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156-524: Catholic social teaching ( CST ) is an area of Catholic doctrine which is concerned with human dignity and the common good in society . It addresses oppression , the role of the state , subsidiarity , social organization , social justice , and wealth distribution . CST's foundations are considered to have been laid by Pope Leo XIII 's 1891 encyclical , Rerum novarum , which advocated distributism . Its roots can be traced to Catholic theologians such as Thomas Aquinas and Augustine of Hippo . CST

312-616: A hospice inside the Vatican. That building would be torn down in 1996 to make way for construction of the Domus Sanctae Marthae . Leo was a drinker of the cocaine -infused wine tonic Vin Mariani , a precursor drink to Coca-Cola . He awarded a Vatican gold medal to the wine's creator, Angelo Mariani , and also appeared on a poster endorsing it. Leo XIII was a semi-vegetarian . In 1903, he attributed his longevity to

468-483: A suburbicarian diocese , Pecci continually refused due to his preference for Perugia. It is possible that the archbishop did not share the views of the Cardinal Secretary of State , Giacomo Antonelli . It is not true that Pius IX deliberately sent him to Perugia as a way of exiling him from Rome simply because Pecci's views were perceived to be liberalistic and conciliatory, as opposed to the conservatism of

624-419: A "most sacred law of nature" that humans have the right to private ownership, inheritable property, and providing for their children "all that is needful to enable them to keep themselves decently"; the "main tenet of socialism, community of goods, must be utterly rejected". He disputed a central idea of communism: that class war was inevitable, and rich and poor were inexorably driven to conflict. Leo stressed

780-589: A Quranic Welfare State individuals are free to work and live without the pressures faced by the threat of poverty, and thus can obey God's Laws as free individuals, contributing as part of a unified brotherhood working towards achieving humanity's full potential. Elaborations on dignity have been made by many scholars of Islam, such as Mohammad-Ali Taskhiri , head of the Islamic Culture and Communications Organization in Iran , in 1994. According to Taskhiri, dignity

936-428: A basis for international law. They said that using dignity as the basis for laws was a " natural law approach." The natural law approach, they said, depends upon "exercises of faith." McDougal, Lasswell, and Chen observed: The abiding difficulty with the natural law approach is that its assumptions, intellectual procedures, and modalities of justification can be employed equally by the proponents of human dignity and

1092-415: A certain inward and toned-down but yet translucent and perceptible power of self-assertion: the dignified type of character is chary of emphatic activity rather than sullenly passive, perhaps impassive rather than impassible, patient rather than anxiously defensive, and devoid but not incapable of aggressiveness. Human dignity can be violated in multiple ways. The main categories of violations are: Some of

1248-729: A cholera epidemic in Rome, he assisted Cardinal Giuseppe Antonio Sala in his duties as overseer of all the city hospitals. In 1836, he received his doctorate in theology and doctorates of civil and Canon Law in Rome. On 14 February 1837, Pope Gregory XVI appointed the 27-year-old Pecci as personal prelate even before he was ordained a priest on 31 December 1837 by the Cardinal Vicar Carlo Odescalchi . He celebrated his first Mass with his priest brother Giuseppe. Shortly thereafter, Gregory XVI appointed Pecci as Papal legate (provincial administrator) to Benevento ,

1404-450: A course between individualism and collectivism by locating the responsibilities and privileges of social life in the smallest unit of organization at which they will function. Larger social bodies (the state or others) are permitted and required to intervene only when smaller ones cannot carry out the tasks themselves. Such intervention must be temporary, empowering the smaller social body to carry out such functions on its own. Solidarity

1560-441: A free market, will inevitably succeed in bringing about greater justice and inclusiveness in the world. This opinion, which has never been confirmed by the facts, expresses a crude and naïve trust in the goodness of those wielding economic power and in the sacralized workings of the prevailing economic system. In his second encyclical, Laudato si' , Francis makes a "biting critique of consumerism and irresponsible development with

1716-539: A great affection for France, and feared that the Third Republic would take advantage of the fact that most French Catholics were Royalists to abolish the Concordat of 1801 . At the advisement of Cardinal Rampolla , he urged French Catholics to "rally" to the republic. Leo's decision upset many French monarchists, who felt they were being forced to betray their king for their faith. Ultimately, this move split

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1872-410: A human being without any distinction of race, nationality, religion, political opinion, or social class. On the other hand these proclamations are contradicted in practice. How can these solemn affirmations be reconciled with the widespread attacks on human life and the refusal to accept those who are weak, needy, elderly, or just conceived? These attacks go directly against respect for life; they threaten

2028-525: A human person", and also links animal welfare to human dignity: "it is contrary to human dignity to cause animals to suffer or die needlessly". The Catholic Church proclaims the equal dignity of all people, regardless of their living conditions or qualities. This dignity "comes from the love of the Creator" for humans that are created in his image; this dignity was further elevated by the incarnation and resurrection of Christ, since it caused humans to share

2184-433: A lower caste , and more often by women than men. Female genital mutilation (FGM) has been considered by Pope Francis I to be an example of a practice that violates human dignity. The movie The Magic Christian depicts a wealthy man ( Peter Sellers ) and his son ( Ringo Starr ) who test the limits of dignity by forcing people to perform self-degrading acts for money. The Simpsons episode " Homer vs. Dignity " has

2340-633: A plea for swift and unified global action" to combat environmental degradation and climate change . According to Daniel Schwindt, "[S]ome writers seem to suggest (as is common among persons who've never taken the time to read the encyclicals themselves), that Pope Francis' Laudato Si represents some new venture on the part of the Church—;a departure from its customary range of subject matter." But, Schwindt argues, Francis' approach to climate change, however, continues that of his predecessor. Pope Benedict XVI wrote, The order of creation demands that

2496-657: A pontifical charter from Pope Leo XIII founded the Catholic University of America , establishing the national university of the Catholic Church in the United States. American newspapers criticized Pope Leo because they claimed that he was attempting to gain control of American public schools. One cartoonist drew Leo as a fox unable to reach grapes that were labeled for American schools; the caption read "Sour grapes!" In 1892, Pope Leo XIII opened

2652-404: A priority be given to those human activities that do not cause irreversible damage to nature, but which instead are woven into the social, cultural, and religious fabric of the different communities. In this way, a sober balance is achieved between consumption and the sustainability of resources. Francis' apostolic exhortation Gaudete et exsultate emphasized the call to perfect charity, based on

2808-638: A rapprochement between Paris and St. Petersburg. Under Otto von Bismarck , the anti-Catholic Kulturkampf in Prussia led to significant restrictions on the Catholic Church in the German Empire , including the Jesuits Law of 1872 . During Leo's papacy, compromises were informally reached and the anti-Catholic attacks subsided. The Centre Party in Germany represented Catholic interests and

2964-594: A similar plot. A philosopher of the Renaissance, Pico della Mirandola , granted dignity to ideas and to beings. In his " Oration on the Dignity of Man ", he told hostile clerics about the dignity of the liberal arts and about the dignity and the glory of angels . His comments implied the dignity of philosophers. This oration is commonly seen as one of the central texts of the Renaissance , intimately tied with

3120-476: A thing is an end in itself only if it has a moral dimension; if it represents a choice between right and wrong. In Kant's words: " Morality , and humanity as capable of it, is that which alone has dignity." Specifically with respect to human dignity, which his writings brought from relative obscurity in Western philosophy into a focal point for philosophers, Kant held that "free will" is essential; human dignity

3276-403: A variety of European political crises, it was generally believed that the long papacy of the conservative Pius IX led many of the cardinals to vote for Pecci because his age and health created the expectation that his papacy would be somewhat brief. Following the conclave, John Henry Newman is reported to have said, "In the successor of Pius IX recognize a depth of thought, a tenderness of heart,

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3432-506: A winning simplicity, and a power answering to the name of Leo, which prevent me from lamenting that Pius is no longer here". In the conclave, Pecci was perceived as the main " papabile " candidate; however, Cardinals Flavio Chigi and Tommaso Martinelli were also considered as potential candidates. But some cardinals who opposed Pecci, and were alarmed at the rising votes he was securing, banded together to cast their ballots for Cardinal Alessandro Franchi ; however, Franchi secured no votes in

3588-465: Is a firm, persevering determination to commit oneself to the common good , not merely "vague compassion or shallow distress at the misfortunes of others". Flowing from faith, it is fundamental to the Christian view of social and political organization. Each person is connected to (and dependent on) all humanity, collectively and individually. Human dignity The content of contemporary dignity

3744-506: Is a state to which all humans have equal potential , but which can only be actualized by living a life pleasing to the eyes of God. This is in keeping with the 1990 Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam , which states that "True faith is the guarantee for enhancing such [basic human] dignity along the path to human perfection". Ultimately, the Buddhist understanding of human dignity

3900-503: Is a violation of dignity even in the absence of more direct violations. Relative poverty , on the other hand, is a violation because the cumulative experience of not being able to afford the same clothes, entertainment, social events, education, or other features of typical life in that society results in subtle humiliation; social rejection; marginalization; and consequently, a diminished self-respect. Another example of violation of human dignity, especially for women in developing countries,

4056-536: Is also derived from the Bible and cultures of the ancient Near East . According to Pope John Paul II , the foundation of social justice "rests on the threefold cornerstones of human dignity, solidarity and subsidiarity". According to Pope Benedict XVI , its purpose "is simply to help purify reason and to contribute, here and now, to the acknowledgment and attainment of what is just ... [The church] has to play her part through rational argument and she has to reawaken

4212-439: Is best understood as an essentially contested concept . As he argues, "it seems that it is this very nature of the concept that has allowed, on the one hand, human rights to receive such international acceptance as a theoretical enterprise and, on the other hand, has led the concept to be constantly challenged by different cultures worldwide." Human dignity is a central consideration of Christian philosophy . The Catechism of

4368-531: Is called by grace to a covenant with his Creator, to offer him a response of faith and love that no other creature can give." Subsidiarity in Catholic social thought originated with Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler , Bishop of Mainz in the mid-to-late 19th century, and was incorporated into Pope Pius XI's encyclical Quadragesimo anno : Just as it is gravely wrong to take from individuals what they can accomplish by their own initiative and industry and give it to

4524-477: Is derived from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, summarized in the principle that every human being has the right to human dignity. In Article 1, it is stipulated that 'All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. The English word "dignity", attested from

4680-473: Is explicitly anti-capitalist , with John Paul II stressing the incompatibility of Catholic doctrine with capitalism: Catholic social doctrine is not a surrogate for capitalism. In fact, although decisively condemning "socialism", the church, since Leo XIII's Rerum Novarum , has always distanced itself from capitalistic ideology, holding it responsible for grave social injustices. In Quadragesimo Anno Pius XI, for his part, used clear and strong words to stigmatize

4836-408: Is intrinsically bound in the question of whether human beings are truly equal, which itself is bound in the question of whether human beings are a distinct class from all things, including animals, or vary from other things only by degree. Adler wrote that the only sense in which it is true that all human beings are equal is that they are equally distinct from animals. "The dignity of man," he said, "is

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4992-653: Is lack of sanitation . Having no access to toilets leaves currently about 1 billion people of the world with no choice other than to defecation in the open , which has been declared by the Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations as an affront to personal dignity. Human dignity is also violated by the practice of employing people in India for " manual scavenging " of human excreta from unsanitary toilets – usually by people of

5148-562: Is not a definitional truth that human beings have human status." According to Arthur Schopenhauer , dignity is opinion of others about our worth and subjective definition of dignity is our fear from this opinion of others. Karl Marx 's views on dignity were complex, and debates over the role of dignity in his thought relate to the question of whether Marx's critique of capitalism had a moral dimension. Marx wrote positively about dignity in his early work , and suggested it could underpin his theory of alienation ; however he elsewhere rejected

5304-411: Is rarely defined outright in political , legal , and scientific discussions. International proclamations have thus far left dignity undefined, and scientific commentators, such as those arguing against genetic research and algeny , cite dignity as a reason but are ambiguous about its application. Aurel Kolnai states: Dignity also tends to connote the features of self-contained serenity, of

5460-478: Is related to human agency, the ability of humans to choose their own actions. Philosophers of the late 20th century who have written significant works on the subject of dignity include Mortimer Adler and Alan Gewirth . Gewirth's views on human dignity are typically compared and contrasted with Kant's, for like Kant he theorizes that human dignity arises from agency. But while sharing Kant's view that rights arise from dignity, Gewirth focused far more than Kant on

5616-471: Is rooted in the idea that people are able to choose the path of self-perfection. The state of self-perfection, a condition of fully developed courage, wisdom and compassion, is described as Buddhahood or enlightenment. The idea that all people—all life, in fact—have this potential is expressed by the concept, stressed particularly in the Mahayana tradition, that all living beings possess Buddha nature. In

5772-522: Is the fundamental principle of the German constitution . Article 1, paragraph 1 reads: "Human dignity shall be inviolable. To respect and protect it shall be the duty of all state authority." Human dignity is thus mentioned even before the right to life . This has a significant impact on German law-making and jurisdiction in both serious and trivial items: The word 'dignity' is mentioned in the Preamble to

5928-514: Is the result of ideologies which defend the absolute autonomy of the marketplace and financial speculation. Consequently, they reject the right of states, charged with vigilance for the common good, to exercise any form of control. A new tyranny is thus born, invisible and often virtual, which unilaterally and relentlessly imposes its own laws and rules. Francis has warned about the "idolatry of money": [S]ome people continue to defend trickle-down theories which assume that economic growth, encouraged by

6084-435: Is vital that government leaders and financial leaders take heed and broaden their horizons, working to ensure that all citizens have dignified work, education and healthcare." He affirmed "the right of states" to intervene in the economy to promote "the common good": While the earnings of a minority are growing exponentially, so too is the gap separating the majority from the prosperity enjoyed by those happy few. This imbalance

6240-526: Is why she offers all people what she possesses as her characteristic attribute: a global vision of man and of the human race. The May 1971 apostolic letter Octogesima adveniens addressed the challenge of urbanization and urban poverty, stressing the personal responsibility of Christians to respond to injustice. For the tenth anniversary of the Second Vatican Council on 26 October 1975, Paul issued Evangelii nuntiandi ( Evangelization in

6396-880: The Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church , a work entrusted to the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace , was another milestone of John Paul's papacy. Pope Benedict XVI 's 2009 encyclical Caritas in veritate added perspectives to social teaching (including the relationships with charity and truth), and suggested the need for a strong "world political authority" to deal with humanity's most-pressing challenges and problems. This concept has been controversial, particularly among right-of-center U.S. Catholic thinkers who are suspicious or disdainful of supranational and international organizations such as

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6552-562: The College of Cardinals , as Cardinal-Priest of San Crisogono . Pope Gregory XVI originally intended to name him as a cardinal; however, his death in 1846 put pause to that idea while the events that characterized the beginning of the papacy of Pius IX further postponed the idea of Pecci's elevation. By the time that Gregory XVI died, Leopold II repeatedly asked that Pecci be named as a cardinal. While Pius IX strongly desired having Pecci as close to Rome as possible, and repeatedly offered him

6708-550: The First Vatican Council , was to take place in the Vatican per Pope Pius IX . Pecci was likely well informed since the pope named his brother Giuseppe to help prepare the event. During the 1870s, in his last years in Perugia, Pecci addressed the role of the church in modern society several times, defining the church as the mother of material civilization because it upheld human dignity of working people, opposed

6864-805: The Portuguese authorities . A papal rescript (20 April 1888) condemned the Irish Plan of Campaign and all clerical involvement in it as well as boycotting, followed in June by the papal encyclical "Saepe Nos" that was addressed to all the Irish bishops. Of outstanding significance, not least for the English-speaking world, was Leo's encyclical Apostolicae curae on the invalidity of the Anglican orders, published in 1896. In 1899, he declared Bede

7020-616: The United Nations . The concept was developed in a 2011 note from the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace , "Towards reforming the International Financial and Monetary Systems in the context of World Political Authority". In Caritas in veritate , Benedict set Paul VI's social encyclical Populorum progressio as a new point of reference for Catholic social thought in the 21st century. The scholar Thomas D. Williams wrote "by honouring Populorum progressio with

7176-536: The World Medical Association issued the Declaration of Helsinki . The Declaration says at article 11, "It is the duty of physicians who participate in medical research to protect the life, health, dignity, integrity , right to self-determination , privacy , and confidentiality of personal information of research subjects." The Council of Europe invoked dignity in its effort to govern

7332-456: The post–Second World War period , attention turned to the problems of social and economic development and international relations. Pope John XXIII released Mater et magistra , subtitled "Christianity and Social Progress", on 15 May 1961. The encyclical expanded the church's social doctrine to cover relations between rich and poor nations , examining the obligation of rich countries to assist poor countries while respecting their cultures, and

7488-542: The rights to property and free enterprise , opposing both socialism and laissez-faire capitalism . With that encyclical, he became popularly titled as the "Social Pope" and the "Pope of the Workers", also having created the foundations for modern thinking in the social doctrines of the Catholic Church , influencing the thoughts of his successors. He influenced the Mariology of the Catholic Church and promoted both

7644-464: The rosary and the scapular . Upon his election, he immediately sought to revive Thomism , the theological system of Thomas Aquinas , desiring to refer to it as the official theological and philosophical foundation for the Catholic Church. As a result, he sponsored the Editio Leonina in 1879. Leo XIII is particularly remembered for his belief that pastoral activity in political sociology

7800-466: The worth of human beings. In general, the term has various functions and meanings depending on how the term is used and on the context. In ordinary modern usage, the word denotes " respect " and " status ", and it is often used to suggest that someone is not receiving a proper degree of respect , or even that they are failing to treat themselves with proper self-respect. There is also a long history of special philosophical use of this term. However, it

7956-511: The "service of your brothers and sisters" (No. 14) and the church's social-teaching tradition. No official canon of principles or documents exists. Human dignity is a principle of Catholic social thought. According to the church's catechism , "Being in the image of God, the human individual possesses the dignity of a person, who is not just something, but someone. He is capable of self-knowledge, of self-possession, and of freely giving himself and entering into communion with other persons. And he

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8112-590: The 18-year-old Vincenzo decided in favour of secular clergy , and Giuseppe entered the Jesuit order. Vincenzo studied at the Academia dei Nobili , mainly diplomacy and law. In 1834, he gave a student presentation, attended by several cardinals , on papal judgments. For his presentation, he received awards for academic excellence and gained the attention of Vatican officials. Cardinal Secretary of State Luigi Lambruschini introduced him to Vatican congregations. During

8268-589: The 20th century by his successors. In his Memoirs , Emperor Wilhelm II discussed the "friendly, trustful relationship that existed between me and Pope Leo XIII." During Wilhelm's third visit to Leo: "It was of interest to me that the Pope said on this occasion that Germany must be the sword of the Catholic Church. I remarked that the old Roman Empire of the German nation no longer existed, and that conditions had changed. But he adhered to his words." Leo XIII possessed

8424-468: The 20th century, dignity became an issue for physicians and medical researchers. It has been invoked in questions of the bioethics of human genetic engineering , human cloning , and end-of-life care (particularly in such situations as the Terri Schiavo case , a controversial situation in which life support was withdrawn from a woman diagnosed in a persistent vegetative state ). In June 1964,

8580-726: The 8th century. Similarly, many of his policies were oriented towards mitigating the loss of the Papal States in an attempt to overcome the loss of temporal power, but nonetheless continuing the Roman Question . After his death in 1903, he was buried in the Vatican Grottoes before his remains were later transferred in 1924 to the Basilica of Saint John Lateran . Born in Carpineto Romano , near Rome, he

8736-710: The Americas. Pius IX (Leo's predecessor) had seen the end of church control of the Papal States , and become isolated in the Vatican. Pius had railed against the unification of Italy during the Risorgimento , which consumed the last years of his pontificate, and lost the faith of the Romans, who voted to join the newly integrated Italy in 1870. Scholars have written that Leo, when he became pope without being temporal ruler of three million mainly-rural subjects, saw that

8892-455: The Apostle , Pius IX (his immediate predecessor) and John Paul II . He is well known for his intellectualism and his attempts to define the position of the Catholic Church with regard to modern thinking. In his famous 1891 encyclical Rerum novarum , Pope Leo outlined the rights of workers to a fair wage , safe working conditions , and the formation of trade unions , while affirming

9048-452: The Catholic Church insists that the "dignity of the human person is rooted in his or her creation in the image and likeness of God ". "All human beings", says the Church , "in as much as they are created in the image of God, have the dignity of a person." The catechism states that "the right to the exercise of freedom belongs to everyone because it is inseparable from his or her dignity as

9204-417: The Catholic Church back to the mainstream of European life. Considered a great diplomat, he managed to improve relations with Russia , Germany , France , Britain and other countries. Pope Leo XIII was able to reach several agreements in 1896 that resulted in better conditions for the faithful and additional appointments of bishops. During the fifth cholera pandemic in 1891, he ordered the construction of

9360-478: The Constitution of India : WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and

9516-687: The Ethical Implications of Cloning in 1997. The opinion states, "the cloning of human beings, because of the problems it raises concerning the dignity of the human person, the equilibrium of the human species and life in society, is ethically unacceptable and must be prohibited." Sweden's The Genetic Integrity Act (2006:351), The Biobanks in Medical Care Act (2002:297), Health and Medical Services (Professional Activities) Act (1998:531), and The Health and Medical Services Act (1982:763) all express concern for "the integrity of

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9672-749: The French Church politically and decreased its influence in France. Leo's move also failed to prevent the Concordant's eventual repealment, as it was later abrogated by the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State . In the light of a climate hostile to the Catholic Church, Leo continued the policies of Pius IX towards Italy without major modifications. In his relations with

9828-521: The Gospel of Jesus", and asked theologians to reflect this in their work. He emphasized the importance of mercy, declaring 2016 an Extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy . From 8 December 2015 to 20 November 2016, Francis wanted church members "to place the sacrament of God's mercy—which is the sacrament of penance and reconciliation—into the central pastoral life for the Church." In his apostolic exhortation Evangelii gaudium , Francis said: "It

9984-511: The Italian state took over Catholic schools, Pecci, fearing for his theological seminary, simply added all secular topics from other schools and opened the seminary to non-theologians. The new government also levied taxes on the Catholic Church and issued legislation according to which all episcopal or papal utterances were to be approved by the government before their publication. On 8 December 1869, an ecumenical council , which became known as

10140-478: The Italian state, Leo continued the Papacy's self-imposed incarceration-in-the-Vatican stance and continued to insist that Italian Catholics should not vote in Italian elections or hold any elected office. In his first consistory in 1879, he elevated his older brother, Giuseppe , to the cardinalate. He had to defend the freedom of the church against what Catholics considered Italian persecution and discrimination in

10296-466: The Modern World ). In it, he said that combating injustice was an essential component of modern evangelism. Pope John Paul II continued his predecessors' work of developing Catholic social doctrine. Of particular importance were his 1981 encyclical, Laborem exercens , and Centesimus annus in 1991. On one hand there is a growing moral sensitivity alert to the value of every individual as

10452-596: The Papacy Ludwig von Pastor . He also refounded the Vatican Observatory "so that everyone might see clearly that the Church and her Pastors are not opposed to true and solid science, whether human or divine, but that they embrace it, encourage it, and promote it with the fullest possible devotion." Leo XIII brought normality back to the Catholic Church after the tumultuous years of Pius IX. Leo's intellectual and diplomatic skills helped regain much of

10608-476: The Roman military term subsidium . Beabout writes, "the role of the subsidium (literally, to sit behind) is to lend help and support in case of need." In Beabout's etymology, subsidiarity indicates that the higher social unit ought to "sit behind" the lower one to lend help and support as needed. According to another etymological interpretation, subsidiarity means "to 'seat' ('sid') a service down ('sub') as close to

10764-689: The Venerable a Doctor of the Church . In 1880, the Santa Maria de Montserrat Abbey in Catalonia celebrated 1000 years of existence. On 11 September 1881, to coincide with the Catalan national day, Leo XIII proclaimed the Virgin of Montserrat to be Patron of Catalonia. This had implications beyond the purely religious sphere, influencing the development of Catalan nationalism . Leo XIII welcomed

10920-524: The activities of Leo XIII that were important for the English-speaking world, he restored the Scottish hierarchy in 1878. The following year, on 12 May 1879, he raised to the rank of cardinal the convert theologian John Henry Newman , who would eventually be beatified by Pope Benedict XVI in 2010 and canonized by Pope Francis in 2019. In British India , too, Leo established a Catholic hierarchy in 1886 and regulated some longstanding conflicts with

11076-486: The administration of the Perugia see until 1880. As soon as he was elected to the papacy, Leo XIII worked to encourage understanding between the church and the modern world. When he firmly reasserted the scholastic doctrine that science and religion coexist, he required the study of Thomas Aquinas and opened the Vatican Secret Archives to qualified researchers, among whom was the noted historian of

11232-457: The alleviation of local social concerns. Members of the church became involved in worker-support campaigns, for example a campaign for cotton workers. Financial and moral support for a strike which began on 22 September 1909 in Bergamo (known as the "fifty-day strike") was provided by Bishop Giacomo Maria Radini-Tedeschi and Father Angelo Roncalli (eventually to become Pope John XXIII ), who saw

11388-506: The area of education, expropriation and violation of Catholic Churches, legal measures against the church and acts of terrorism such as anticlerical groups attempting to throw the corpse of Pope Pius IX into the Tiber on 13 July 1881. The pope even considered moving his residence to Trieste or Salzburg , two cities in Austria , an idea that Emperor Franz Joseph I gently rejected. Among

11544-458: The broader context of the right common to all to use the goods of the whole creation: the right to private property is subordinated to the right to common use, to the fact that goods are meant for everyone." Many of these concepts were reiterated in Centesimus annus , issued on the 100th anniversary of Rerum novarum , and critiquing socialism and unfettered capitalism. The 2005 publication of

11700-422: The camerlengo. On 18 February 1878, the conclave assembled in Rome. Cardinal Pecci was elected on the third ballot and chose the name Leo XIII. He was crowned on 3 March 1878. During the conclave, he secured his election on the third scrutiny with 44 out of 61 votes, more than the requisite two-thirds majority. While the 1878 conclave was characterized by fewer political influences than in previous conclaves due to

11856-470: The cardinalate in late 1853, and in light of continuing earthquakes and floods, he donated all resources for the festivities of his elevation to the victims. Much of the public attention turned on the conflict between the Papal States and Italian nationalism , which aimed at the Papal States' annihilation to achieve the Unification of Italy . In the consistory of 19 December 1853, he was elevated to

12012-456: The cardinals created by the late pope intended to vote for Bilio to honor the man that elevated them in the first place, they feared that voting for an ultra-conservative could potentially evoke a veto from one of the European powers and stall the election more than was necessary. To that end, there had been early talks about Austria possibly vetoing Bilio; however, this never occurred. Before

12168-601: The cloned person and because permitting research on reproductive cloning would reflect a disregard for the respect due to the moral status of embryos." In 1984, France set up the National Consultative Committee for Ethics in the Life and Health Sciences (CCNE) to advise the government about the regulation of medical practices and research. In 1986, the CCNE said, "Respect for human dignity must guide both

12324-407: The comfort of the working classes". Leo elevated the family from the concepts of serfdom and economic interest (or collectivism) by giving its interests, moral authority and importance "at least equal rights with the State". The state would be guilty of a "pernicious error" if it exercised intimate control of a family. But "extreme necessity" should "be met by public aid" when a family was in need –

12480-480: The common good as a key requirement for prosperity; capitalism disregards it for the pursuit of profit, leading to exploitation and the erosion of moral limitations. Benedict was concerned about the role of charity in capitalism, criticizing capitalism for its indifference towards charity and for its discouraging respect for the interests of others in favour of one's own self-interest. He blamed capitalism for an increasing alienation and anomie in modern societies, citing

12636-442: The community, so also it is an injustice and at the same time a grave evil and disturbance of right order to assign to a greater and higher association what lesser and subordinate organizations can do. For every social activity ought of its very nature to furnish help to the members of the body social, and never destroy and absorb them. It was written forty years after Rerum novarum – like a number of modern social encyclicals, during

12792-413: The conclave, Cardinals Domenico Bartolini , Monaco, Bilio, Henry Edward Manning , Lorenzo Nina , and Franchi (proposed by Pecci's opponents) all agreed on supporting Pecci's candidacy, also determining that the next pope needed to be an Italian. Both Manning and Edward Henry Howard agreed to persuade the foreign cardinals to back Pecci's candidacy. Upon his election, he announced that he would assume

12948-540: The condition of the Catholic Church in that country . In Belgium, the school question was sharply debated between the Catholic majority and the liberal minority. Pecci encouraged the struggle for Catholic schools, but he was able to win the good will of the Court not only of the pious Queen Louise but also of King Leopold I , who was strongly liberal in his views. The new nuncio succeeded in uniting Catholics. At

13104-418: The constitution (by the bishops) covered a range of issues governing the relationship of social concerns and Christian action. It asserts the fundamental dignity of each person, declaring the church's solidarity with those who suffer and those who comfort the suffering: The joys and the hopes, the griefs and the anxieties of the people of this age, especially those who are poor or in any way afflicted, these are

13260-670: The declaration warns that treating a person to remove a genetic defect "could be contrary to human dignity." The Commentary that accompanies the declaration says that, as a consequence of the possibility of germ-line treatment, "it is the very dignity of the human race which is at stake." In 1996, the Government of Canada issued a report entitled "New Reproductive and Genetic Technologies". The report used "the principles of respect for human life and dignity" as its reason for recommending that various activities associated with genetic research and human reproduction be prohibited. The report said

13416-482: The development of knowledge and the limits or rules to be observed by research." The CCNE said that research on human embryos must be subject to "the rule of reason" and must have regard for "undefined dignity in its practical consequences." The CCNE insisted that, in research on human embryos, the ethical principles that should apply are "respecting human dignity" and respecting "the dignity of science." The National Council of Ethics of Portugal published its Opinion on

13572-568: The dignity and identity of all human beings and guarantee everyone, without discrimination, respect for their integrity and other rights and fundamental freedoms with regard to the application of biology and medicine." In 1998, the United Nations mentioned dignity in the UNESCO Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights . At Article 2, the declaration states, "Everyone has a right to respect for their dignity." At Article 24,

13728-623: The dignity of the human being as a person—a dignity that is not possessed by things." To Adler, failure to recognize the distinction challenged the right of humans to equal dignity and equal treatment. Dan Egonsson, followed by Roger Wertheimer, argued that while it is conventional for people to equate dignity with 'being human' (Egonsson's 'Standard Attitude', Wertheimer's 'Standard Belief'), people generally also import something other than mere humanness to their idea of dignity. Egonsson suggested that an entity must be both human and alive to merit an ascription of dignity, while Wertheimer states "it

13884-565: The early 13th century, comes from Latin concept of dignitas , variously translated as "worthiness" or "prestige", by way of French dignité . English-speakers often use the word "dignity" in proscriptive and cautionary ways: for example, in politics it can be used to critique the treatment of oppressed and vulnerable groups and peoples, but it has also been applied to cultures and sub-cultures , to religious beliefs and ideals, and even to animals used for food or research. "Dignity" also has descriptive meanings pertaining to

14040-603: The economy and a reform of the tax system to stimulate trade with the neighboring provinces. Pecci was first destined for Spoleto , a province of 100,000. On 17 July 1841, he was sent to Perugia with 200,000 inhabitants. His immediate concern was to prepare the province for a papal visitation in the same year. Pope Gregory XVI visited hospitals and educational institutions for several days, asking for advice and listing questions. The fight against corruption continued in Perugia , where Pecci investigated several incidents. When it

14196-474: The elevation of Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg (the later Ferdinand I of Bulgaria ) to Prince of Bulgaria in 1886. A fellow Catholic, whose wife was a member of the Italian House of Bourbon-Parma , the two had a lot in common. However, relations between the two degenerated when Ferdinand expressed his intention to allow his eldest son Crown Prince Boris (later Tsar Boris III ) to convert to Orthodoxy,

14352-562: The end of his mission, the King granted him the Grand Cordon in the Order of Leopold . In 1843, Pecci had been named papal assistant . From 1846 to 1877, he was considered a popular and successful Archbishop of Perugia . In 1847, after Pope Pius IX granted unlimited freedom for the press in the Papal States, Pecci, who had been highly popular in the first years of his episcopate, became

14508-562: The era of mass politics and industrialization, Catholic social teaching needed to account for "the social question": the social dislocation, economic suffering, and political turbulence which arose from modernization. Since the early 19th century, a number of Catholic thinkers responded to the revolutionary tide begun by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic era. A new synthesis of Catholic natural law primarily influenced by

14664-568: The excesses of industrialization and developed large-scale charities for the needy. In August 1877, on the death of Cardinal Filippo de Angelis , Pope Pius IX appointed him Camerlengo , which required him to reside in Rome. Reportedly, Pius IX is alleged to have said to Pecci: "Monsignor, I have decided to summon you to the Senate of the Church. I feel sure this will be the first act of my pontificate that you will not feel called upon to criticize". These comments were reported to have been said due to

14820-511: The fear of disapproval, poverty, hunger, death etc. these individuals held firm in their sense of right and wrong, which was in-line with Divine ordinances. "The right course is that on which one keeps his attitudes, ambitions and requirements subjected to the Divine Laws; and in this way leads a balanced and graceful life. Such a person has grasped the most trustworthy support which will never fail him" (Quran 31:22). Such individuals are given

14976-451: The final ballot that saw Pecci duly elected. Allegedly, those who were dedicated to thwarting his election were Cardinals Luigi Oreglia di Santo Stefano , Pietro Giannelli , Chigi, Lorenzo Ilarione Randi, Carlo Sacconi , Raffaele Monaco La Valletta , Luigi Amat di San Filippo e Sorso , and Johann Baptist Franzelin . It was also suggested that, before his death, Pius IX heavily favored Cardinal Luigi Bilio to succeed him, and while many of

15132-627: The growth of humanist philosophies. A philosopher of the Age of Enlightenment (18th century), Immanuel Kant held that there were things that should not be discussed in terms of value, and that these things could be said to have dignity. ' Value ' is necessarily relative, because the value of something depends on a particular observer's judgment of that thing. Things that are not relative – that are "ends in themselves", in Kant's terminology – are by extension beyond all value, and

15288-504: The human being both as an individual and as a member of the human species and recognising the importance of ensuring the dignity of the human being; Conscious that the misuse of biology and medicine may lead to acts endangering human dignity; Resolving to take such measures as are necessary to safeguard human dignity and the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual with regard to the application of biology and medicine. The Convention states, "Parties to this Convention shall protect

15444-519: The individual" or "human dignity." In 2008, The President's Council on Bioethics tried to arrive at a consensus about what dignity meant but failed. Edmund D. Pellegrino, M.D., the council's chairman, says in the Letter of Transmittal to the President of The United States, "… there is no universal agreement on the meaning of the term, human dignity." McDougal, Lasswell, and Chen studied dignity as

15600-475: The intensifying struggle between communism and capitalism. Promulgated in 1931, Quadragesimo anno is a response to German Nazism , Soviet communism , and Western European and American capitalism. The primary author of the 1931 encyclical's "subsidiarity" section was the German Jesuit and economist Oswald von Nell-Breuning . Gregory Beabout suggests that subsidiarity also draws upon an older concept:

15756-603: The international imperialism of money. Catholic social doctrine is rooted in the social teachings of the New Testament , the Church Fathers , the Old Testament , and Hebrew scriptures . The church responded to historical conditions in medieval and early modern Europe with philosophical and theological teachings on social justice which considered the nature of humanity, society, economy, and politics. During

15912-681: The international level. John exhorted Catholics to understand and apply social teachings: Once again we exhort our people to take an active part in public life, and to contribute towards the attainment of the common good of the entire human family as well as to that of their own country. They should endeavour, therefore, in the light of the Faith and with the strength of love, to ensure that the various institutions—whether economic, social, cultural or political in purpose—should be such as not to create obstacles, but rather to facilitate or render less arduous people's perfectioning of themselves both in

16068-697: The inviolability of human dignity. In 1997, the National Consultative Committee for Ethics in the Life and Health Sciences, as well as other observers, noted that France's dignity-based laws on bio-medical research were paradoxical. The law prohibited the willful destruction of human embryos but directed that human embryos could be destroyed if they were more than five years old. The law prohibited research on human embryos created in France but permitted research on human embryos brought to France. The law prohibited researchers from creating embryos for research but allowed researchers to experiment with embryos that were superfluous after in vitro fertilization. Human dignity

16224-574: The joys and hopes, the griefs and anxieties of the followers of Christ. Other conciliar documents, such as Dignitatis humanae (drafted largely by American Jesuit John Courtney Murray ) also apply to the church's present-day social teachings on freedom. Pope Paul VI noted disparities in wealth and development between the industrialized West and the Third World in his 1967 encyclical, Populorum progressio ( The Development of Peoples ). The encyclical asserted that free international trade alone

16380-406: The majority of the working class ... so that a small number of very rich men have been able to lay upon the teeming masses of the labouring poor a yoke little better than that of slavery itself." Leo wanted to reject the solutions offered by communism: "[T]hose who deny these rights [private ownership] do not perceive that they are defrauding man of what his own labour has produced." He declared

16536-479: The majority religion of Bulgaria. Leo strongly condemned the action, and when Ferdinand went through with the conversion anyway, Leo excommunicated him. The United States frequently attracted his attention and admiration. He confirmed the decrees of the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore (1884) and raised James Gibbons , the archbishop of that city, to the cardinalate in 1886. On 10 April 1887,

16692-403: The name "Leo" in memory of Pope Leo XII due to his admiration for the late pope's interest in education and his conciliatory attitude toward foreign governments. When asked what name he would take, the new pope responded: "As Leo XIII, in remembrance of Leo XII, whom I have always venerated". His election was formally announced to the people of Rome and the world at 1:15   pm. He retained

16848-578: The natural order as well as in the supernatural. The encyclical, issued at the height of the Cold War , also denounced the nuclear arms race and called for a stronger United Nations . The primary document from the Second Vatican Council concerning social teachings is Gaudium et spes , the Pastoral Constitution on the Church and the Modern World, which is considered one of the council's chief accomplishments. Unlike earlier documents,

17004-444: The nature of God. Specifically, human dignity is intrinsic to human persons, and does not spring from agency or free will. Human dignity, or kevod ha-beriyot , is also a central consideration of Judaism . Talmud cautions against giving charity publicly rather than in private to avoid offending the dignity of the recipient. Medieval Jewish philosopher Maimonides , in his codification of Halakha , cautioned judges to preserve

17160-473: The need for "pastoral modernity" in the church. Support for social movements became unpopular, however, when Pope Pius X replaced Leo in 1903. Catholic involvement in Italian political life had been banned under previous popes; Pius allowed a network of spies to identify and report on supporters of social and political movements, and subjected them to questions, apostolic visits and pressures to desist. Rerum novarum dealt with persons, systems and structures,

17316-411: The need for justice as central to religion, with the church the most powerful intermediary to achieve justice and peace. That justice relied on the equality of rich and poor, and extended to all citizens of a country. It went beyond the principle that "the interests of all, whether high or low, are equal", to include a demand that "public administration must duly and solicitously provide for the welfare and

17472-520: The need for that service as is feasible". Either interpretation indicates a hermeneutic of subsidiarity, in which the higher social body's rights and responsibilities for action are predicated on their assistance to (and empowerment of) the lower. Francis McHugh says that in addition to the "vertical" dimension of subsidiarity, there is also a "horizontal" dimension which "calls for a diversity of semi-autonomous social, economic, and cultural spheres". Quadragesimo anno presents these "spheres" as occupying

17628-407: The new industrial working class was the responsibility of the church; Rerum novarum was a response to the competition of communism, which analyzed in works such as Das Kapital and The Communist Manifesto the social conditions facing the industrialized poor. Rerum novarum begins by saying that "some opportune remedy must be found quickly for the misery and wretchedness pressing so unjustly on

17784-500: The object of attacks in the media and at his residence. In 1848, revolutionary movements developed throughout Western Europe, including France, Germany and Italy. Austrian , French and Spanish troops reversed the revolutionary gains but at a price for Pecci and the Catholic Church, who could not regain their former popularity. Pecci called a provincial council in 1849 to reform the religious life in his dioceses in Spoleto and it

17940-496: The papal court. Allegedly, Pecci had been a cardinal reserved " in pectore " by Gregory XVI in the consistory of 19 January 1846, with the pope's death just over four months later invalidating the appointment since his name was never actually revealed publicly. Pecci defended the papacy and its claims. When Italian authorities expropriated convents and monasteries of Catholic orders, turning them into administration or military buildings, Pecci protested but acted moderately. When

18096-475: The pope sent a high ranking representative to the coronation of his successor, Alexander III , who was grateful and asked for all religious forces to unify. He asked the pope to ensure that his bishops abstain from political agitation . Relations improved further when Pope Leo XIII, because of Italian considerations, distanced the Vatican from the Rome-Vienna-Berlin alliance, and helped to facilitate

18252-415: The positive obligations that dignity imposed on humans, the moral requirement not only to avoid harming but to actively assist one another in achieving and maintaining a state of "well-being". Among other topics, including the dignity of labor, Adler extensively explored the question of human equality and equal right to dignity. According to Adler, the question of whether humans have equal right to dignity

18408-498: The practices that violate human dignity include torture , rape , social exclusion , labor exploitation , bonded labor , and slavery . Both absolute and relative poverty are violations of human dignity, although they also have other significant dimensions, such as social injustice . Absolute poverty is associated with overt exploitation and connected to humiliation (for example, being forced to eat food from other people's garbage), but being dependent upon others to stay alive

18564-428: The pre-eminence of the needs, protection and independence of a family unit was central to the teaching of the encyclical. He stressed the equity of the employer-employee relationship. There should be shown "respect in every man for his dignity as a person", balanced with proper performance of "the work which has been freely and equitably agreed upon"; "capital cannot do without labour, nor labour without capital". Where

18720-440: The prestige lost with the fall of the Papal States. He tried to reconcile the church with the working class, particularly by dealing with the social changes that were sweeping Europe. The new economic order had resulted in the growth of an impoverished working class who had increasing anticlerical and socialist sympathies. Leo helped reverse that trend. Although Leo XIII was no radical in either theology or politics, his papacy moved

18876-457: The prevalence of drugs, alcohol, and "deceptive illusions of happiness" as evidence of this alienation. Benedict described this alienation as stemming from capitalism's self-centred emphasis, "where individuals act in their own self-interest, seeking the satisfaction of their own wants - man is not concerned with his fellow man, except insofar as he may be instrumental in satisfying his wants." Pope Francis described mercy as "the very substance of

19032-636: The progress of biology and medicine. On 4 April 1997, the council, at Oviedo, approved the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine . The convention's preamble contains these statements, among others: Conscious of the accelerating developments in biology and medicine; Convinced of the need to respect

19188-698: The prohibited activities were "contrary to Canadian values of equality and respect for human life and dignity." The Ministry of Health enacted the Danish Council Act 1988 , which established the Danish Council of Ethics. The Council advises the Ministry on matters of medicine and genetic research on humans. In 2001, the Council condemned "reproductive cloning because it would violate human dignity, because it could have adverse consequences for

19344-549: The proponents of human indignity in support of diametrically opposed empirical specifications of rights ... In 2004, Canada enacted the Assisted Human Reproduction Act . Section 2(b) of the Act states, "the benefits of assisted human reproductive technologies and related research for individuals, for families and for society in general can be most effectively secured by taking appropriate measures for

19500-521: The protection and promotion of human health, safety, dignity and rights in the use of these technologies and in related research." The Act prescribes a fine not exceeding $ 500,000 or imprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years, or both, if someone undertakes a proscribed activity such as the creation of a chimera . Article 1 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union affirms

19656-426: The right, such as liberalism , atheistic forms of socialism and communism , anarchism , feminism , atheism, fascism , capitalism , and Nazism , which have been condemned by several popes since the late nineteenth century. It has tried to strike a balance between respect for human liberty (including the right to private property and subsidiarity) and concern for society, including the weakest and poorest. It

19812-429: The rights of the poor and the worker are in jeopardy, they must be especially protected; the rich and powerful have other means of protecting their interests. The state must legislate to protect workers from low pay, over-long working hours or over-taxing work, and avail themselves of the protection provided by trade unions. The encyclical was followed in parts of Italy with the creation of social movements which advocated

19968-542: The royal family and used the location to visit neighboring Germany, where he was particularly interested in the architectural completion of the Cologne Cathedral . In 1844, upon his initiative, a Belgian College in Rome was opened; 102 years later, in 1946, the future Pope John Paul II would begin his Roman studies there. Pecci spent several weeks in England with Bishop Nicholas Wiseman , carefully reviewing

20124-681: The self-respect of people who came before them: "Let not human dignity be light in his eyes; for the respect due to man supersedes a negative rabbinical command". An Islamic view of dignity is crystallized in the Quran through the selected biographies of Noah, Abraham, Joseph, David, Moses, Mary, Jesus, Muhammed, and others (differing from the narratives in the Bible, which the Quran claims were corrupted). Individuals such as these are presented as role-models of dignity because they did not abandon their self-respect by bowing to social pressures. When faced with

20280-598: The simultaneous development of all humanity in the spirit of solidarity". Experienced in human affairs, the Church ;... "seeks but a solitary goal: to carry forward the work of Christ Himself under the lead of the befriending Spirit." ... But, since the Church lives in history, she ought to "scrutinize the signs of the times and interpret them in the light of the Gospel." Sharing the noblest aspirations of men and women and suffering when she sees them not satisfied, she wishes to help them attain their full flowing, and that

20436-493: The smallest Papal province, with a population of about 20,000. The main problems facing Pecci were a decaying local economy, insecurity from widespread bandits, and pervasive Mafia or Camorra structures, which were often allied with aristocratic families. Pecci arrested the most powerful aristocrat in Benevento and his troops captured others, who were either killed or imprisoned by him. With public order restored, he turned to

20592-444: The space between individual and state: ... things have come to such a pass through the evil of what we have termed "individualism" that, following upon the overthrow and near extinction of that rich social life which was once highly developed through associations of various kinds, there remain virtually only individuals and the State. This is to the great harm of the State itself; for, with a structure of social governance lost, and with

20748-474: The sparing use of meat and the consumption of eggs, milk and vegetables. His favourite poets were Virgil and Dante . Pope Leo XIII began his pontificate with a friendly letter to Tsar Alexander II in which he reminded the Russian monarch of the millions of Catholics living in his empire who would like to be good Russian subjects if their dignity were respected. After the assassination of Alexander II,

20904-408: The spiritual energy without which justice ... cannot prevail and prosper." Pope Francis , according to Cardinal Walter Kasper , has made mercy "the key word of his pontificate ... (while) Scholastic theology has neglected this topic and turned it into a mere subordinate theme of justice." Catholic social teaching is critical of modern social and political ideologies of the left and of

21060-469: The stories that Pecci and Pius IX had a mutual animosity for each other and disagreed with each other in terms of policy; however, this purported animosity has never been proven. It was further alleged that by this stage Pecci desired a change of scenery from Perugia and hoped for either the bishopric of Albano or the position of datary of the Apostolic Dataria . It has also been said that Pecci

21216-462: The students. While archbishop, Pecci developed several activities in support of various Catholic charities . He founded homeless shelters for boys, girls and elderly women. Throughout his dioceses, he opened branches of a Bank, Monte di Pietà , which focused on low-income people and provided low-interest loans . He created soup kitchens , which were run by the Capuchins. Upon his elevation to

21372-401: The subsequent century and more. The publication of Leo XIII 's encyclical, Rerum novarum , on 15 May 1891 began the development of a body of social teaching in the Catholic Church. It was written when the once-agrarian populations of Italy and western Europe were undergoing rapid urbanisation in newly industrialized cities, with many living in squalor and poverty. Similar trends developed in

21528-539: The sudden death of King Victor Emmanuel II (9 January 1878) distracted the government's attention. In the conclave, the cardinals faced varied questions and discussed issues like church–state relations in Europe, specifically Italy; divisions in the church and the status of the First Vatican Council. It was also debated that the conclave be moved elsewhere, but Pecci decided otherwise in his capacity as

21684-499: The taking over of all the burdens which the wrecked associations once bore. the State has been overwhelmed and crushed by almost infinite tasks and duties. These associations, or "lesser societies", are encouraged because they are the vehicle by which society functions most effectively and corresponds most closely with human dignity. Examples of these associations include the family, unions, nonprofit organizations, religious congregations, and corporations of all sizes. Subsidiarity charts

21840-452: The threat of global economic imbalance to world peace. John expanded further on this on 11 April 1963 in Pacem in terris ( Peace on Earth ), the first encyclical addressed to Catholics and non-Catholics. In it, he linked the establishment of world peace to the laying of a foundation consisting of proper rights and responsibilities between individuals, social groups, and states from the local to

21996-416: The three co-ordinates of the modern promotion of justice and peace now integral to the church's mission. It was followed by a number of encyclicals and messages on social issues; forms of Catholic action developed worldwide, and social ethics was taught in schools and seminaries. To mark the 40th anniversary of Rerum novarum , Pope Pius XI issued Quadragesimo anno expanding on some of its themes. During

22152-475: The title of 'the Rerum novarum of the present age,' Benedict meant to elevate Populorum Progressio , conferring on it a paradigmatic status not dissimilar to that enjoyed by Rerum novarum throughout the twentieth century." Williams said that the reason for the elevation was that Populorum progressio , "for all its real deficiencies, effected an important conceptual shift in Catholic social thinking, by moving from

22308-752: The title of Muhsineen, who faced immense pressures but held firm in their positive actions. God awarded these individuals with authority and status in the land, and this reward is open to anyone who proves themselves worthy: "We bestow such honour and position on all those who lead their lives according to Our Laws." (Quran 37:80) Those who fall into this category are also afforded Divine protection from their mistakes: "Therefore We have saved you and your son from this. We have done so because We keep those who lead their lives according to Divine guidance safe from such mishaps." (37:104–105) The Quranic State that Muhammad began in Medinah sought to protect human dignity, since in

22464-523: The unity and integrity of the Nation; Leo XIII Pope Leo XIII ( Italian : Leone XIII ; born Gioacchino Vincenzo Raffaele Luigi Pecci ; 2 March 1810 – 20 July 1903) was head of the Catholic Church from 20 February 1878 until his death in July 1903. Living until the age of 93, he was the oldest pope whose age can be validated, and had the fourth-longest reign of any pope, behind those of Peter

22620-508: The very meaning of democratic coexistence, and our cities risk becoming societies of people who are rejected, marginalized, uprooted, and oppressed, instead of communities of "people living together". Not endorsing a political agenda, the church holds that this teaching applies in the public (political) realm as well as the private. Laborem exercens qualifies private ownership in relation to the common use of goods to which all people are entitled. The church "has always understood this right within

22776-508: The view that humans have a right to dignity, and argued that moral norms could not form the basis of a critique of capitalism because they form part of society's ideological superstructure . The philosopher Somogy Varga argues that Marx's account of dignity forms part of a critique of Kantian ethics as unjusifiably imagining moral values to be transhistorical rather than emerging from historical processes and social practices. More recently, Philippe-André Rodriguez has argued that human dignity

22932-605: The worker question (with its attendant concerns of just wages, private property, working environment, and labour associations) to the broader and richer social benchmark of integral human development." Pope Benedict has criticized capitalism, characterizing it as a system which recognizes no duties or obligations towards human beings and crediting it with creating a destructive type of individualism which "encourages selfishness, as men are concerned exclusively with what they should receive from society and unconcerned with what they can or should contribute to it." Catholic teaching recognizes

23088-583: The writings of Thomas Aquinas, combined with the new social sciences of politics and economics, was embraced by the Vatican by the middle of the century; however, it took several decades for this synthesis to become established in Catholic social teaching. Pope Leo XIII, in a series of encyclicals spanning 20 years, formalized the modern approach to Catholic social teaching which combines evangelical teachings on love with natural law and social-scientific arguments about what constitutes human prosperity. These principles have been consistently reiterated by later popes over

23244-531: Was a force for social change. It was encouraged by Leo's support for social welfare legislation and the rights of working people. Leo's forward-looking approach encouraged Catholic Action in other European countries, where the social teachings of the church were incorporated into the agenda of Catholic parties, particularly the Christian democratic parties, which became an acceptable alternative to socialist parties. Leo's social teachings were reiterated throughout

23400-430: Was also a vital mission of the church as a vehicle of social justice and maintaining the rights and dignities of the human person. Leo XIII issued a record of eleven papal encyclicals on the rosary, earning him the title of the "Rosary Pope". In addition, he approved two new Marian scapulars. He was the first pope never to have held any control over the Papal States , which had been dissolved by 1870, since Stephen II in

23556-556: Was claimed that a bakery was selling bread below the prescribed pound weight, he personally went there, had all bread weighed and confiscated it if below legal weight. The confiscated bread was distributed to the poor. In 1843, Pecci, at only 33, was appointed Apostolic Nuncio to Belgium , a position that guaranteed the cardinal 's hat after completion of the tour. On 27 April 1843, Pope Gregory XVI appointed Pecci Archbishop and asked his Cardinal Secretary of State Lambruschini to consecrate him. Pecci developed excellent relations with

23712-425: Was in this council that the need for a Syllabus of Errors was discussed. He invested in enlarging the seminary for future priests and in hiring new and prominent professors, preferably Thomists . He called on his brother Giuseppe Pecci , a noted Thomist scholar, to resign his professorship in Rome and to teach in Perugia instead. His own residence was next to the seminary, which facilitated his daily contacts with

23868-414: Was inadequate to correct these disparities, and supported the role of international organizations in correcting them. Paul called on rich nations to meet their moral obligation to poor nations, pointing out the relationship between development and peace. The church did not intend to take sides, but to promote basic human dignity: "There can be no progress towards the complete development of individuals without

24024-489: Was known to have written his own Latin poems at the age of eleven. Leo was a descendant of the Italian leader Cola di Rienzo on his mother's side. His siblings were: In 1824, he and Giuseppe were called to Rome, where their mother was dying. Count Pecci wanted his children near him after the loss of his wife and so they stayed with him in Rome and attended the Jesuit Collegium Romanum . In 1828,

24180-590: Was reportedly in line to succeed Cardinal Alessandro Barnabò as the prefect for Propaganda Fide ; however, it was stymied by his opponent, Cardinal Antonelli. Pope Pius IX died on 7 February 1878, and during his closing years the liberal press had often insinuated that the Kingdom of Italy should take a hand in the conclave and occupy the Vatican . However, the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) and

24336-583: Was the sixth of the seven children of Count Ludovico Pecci (1767–1833) and his wife, Anna Francesca Prosperi Buzzi (1773–1824). His brothers included Giuseppe and Giovanni Battista Pecci. Until 1818, he lived at home with his family "in which religion counted as the highest grace on earth, as through her, salvation can be earned for all eternity". Together with Giuseppe, he studied in the Jesuit College in Viterbo until 1824. He enjoyed Latin and

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