and its baggage. Neither this army, nor the reinforcements sent by Alauddin's provincial governors could enter the city because of the blockades set up by the Mongols. Under these difficult circumstances, Alauddin took shelter in a heavily guarded camp at the under-construction Siri Fort . The Mongols engaged his forces in some minor conflicts, but neither army achieved

7119-406: The authenticity of these legends. While the imperial armies were busy in Chittor and Warangal campaigns, the Mongols launched another invasion of Delhi around August 1303. Alauddin managed to reach Delhi before the invaders, but did not have enough time to prepare for a strong defence. Meanwhile, the Warangal campaign was unsuccessful (because of heavy rains according to Ziauddin Barani ), and

7232-434: The central authorities. Henceforth, "everybody was busy with earning a living so that nobody could even think of rebellion". He also ordered "to supply some rules and regulations for grinding down the Hindus, and for depriving them of that wealth and property which fosters rebellion. The Hindu was to be so reduced as to be unable to keep a horse to ride on, wear fine clothes, or to enjoy any luxuries of life." Alauddin brought

7345-438: The city of Babylon : Here there was the Great Babylonia, where Nabuconodosor resided, and that is called Baldaca today. Let it be known that many spices, as well as other noble products, come to this city from the Indies and they are distributed by Siria, in particular at the city of Damascus. Over him appears a city within a sphere, with the following caption, mentioning the Persian city of Shiraz and Ptolemy : This city

7458-494: The city of Organcio. The sovereign is named Jambech, Lord of the Sarra. The symbolism of the Golden Horde flag depicted by the Catalan Atlas ( [REDACTED] ) is fairly similar to the type of tamgha symbols (such as [REDACTED] ) actually found on the coinage of the Golden Horde. Such symbols were used until the time of Jani Beg , but essentially disappear thereafter. The text to the left reads: Let it be known that those that wish to cross this desert stop and rest during

7571-417: The conquest of Multan, Alauddin appointed Nusrat Khan as his wazir (prime minister). Having strengthened his control over Delhi, the Sultan started eliminating the officers that were not his own appointees. In 1297, the aristocrats ( maliks ), who had deserted Jalaluddin's family to join Alauddin, were arrested, blinded or killed. All their property, including the money earlier given to them by Alauddin,

7684-407: The conspiracy was discovered by Alauddin's agents. Alauddin then ordered a mass massacre of Mongols in his empire, which according to Barani, resulted in the death of 20,000 or 30,000 Mongols. Meanwhile, in Devagiri , after Ramachandra's death, his son tried to overthrow Alauddin's suzerainty. Malik Kafur invaded Devagiri again in 1313, defeated him, and became the governor of Devagiri. Alauddin

7797-486: The cut that the intermediaries received for collecting revenue. Alauddin's demand for tax proportional to land area meant that the rich and powerful villages with more land had to pay more taxes. He forced the rural chiefs to pay same taxes as the others, and banned them from imposing illegal taxes on the peasants. To prevent any rebellions, his administration deprived the rural chiefs of their wealth, horses and arms. By suppressing these chiefs, Alauddin projected himself as

7910-415: The fort of Sivistan . This time, Alauddin's general Zafar Khan defeated the invaders and recaptured the fort. In early 1299, Alauddin sent Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to invade Gujarat , where the Vaghela king Karna offered a weak resistance. Alauddin's army plundered several towns including Somnath , where it desecrated the famous Hindu temple. The Delhi army also captured several people, including

8023-408: The front and back of five wooden panels, with the ends enclosed in a leather binding by Simon Vostre c.  1515 , restored most recently in 1991. Wear has split each leaf into two. The first two leaves contain texts in Catalan covering cosmography , astronomy , and astrology . These texts are accompanied by illustrations. The texts and illustration emphasise the Earth's spherical shape and

8136-613: The general public. In the winter of 1302–1303, Alauddin dispatched an army to ransack the Kakatiya capital Warangal . Meanwhile, he himself led another army to conquer Chittor , the capital of the Guhila kingdom ruled by Ratnasimha . Alauddin captured Chittor after an eight-month long siege . According to his courtier Amir Khusrau, he ordered a massacre of 30,000 local Hindus after this conquest. Some later legends state that Alauddin invaded Chittor to capture Ratnasimha's beautiful queen Padmini , but most modern historians have rejected

8249-477: The geographic boundaries of the normal portolan to include a larger swathe of Atlantic ocean, including many Atlantic islands , real and mythical, a longer stretch of the west African coast to the south, the Baltic Sea in the north and the Caspian Sea in the east. The central focus on the Mediterranean remained throughout and the scale rarely changed. The distinction between the Majorcan and Italian school

8362-509: The head of Jalaluddin was paraded on a spear in his camp before being sent to Awadh . Over the next two days, Alauddin formed a provisional government at Kara. He promoted the existing Amirs to the rank of Maliks , and appointed his close friends as the new Amirs . At that time, there were heavy rains, and the Ganga and the Yamuna rivers were flooded. But Alauddin made preparations for

8475-547: The invaders, he and other soldiers in his unit were killed in the battle. Qutlugh Khwaja was also seriously wounded, forcing the Mongols to retreat. Around the same time, Alauddin turned his attention towards the present-day state of Rajasthan to subdue the Rajput kingdoms for a secure base to Gujarat and Malwa and for further expeditions in the South. In 1299 CE, Alauddin besieged the fortress of Jaisalmer ruled by Bhatis at

8588-510: The journey, falls sleep or for any other reason he separates from his companions, he will often hear the voices of devils, similar to the voices of his companions, often calling him by his own name. In this way, the devils take him through the desert to a fro such that the traveler cannot find his companions. A thousand stories are known about this desert. The Anatolian Beyliks , a group of Turkic principalities in Anatolia are also depicted, in

8701-551: The leaders of the mutiny near Jalore. After Nusrat Khan was killed during the siege, Alauddin personally took charge of the siege operations, and conquered the fort in July 1301. During the Ranthambore campaign, Alauddin faced three unsuccessful rebellions . To suppress any future rebellions, he set up an intelligence and surveillance system, instituted a total prohibition in Delhi, established laws to prevent his nobles from networking with each other, and confiscated wealth from

8814-488: The loot to him there. However, Alauddin marched directly to Kara with all the wealth. Jalaluddin's advisors such as Ahmad Chap recommended intercepting Alauddin at Chanderi, but Jalaluddin had faith in his nephew. He returned to Delhi, believing that Alauddin would carry the wealth from Kara to Delhi. After reaching Kara, Alauddin sent a letter of apology to the Sultan and expressed concern that his enemies may have poisoned Sultan's mind against him during his absence. He requested

8927-526: The loyal nobles. Alauddin then entered the city, where a number of nobles and officials accepted his authority. On 21 October 1296, Alauddin was formally proclaimed as the Sultan in Delhi. Initially, Alauddin consolidated power by making generous grants and endowments and appointing many people to government positions. He balanced the power between the officers appointed by the Mamluks , the ones appointed by Jalaluddin and his own appointees. He also increased

9040-471: The main difficulty affecting his reign. He also had to face talk of conspiracies at his court. After some initial conspiracies and Hindu revolts in rural areas during the early period of his reign, he struck the root of the problem by introducing reforms that also aimed at ensuring support of his army and food supply to his capital. He took away all landed properties of his courtiers and nobles and cancelled revenue assignments which were henceforth controlled by

9153-412: The new governor of Kara in 1291. Malik Chajju's former Amirs (subordinate nobles) at Kara considered Jalaluddin as a weak and ineffective ruler and instigated Alauddin to usurp the throne of Delhi. This, combined with his unhappy domestic life, made Alauddin determined to dethrone Jalaluddin. While instigating Alauddin to revolt against Jalaluddin, Malik Chajju's supporters emphasized that he needed

9266-665: The news spread in towns and villages that he was recruiting soldiers while distributing gold. Many people, from both military and non-military backgrounds, joined him. By the time he reached Badaun, he had a 56,000-strong cavalry and a 60,000-strong infantry. At Baran, Alauddin was joined by seven powerful Jalaluddin nobles who had earlier opposed him. These nobles were Tajul Mulk Kuchi, Malik Abaji Akhur-bek, Malik Amir Ali Diwana, Malik Usman Amir-akhur, Malik Amir Khan, Malik Umar Surkha, and Malik Hiranmar. Alauddin gave each of them 30 to 50 mann s of gold, and each of their soldiers 300 silver tanka s (hammered coins). Alauddin's march to Delhi

9379-539: The next few years, Alauddin successfully fended off the Mongol invasions from the Chagatai Khanate , at Jaran-Manjur (1297–1298), Sivistan (1298), Kili (1299), Delhi (1303), and Amroha (1305). In 1306, his forces achieved a decisive victory against the Mongols near the Ravi riverbank , and later ransacked the Mongol territories in present-day Afghanistan . The military commanders that successfully led his army against

9492-455: The officers, elephants, and wealth that Alauddin had left at Kara. Alauddin appointed Ala-ul Mulk as the kotwal of Delhi and placed all the non-Turkic municipal employees under his charge. Since Ala-ul Mulk had become very obese , the governorship of Kara was entrusted to Nusrat Khan, who had become unpopular in Delhi because of the confiscations. In the winter of 1297, the Mongols led by

9605-412: The other hand, some scholars have embraced the hypothesis first forwarded by A.E. Nordenskiöld , that the surviving charts are misleading, that the earliest Genoese maps were just faithful copies of a conjectured prototype, now lost, composed around 1300 by an unknown Majorcan cosmographer, possibly with the involvement of Ramon Llull . An intermediary position acknowledges Genoese priority, but insists

9718-475: The other southern kingdoms, which had accumulated a huge amount of wealth, having been shielded from the foreign armies that had ransacked northern India. In late 1309, he sent Malik Kafur to ransack the Kakatiya capital Warangal . Helped by Ramachandra of Devagiri, Kafur entered the Kakatiya territory in January 1310, ransacking towns and villages on his way to Warangal. After a month-long siege of Warangal ,

9831-403: The plotting by compass of navigational routes. Both Majorca and Genoa have laid claim for the invention of the portolan chart, and it is unlikely this will ever be resolved. Few charts have survived to the modern day. The Carta Pisana portolan chart, made at the end of the 13th century (1275–1300), is the oldest surviving nautical chart . The earliest extant ones, from the first half of

9944-418: The practice of punishing wives and children for the crimes of men started with this incident in Delhi. In 1299, the Chagatai ruler Duwa sent a Mongol force led by Qutlugh Khwaja to conquer Delhi. In the ensuing Battle of Kili , Alauddin personally led the Delhi forces, but his general Zafar Khan attacked the Mongols without waiting for his orders. Although Zafar Khan managed to inflict heavy casualties on

10057-602: The princes and rulers of the Spanish mainland and other countries. The maps made in Majorca were easy to recognize by their brightly colored illustrations of significant geographical features and portraits of foreign rulers. The first known Majorcan map was made by Angelino Dulcert in 1339. Even in this early work, all the distinguishing features of the Majorcan Cartographic School were present. Dulcert made precise, colorful drawings that showed all

10170-633: The protector of the weaker section of the rural society. However, while the cultivators were free from the demands of the landowners, the high taxes imposed by the state meant a cultivator had "barely enough for carrying on his cultivation and his food requirements." To enforce these land and agrarian reforms, Alauddin set up a strong and efficient revenue administration system. His government recruited many accountants, collectors and agents. These officials were well-paid but were subject to severe punishment if found to be taking bribes. Account books were audited and even small discrepancies were punished. The effect

10283-911: The region labelled Turqhia ( Turkey ). The caption next to the seated ruler in Anatolia reads: Asia Minor also called Turkey, where there are many cities and castles. Numerous Turkic principalities appear, with a variety of flags, but very little prominence is given to the Orthodox princes of the Byzantine Empire , although several Byzantine cities appear with the Byzantine imperial flag ( [REDACTED] ), or Trebizond ( [REDACTED] ). The Christian kingdom of Cilician Armenia appears heavily fortified within green walls, with its ports and flags ( [REDACTED] , [REDACTED] ) clearly visible. The land of "Gog i Magog" ( Gog and Magog ) appear in

10396-523: The south, at the tip of India, appears the " King of Colombo " with a Christian flag ( [REDACTED] ). He was identified as Christian due to the early Saint Thomas Christianity there (since at least the 8th century), and the Catholic mission there under Jordan Catala since 1329. His caption reads: Here rules the king of Colombo , a Christian. Jordan, Christian missionary to Colombo from 1329, who wrote "Book of Marvels" ( Mirabilia descripta , 1340),

10509-516: The southern Yadava kingdom in the Deccan region, as well as about the routes leading to their capital Devagiri . Therefore, he shrewdly surrendered the loot from Bhilsa to Jalaluddin to win Sultan's confidence, while withholding the information on the Yadava kingdom. A pleased Jalaluddin gave him the office of Ariz-i Mamalik (Minister of War), and also made him the governor of Awadh . In addition,

10622-468: The state of the known world. They also provide information to sailors on tides and how to tell time at night. The four remaining leaves make up the actual map, with Jerusalem located close to the centre; two depict the Orient; the remaining two show Europe, along with North and West Africa. The map is around 1.3 m (14 sq ft) in size. It shows illustrations of many cities—Christian cities with

10735-514: The strength of the Sultanate's army, and gifted every soldier the salary of a year and a half in cash. Of Alauddin's first year as the Sultan, chronicler Ziauddin Barani wrote that it was the happiest year that the people of Delhi had ever seen. At this time, Alauddin could not exercise his authority over all of Jalaluddin's former territories. In the Punjab region , his authority was limited to

10848-472: The throne, requesting him to march from Multan to Delhi. However, Arkali refused to come to her aid. Alauddin resumed his march to Delhi in the second week of October 1296, when the Yamuna river subsided. When he reached Siri , Ruknuddin led an army against him. However, a section of Ruknuddin's army defected to Alauddin at midnight. A dejected Ruknuddin then retreated and escaped to Multan with his mother and

10961-580: The time under Jait Singh I. Following a long siege and due to the dearth of food and resources, eventually, the besieged Rajputs under the command of Mularaja performed Saka where the women committed Jauhar and the men fought until death. Thus, Alauddin successfully penetrated into territories of the Bhattis. After the conquest of Jaisalmer, it remained under the Khalji's for few more years. In 1301, Alauddin ordered Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to invade Ranthambore , whose king Hammiradeva had granted asylum to

11074-589: The top right corner. Its king is mounted on a horse, followed by a procession. Next to it appears Alexander's Gate, showing Alexander, the Antichrist , and mechanical trumpeters. The Khan Kebek , Mongol ruler of the Chagatai Khanate is depicted with the following caption: Here reigns the King Chabech ( Kebek ), lord of the Medeja [Media] Empire. He resides at Emalech ( Almaliq ). His cities appear with

11187-602: The topographical details including rivers, lakes, mountains, etc. The notes written in Latin described the map. The most famous cartographers from the Majorcan school were Jews. Abraham Cresques also known as, Cresques the Jew, was appointed as a Master of Maps and Compasses by John I of Aragon . The money he got for his appointment was used to build baths for Jews in Palma . In 1374 and 1375 Abraham and his son Jehuda worked on

11300-715: The truth, he will proclaim that he is Christ, the living son of God. It is said that he will rebuild the Temple. In the top corner is Alexander the Great ( "Allexandri" ) fighting the devil. Beyond is the ocean ("Mare Oceanis"), without mention of Japan . Majorcan cartographic school " Majorcan cartographic school " is the term coined by historians to refer to the collection of predominantly Jewish cartographers , cosmographers and navigational instrument -makers and some Christian associates that flourished in Majorca in

11413-581: Was Mecia de Vildestes. An outstanding map by Vildestes dated 1413 is proudly featured at the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris. Anti-Jewish persecutions brought the end to the famous school of cartography at Majorca. (Timeline derived from ca:Llista cronològica de cartògrafs portolans mallorquins ) Alauddin Khalji Alauddin Khalji ( Persian : علاء الدین خلجی ; r.  1296–1316 ), born Ali Gurshasp ,

11526-451: Was a ruler from the Khalji dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate in the Indian subcontinent . Alauddin instituted a number of significant administrative changes in India, related to revenues , price controls , and society . He also successfully fended off several Mongol invasions of India . Alauddin was a nephew and a son-in-law of his predecessor Jalaluddin . When Jalaluddin became

11639-483: Was both large landowners and small-scale cultivators were fearful of missing out on paying their assessed taxes. Alauddin's government imposed the jizya tax on its non-Muslim subjects, and his Muslim subjects were obligated to contribute zakat . He also levied taxes on residences ( ghari ) and grazing ( chara'i ), which were not sanctioned by the Islamic law. In addition, Alauddin demanded four-fifths share of

11752-476: Was brought up by Jalaluddin after Shihabuddin's death. Both Alauddin and his younger brother Almas Beg married Jalaluddin's daughters. After Jalaluddin became the Sultan of Delhi, Alauddin was appointed as Amir-i-Tuzuk (equivalent to Master of ceremonies ), while Almas Beg was given the post of Akhur-beg (equivalent to Master of the Horse ). Alauddin married Jalaluddin's daughter, Malika-i-Jahan , long before

11865-497: Was called "lo Jueu buscoler" (the map Jew), or "el jueu de les bruixoles" (the compass Jew). Jehuda was ordered to move to Barcelona, where he continued his work, as a court cartographer. Later, he was invited to Portugal by Henry the Navigator . His maps were still made in Catalan (Majorca) traditions, and that's why he was called "Mestre Jacome de Malhorca". He was the first director of famous Nautical observatory at Sagres at

11978-548: Was confiscated. As a result of these confiscations, Nusrat Khan obtained a huge amount of cash for the royal treasury. Only three malik s from Jalaluddin's time were spared: Malik Qutbuddin Alavi, Malik Nasiruddin Rana, and Malik Amir Jamal Khalji. The rest of the older aristocrats were replaced with the new nobles, who were extremely loyal to Alauddin. Meanwhile, Ala-ul Mulk, who was Alauddin's governor at Kara, came to Delhi with all

12091-464: Was interrupted by the flooding of the Yamuna river. Meanwhile, in Delhi, Jalaluddin's widow Malka-i-Jahan appointed her youngest son Qadr Khan as the new king with the title Ruknuddin Ibrahim, without consulting the nobles. This irked Arkali Khan, her elder son and the governor of Multan . When Malika-i-Jahan heard that Jalaluddin's nobles had joined Alauddin, she apologized to Arkali and offered him

12204-481: Was probably the one institution from his reign that lasted the longest, surviving indeed into the nineteenth or even the twentieth century. From now on, the land tax ( kharaj or mal ) became the principal form in which the peasant's surplus was expropriated by the ruling class. Alauddin also eliminated the intermediary Hindu rural chiefs, and started collecting the kharaj directly from the cultivators. He did not levy any additional taxes on agriculture, and abolished

12317-474: Was probably the source of the information about Colombo in the Catalan Atlas. He mentions the earlier presence of the Saint Thomas Christians in India. The Mongol Il-Khanate ruler and his dominions are depicted in the area of Persia under the title "Rey del tauris" , after his capital city of Tabriz . The Ilkhanate flag also appears: [REDACTED] . The caption is only related to

12430-464: Was requested by Charles V of France , even though he expelled all the Jews from France in 1394. The Catalan Atlas is located now in Bibliothèque nationale de France . A few other Cresques maps were mentioned in inventories from Spain and France in late 1387. Jehuda Cresques continued his father's traditions. He was forced to convert to Christianity in 1391. His new name was Jacobus Ribes. He

12543-482: Was surrounded by tales from Old and New Testaments like the Garden of Eden , the crucifixion , Noah's Ark and others. The image of the caravan is accompanied by Marco Polo's travel account: You must know that those who wish to cross this desert remain and lodge for one whole week in a town named Lop, where they and their beasts can rest. Then they lay in all the provisions they need for seven months. A Catalan Atlas

12656-423: Was the main cause of the misunderstanding between Alauddin and his first wife. Once, while Alauddin and Mahru were together in a garden, Jalaluddin's daughter attacked Mahru out of jealousy. In response, Alauddin assaulted her. The incident was reported to Jalaluddin, but the Sultan did not take any action against Alauddin. Alauddin was not on good terms with his mother-in-law either, who wielded great influence over

12769-447: Was the most powerful ruler of his dynasty. Unlike the previous rulers of the Delhi Sultanate, who had largely relied on the pre-existing administrative set-up, Alauddin undertook large-scale reforms. After facing the Mongol invasions and several rebellions , he implemented several reforms to be able to maintain a large army and to weaken those capable of organizing a revolt against him. Barani also attributes Alauddin's revenue reforms to

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