106-557: Cave Hill Cemetery is a 296-acre (1.20 km) Victorian era National Cemetery and arboretum located at Louisville, Kentucky . Its main entrance is on Baxter Avenue and there is a secondary one on Grinstead Drive. It is the largest cemetery by area and number of burials in Louisville. Cave Hill was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979. Cave Hill National Cemetery , containing military graves,
212-549: A feminist movement developed. Parental authority was seen as important, but children were given legal protections against abuse and neglect for the first time towards the end of the period. Access to education increased rapidly during the 19th century. State-funded schools were established in England and Wales for the first time. Education became compulsory for pre-teenaged children in England, Scotland and Wales. Literacy rates increased rapidly, and had become nearly universal by
318-496: A branch wound and resembles a swollen, nearly healed wound. On large trees these may become prominent burl -like bodies having several vertical or irregular folds in the callus covering. A single trunk canker near the base is a sign that the butt log is badly infected, and multiple cankers are evidence that the entire tree may be a cull. Major leaf diseases are anthracnose ( Gnomonia caryae ) and mildew ( Microstroma juglandis ). The former causes brown spots with definite margins on
424-604: A democracy. The political legacy of the reform movement was to link the nonconformists (part of the evangelical movement) in England and Wales with the Liberal Party . This continued until the First World War . The Presbyterians played a similar role as a religious voice for reform in Scotland. Religion was politically controversial during this era, with Nonconformists pushing for the disestablishment of
530-424: A distinct variety but is now considered to be a synonym of C. glabra (Mill.) Sweet. C. leiodermis Sarg., swamp hickory, has also been added as a synonym of C. glabra . Carya glabra (Mill.) Sweet var. glabra distinguishes the (typical) pignut hickory from red hickory ( C. glabra var. odorata (Marsh.) Little). The taxonomic position of red hickory is controversial. The binomial C. ovalis (Wangenh.) Sarg.
636-455: A fashion among employers for providing welfare services to their workers, led to relative social stability. The Chartist movement for working-class men to be given the right to vote, which had been prominent in the early Victorian period, dissipated. Government involvement in the economy was limited. Only in the post-World War II period , around a century later, did the country experience substantial economic growth again. But whilst industry
742-552: A few cause death or severe damage. The hickory bark beetle ( Scolytus quadrispinosus ) is the most important insect enemy of hickory, and also one of the most important insect pests of hardwoods in the Eastern United States. During drought periods in the Southeast, outbreaks often develop and large tracts of timber are killed. At other times, damage may be confined to the killing of a single tree or to portions of
848-535: A limited range and is restricted to the Niagara Peninsula , southern Halton Region , the Hamilton area along western Lake Ontario , and southward along the northern shore of Lake Erie and pockets of extreme southwestern Ontario. Pignut hickory grows in a humid climate with an average annual precipitation of 760 to 2,030 mm (30 to 80 in) of which 510 to 1,020 mm (20 to 40 in)
954-445: A major employer and industry in their own right. Expected standards of personal conduct changed in around the first half of the 19th century, with good manners and self-restraint becoming much more common. Historians have suggested various contributing factors, such as Britain's major conflicts with France during the early 19th century, meaning that the distracting temptations of sinful behaviour had to be avoided in order to focus on
1060-463: A period between the 1860s and 1880s subject to spot compulsory examinations for sexually transmitted infections , and detainment if they were found to be infected. This caused a great deal of resentment among women in general due to the principle underlying the checks, that women had to be controlled in order to be safe for sexual use by men, and the checks were opposed by some of the earliest feminist campaigning. Carya glabra Carya glabra ,
1166-674: A relatively high calcium content. Hickories are consistently present in the broad eastern upland climax forest association commonly called oak-hickory, but they are not generally abundant. Locally, hickories may make up to 20 to 30 percent of stand basal area, particularly in slope and cove forests below the escarpment of the Cumberland Plateau and in second-growth forests in the Cumberland Mountains , especially on benches . It has been hypothesized that hickory will replace chestnut ( Castanea dentata ) killed by
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#17327831377251272-421: A relatively high heating value and is used extensively as a home heating fuel. Pignut hickory is an important shade tree in wooded suburban areas over most of the range but is seldom planted as an ornamental tree because of its size and difficulty of transplanting, although it has spectacular orangey-red fall colors. Carya glabra var. megacarpa (Sarg.) Sarg., coast pignut hickory, was once recognized as
1378-430: A rise in prosecutions for illegal sodomy in the middle of the 19th century. Male sexuality became a favourite subject of medical researchers' study. For the first time, all male homosexual acts were outlawed. Concern about sexual exploitation of adolescent girls increased during the period, especially following the white slavery scandal , which contributed to the increasing of the age of consent from 13 to 16 . At
1484-546: A role in economic life but exploitation of their labour became especially intense during the Victorian era. Children were put to work in a wide range of occupations, but particularly associated with this period are factories. Employing children had advantages, as they were cheap, had limited ability to resist harsh working conditions, and could enter spaces too small for adults. Some accounts exist of happy upbringings involving child labour, but conditions were generally poor. Pay
1590-573: A substantial part of the metropolis... In big, once handsome houses, thirty or more people of all ages may inhabit a single room Hunger and poor diet was a common aspect of life across the UK in the Victorian period, especially in the 1840s, but the mass starvation seen in the Great Famine in Ireland was unique. Levels of poverty fell significantly during the 19th century from as much as two thirds of
1696-475: A symbol of the British Empire. Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901. The Victorian era saw a rapidly growing middle class who became an important cultural influence, to a significant extent replacing the aristocracy as British society's dominant class. A distinctive middle-class lifestyle developed that influenced what society valued as a whole. Increased importance was placed on the value of
1802-687: A time when job options for women were limited and generally low-paying, some women, particularly those without familial support, took to prostitution to support themselves. Attitudes in public life and among the general population to prostitution varied. Evidence about prostitutes' situation also varies. One contemporary study argues that the trade was a short-term stepping stone to a different lifestyle for many women, while another, more recent study argues they were subject to physical abuse, financial exploitation, state persecution, and difficult working conditions. Due to worries about venereal disease , especially among soldiers, women suspected of prostitution were for
1908-461: A wide range of new inventions. This led Great Britain to become the foremost industrial and trading nation of the time. Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era (1850–1870) as Britain's 'Golden Years', with national income per person increasing by half. This prosperity was driven by increased industrialisation, especially in textiles and machinery, along with exports to the empire and elsewhere. The positive economic conditions, as well as
2014-569: A wide-ranging change to the electoral system of England and Wales . Definitions that purport a distinct sensibility or politics to the era have also created scepticism about the worth of the label 'Victorian', though there have also been defences of it. Michael Sadleir was insistent that "in truth, the Victorian period is three periods, and not one". He distinguished early Victorianism—the socially and politically unsettled period from 1837 to 1850 —and late Victorianism (from 1880 onwards), with its new waves of aestheticism and imperialism , from
2120-402: A workhouse was built there. The railroad was built elsewhere, and the land was leased to local farmers. In 1846, Mayor Frederick A. Kaye began investigating the possibility of developing a rural or garden-style cemetery on the grounds, a popular concept at the time. Hartford, Connecticut civil engineer Edmund Francis Lee was hired, who planned a cemetery with winding paths, graves across
2226-458: Is pear shaped and enclosed in a thin husk developed from the floral involucre . The fruit ripens in September and October, and seeds are dispersed from September through December. Husks are green until maturity; they turn brown to brownish-black as they ripen. The husks become dry at maturity and split away from the nut into four valves along sutures. Husks of pignut hickory split only to
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#17327831377252332-719: Is rain during the growing season. Average snowfall varies from little to none in the South to 2,540 mm (100 in) or more in the mountains of West Virginia , upstate New York , and western North Carolina (25). Within the range of pignut hickory, average annual temperatures vary from 7 °C (45 °F) in the north to 21 °C (70 °F) in Florida. Average January temperature varies from −4 to 16 °C (25 to 61 °F) and average July temperature varies from 21 to 27 °C (70 to 81 °F). Extremes of 46 and −30 °C (115 and −22 °F) have been recorded within
2438-469: Is also on the National Register, added in 1998. Cave Hill was chartered in 1848 on what was William Johnston's Cave Hill Farm, then a rural property some distance east of Louisville. Johnston, who died in 1798, had built the first brick house in Louisville on the grounds circa 1788. City officials had purchased part of the land in the 1830s in anticipation of building a railroad through it, and
2544-769: Is an associated species in 20 of the 90 forest cover types listed by the Society of American Foresters for the eastern United States (6): 53 White Pine - Chestnut Oak 40 Post Oak - Blackjack Oak 44 Chestnut Oak 45 Pitch Pine 46 Eastern Redcedar 52 White Oak - Black Oak - Northern Red Oak 53 White Oak 55 Northern Red Oak 57 Yellow-Poplar - Tulip tree 59 Yellow-Poplar-White Oak-Northern Red Oak 64 Sassafras - Persimmon 110 Black Oak 75 Shortleaf Pine 76 Shortleaf Pine- Oak 78 Virginia Pine -Oak 79 Virginia Pine 80 Loblolly Pine - Shortleaf Pine 81 Loblolly Pine 82 Loblolly Pine- Hardwood 83 Longleaf Pine- Slash Pine Because
2650-443: Is difficult to reproduce from cuttings . Pignut hickory often grows 24 to 27 m (79 to 89 ft) tall and occasionally reaches 37 m (121 ft), with d.b.h. of 91 to 122 cm (36 to 48 in). The bole is often forked. Height and diameter by age are shown in table 1 for selected locations. Diameter growth of pignut hickory (along with chestnut oak , white oak , sweet birch ( Betula lenta ), and American beech
2756-435: Is exceptionally high in crude fat , up to 70 to 80 percent in some species. Crude protein , phosphorus , and calcium contents are generally moderate to low. Crude fiber is very low. Pignut hickory makes up a small percentage of the biomass in low-quality upland hardwood stands that are prime candidates for clearcutting for chips or fuelwood as the first step toward rehabilitation to more productive stands. Hickory has
2862-456: Is now called classical music was somewhat undeveloped compared to parts of Europe but did have significant support. Photography became an increasingly accessible and popular part of everyday life. Many sports were introduced or popularised during the Victorian era. They became important to male identity. Examples included cricket , football , rugby , tennis and cycling . The idea of women participating in sport did not fit well with
2968-702: Is one British war grave , of a soldier of the Machine Gun Corps , a member of the British Military Mission to the United States, who died in 1918. Portrait painter and cousin of Mark Twain , Mary Ann Xantippe "Tip" Saunders , was interred at Cave Hill Cemetery in 1922. Patty Hill and Mildred J. Hill (sisters), composers of the Happy Birthday song, are interred here. Muhammad Ali , boxing champion born in Louisville,
3074-542: Is one of several host species of the twig girdler ( Oncideres cingulata ). Infested trees and seedlings are not only damaged severely but become ragged and unattractive. A few of the more common species of gall-producing insects attacking hickory are Phylloxera caryaecaulis , Caryomyia holotricha , C. sanguinolenta , and C. tubicola . Hickories provide food to many kinds of wildlife. The nuts are relished by several species of squirrel and represent an estimated 10 to 25 percent of their diet. Hogs were observed consuming
3180-505: Is rated adequate during all seasons. Pignut hickory frequently grows on dry ridgetops and sideslopes throughout its range but it is also common on moist sites, particularly in the mountains and Piedmont . In the Great Smoky Mountains pignut hickory has been observed on dry sandy soils at low elevations. Whittaker placed pignut in a submesic class and charted it as ranging up to 1,480 m (4,860 ft)-the hickory with
3286-475: Is rated as windfirm. The taproot develops early, which may explain the slow growth of seedling shoots. Taproots may develop in compact and stony soils. The hickories as a group are classed as intermediate in shade tolerance; however, pignut hickory has been classed as intolerant in the Northeast and tolerant in the Southeast. In much of the area covered by mixed oak forests, shade-tolerant hardwoods (including
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3392-411: Is rated slow. Since hickories constitute 15 percent or less of the basal area of oak -hickory forest types, most growth and yield information is written in terms of oak rather than oak-hickory. Yields of mixed oak stands and of hickory stands have been reported. Tree volume tables are available. ¹Second growth. ²Virgin forest. Pignut hickory tends to develop a pronounced taproot with few laterals and
3498-426: Is separately on the National Register. The middle fork of Beargrass Creek runs through Cave Hill, and a source stream flowing into the creek roughly divides the cemetery in new (eastern) and old (western) sections. That stream flows from a spring near the cave that gave the property its name. The cave can be entered for about 30 feet (9.1 m), and then there is a marginal amount of crawl space beyond that, however
3604-703: Is slow. The following height growth of pignut hickory seedlings was reported in the Ohio Valley in the open or under light shade, on red clay soil (2): Hickories sprout readily from stumps and roots . Stump sprouting is not as prolific as in other deciduous trees species but the sprouts that are produced are vigorous and grow fairly rapidly in height. Root sprouts also are vigorous and probably more numerous than stump sprouts in cut-over areas. Small stumps sprout more frequently than large ones. Sprouts that originate at or below ground level and from small stumps are less likely to develop heartwood decay. Pignut hickory
3710-615: The Brown General Hospital and other nearby army medical facilities were interred in Cave Hill Cemetery. Johnston's farmhouse (in what is now sections 33 and 34) was converted to the city's pesthouse , and was demolished in 1872. Also in 1872, Beechhurst Sanitarium was built near the pesthouse and the modern Grinstead entrance. Beechurst was torn down in 1936. The entrance lodge and main gates were designed by Louisville architect William H. Reddin in 1880 in
3816-530: The Church of England . Nonconformists comprised about half of church attendees in England in 1851, and gradually the legal discrimination that had been established against them outside of Scotland was removed. Legal restrictions on Roman Catholics were also largely removed . The number of Catholics grew in Great Britain due to conversions and immigration from Ireland . Secularism and doubts about
3922-755: The Georgian era and preceded the Edwardian era , and its later half overlaps with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe. Various liberalising political reforms took place in the UK, including expanding the electoral franchise. The Great Famine caused mass death in Ireland early in the period. The British Empire had relatively peaceful relations with the other great powers . It participated in various military conflicts mainly against minor powers. The British Empire expanded during this period and
4028-729: The Lower Peninsula of Michigan . The best development of this species is in the lower Ohio River Basin. It prevails over other species of hickory in the Appalachian forests. Pignut makes up much of the hickory harvested in Kentucky , West Virginia , the Cumberland Mountains of Tennessee , and the hill country of the Ohio Valley . Pignut hickory is also found in Canada in extreme southern Ontario . It does however have
4134-570: The Pax Britannica , was a time of relatively peaceful relations between the world's great powers . This is particularly true of Britain's interactions with the others. The only war in which the British Empire fought against another major power was the Crimean War , from 1853 to 1856. There were various revolts and violent conflicts within the British Empire, and Britain participated in wars against minor powers. It also took part in
4240-608: The ambrosia beetle ( Platypus quadridentatus ) throughout the South and north to West Virginia and North Carolina. The false powderpost beetle ( Xylobiops basilaris ) attacks recently felled or dying trees, logs, or limbs with bark in the Eastern and Southern States. Hickory, persimmon ( Diospyros virginiana ), and pecan ( C. illinoinensis ) are most frequently infested, but other hardwoods also are attacked. Healthy trees growing in proximity to heavily infested trees are occasionally attacked but almost always without success. Hickory
4346-411: The duff and litter or artificially by stratification in a moist medium at 1 to 4 °C (34 to 39 °F) for 30 to 150 days. In forest tree nurseries unstratified hickory nuts are sown in the fall and stratified nuts are sown in the spring. Hickories are hypogeously germinating plants, and the nuts seldom remain viable in the forest floor for more than one winter. Seedling growth of hickories
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4452-401: The pignut hickory , is a common, but not abundant species of hickory in the oak-hickory forest association in the Eastern United States and Canada . Other common names are pignut , sweet pignut , coast pignut hickory , smoothbark hickory , swamp hickory , and broom hickory . The pear-shaped nut ripens in September and October, has a sweet maple like smell, and is an important part of
4558-587: The 'workshop of the world', Britain was uniquely advanced in technology in the mid-19th century. Engineering, having developed into a profession in the 18th century, gained new profile and prestige in this period. The Victorian era saw methods of communication and transportation develop significantly. In 1837, William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone invented the first telegraph system . This system, which used electrical currents to transmit coded messages, quickly spread across Britain, appearing in every town and post office. A worldwide network developed towards
4664-587: The 1880s, sanitation was inadequate in areas such as water supply and disposal of sewage. This all had a negative effect on health, especially that of the impoverished young. For instance, of the babies born in Liverpool in 1851, only 45 per cent survived to age 20. It had been hoped that there would be a rapid improvement following the Public Baths and Wash-houses Act 1846. This was the first legislation to empower local authorities in England and Wales to fund
4770-413: The 19th century and germ theory was developed for the first time. Doctors became more specialised and the number of hospitals grew. The overall number of deaths fell by about 20%. The life expectancy of women increased from around 42 to 55 and 40 to 56 for men. In spite of this, the mortality rate fell only marginally, from 20.8 per thousand in 1850 to 18.2 by the end of the century. Urbanisation aided
4876-550: The 19th century for the first time in history, improved nutrition, and a lower overall mortality rate. Ireland's population shrank significantly, mostly due to emigration and the Great Famine. The professionalisation of scientific study began in parts of Europe following the French Revolution but was slow to reach Britain. William Whewell coined the term 'scientist' in 1833 to refer to those who studied what
4982-454: The Bible. A variety of reading materials grew in popularity during the period, including novels, women's magazines, children's literature, and newspapers. Much literature, including chapbooks , was distributed on the street. Music was also very popular, with genres such as folk music , broadsides , music halls , brass bands , theater music and choral music having mass appeal. What
5088-490: The British Empire, reform included rapid expansion, the complete abolition of slavery in the African possessions and the end of transportation of convicts to Australia . Restrictions on colonial trade were loosened and responsible (i.e. semi-autonomous) government was introduced in some territories. Throughout most of the 19th century Britain was the most powerful country in the world. The period from 1815 to 1914 , known as
5194-524: The Broadway Entrance by the cemetery, was completed in 1892. The Corinthian -style building includes a 2,000-pound (910 kg) bell in its clock tower . The tower, once the tallest structure for miles, was frequently hit by lightning and last renovated in 2001. The Grinstead Drive entrance was built in 1913. The third public entrance on the residential street of Dearing Court was closed as of 2007. Another public entrance, also no longer in use,
5300-553: The Origin of Species (1859), which sought to explain biological evolution by natural selection, gained a high profile in the public consciousness. Simplified (and at times inaccurate) popular science was increasingly distributed through a variety of publications which caused tension with the professionals. There were significant advances in various fields of research, including statistics , elasticity , refrigeration , natural history , electromagnetism , and logic . Known as
5406-538: The Section "O" burials is a Confederate Brigadier General , Alpheus Baker . There are two other Confederate generals buried in other locations in the cemetery. In the addition to Section "O" (lot 267½) are a number of residents of the Kentucky Confederate Home, who died around the start of the 20th century. The confederate flag flies over the area. Within another U.S. Soldiers plot in Section E
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#17327831377255512-419: The United States lists 133 fungi and 10 other causes of diseases on Carya species. Most of the fungi are saprophytes , but a few are damaging to foliage, produce cankers , or cause trunk or root rots . The most common disease of pignut hickory from Pennsylvania southward is a trunk rot caused by Poria spiculosa . Cankers vary in size and appearance depending on their age. A common form develops around
5618-472: The Victorian era covers the duration of Victoria's reign as Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , from her accession on 20 June 1837—after the death of her uncle, William IV —until her death on 22 January 1901, after which she was succeeded by her eldest son, Edward VII . Her reign lasted 63 years and seven months, a longer period than any of her predecessors. The term 'Victorian'
5724-420: The Victorian heyday: mid-Victorianism, 1851 to 1879. He saw the latter period as characterised by a distinctive mixture of prosperity, domestic prudery , and complacency —what G. M. Trevelyan called the 'mid-Victorian decades of quiet politics and roaring prosperity'. The Reform Act , which made various changes to the electoral system including expanding the franchise, had been passed in 1832. The franchise
5830-638: The Victorian view of femininity, but their involvement did increase as the period progressed. For the middle classes, many leisure activities such as table games could be done in the home while domestic holidays to rural locations such as the Lake District and Scottish Highlands were increasingly practical. The working classes had their own culture separate from that of their richer counterparts, various cheaper forms of entertainment and recreational activities provided by philanthropy . Trips to resorts such as Blackpool were increasingly popular towards
5936-451: The West." The rapid growth in the urban population included the new industrial and manufacturing cities, as well as service centres such as Edinburgh and London. Private renting from housing landlords was the dominant tenure. P. Kemp says this was usually of advantage to tenants. Overcrowding was a major problem with seven or eight people frequently sleeping in a single room. Until at least
6042-504: The accuracy of the Old Testament grew among people with higher levels of education. Northern English and Scottish academics tended to be more religiously conservative, whilst agnosticism and even atheism (though its promotion was illegal) gained appeal among academics in the south. Historians refer to a 'Victorian Crisis of Faith', a period when religious views had to readjust to accommodate new scientific knowledge and criticism of
6148-411: The basis for welfare provision into the 20th century. While many people were prone to vices, not least alcoholism, historian Bernard A. Cook argues that the main reason for 19th century poverty was that typical wages for much of the population were simply too low. Barely enough to provide a subsistence living in good times, let alone save up for bad. Improvements were made over time to housing along with
6254-552: The beautiful productions of our great Creator. . ." Before the era of large municipal parks, it was common for cities to promote a garden cemetery as a green oasis and recreation destination, and Louisville was no exception. This largely ended with the opening of nearby Cherokee Park in 1892. After administrators sold several acres of land for the burial of Union soldiers during the Civil War , local Confederate supporters purchased nearby land as well. Several deceased patients from
6360-609: The blight ( Cryphonectria parasitica ) in the Appalachian Highlands. On Beanfield Mountain in Giles County , Virginia , the former chestnut-oak complex has changed to an oak-hickory association over a period of 50 years. This association is dominated by pignut hickory with an importance value of 41.0 (maximum value = 300), northern red oak (36.0), and chestnut oak (25.0). White oak, red maple (Acer rubrum), and sugar maple are subdominant species. Pignut hickory
6466-466: The building of public baths and wash houses but, since the act was only permissive rather than mandatory, improvement was slow. Conditions were particularly bad in London, where the population rose sharply and poorly maintained, overcrowded dwellings became slum housing. Kellow Chesney wrote of the situation: Hideous slums, some of them acres wide, some no more than crannies of obscure misery, make up
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#17327831377256572-455: The canker. No special control measures are required, but cankered trees should be harvested in stand improvement operations. A gall-forming fungus species of Phomopsis can produce warty excrescences ranging from small twig galls to very large trunk burls on northern hickories and oaks. Little information is available on root diseases of hickory. More than 100 insects have been reported to infest hickory trees and wood products, but only
6678-507: The cave is officially off limits. There are also five man-made lakes. The cemetery currently features more than 500 species of trees and shrubs, including some two dozen current state champion trees, including both native species such as pignut hickory ( Carya glabra ) and exotics such as Caucasian wingnut ( Pterocarya fraxinifolia ). It is well known as an arboretum. There were about 120,000 people interred by 2002, with space remaining for 22,000 more graves. Notable among those interred in
6784-474: The cemetery is American Revolutionary War military war officer and founder of Louisville George Rogers Clark (1752–1818). More than 200 Confederate soldiers are buried in Section "O" of the cemetery, with 30–40 buried in a row near the National Cemetery. The original wooden markers in Section "O" were replaced with stone markers in 1880–1881. A number of markers are marked as unknown. Included in
6890-489: The children in school; in 1840 only about 20 per cent of the children in London had any schooling. By the 1850s, around half of the children in England and Wales were in school (not including Sunday school ). From the 1833 Factory Act onwards, attempts were made to get child labourers into part time education, though this was often difficult to achieve. Only in the 1870s and 1880s did children begin to be compelled into school. Work continued to inhibit children's schooling into
6996-569: The diet of many wild animals. The wood is used for a variety of products, including fuel for home heating. Its leaves turn yellow in the Fall. The range of pignut hickory covers nearly all of the eastern United States. The species grows in central Florida and northward through North Carolina to southern Massachusetts . It also grows north of the Gulf Coast through Alabama , Mississippi north to Missouri and extreme southeastern Iowa , and
7102-797: The diplomatic struggles of the Great Game and the Scramble for Africa . In 1840, Queen Victoria married her German cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha . The couple had nine children, who themselves married into various royal families, and the queen thus became known as the 'grandmother of Europe'. In 1861, Albert died. Victoria went into mourning and withdrew from public life for ten years. In 1871, with republican sentiments growing in Britain, she began to return to public life. In her later years, her popularity soared as she became
7208-474: The early 20th century. 19th-century Britain saw a huge population increase accompanied by rapid urbanisation stimulated by the Industrial Revolution. In the 1901 census , more than three out of every four people were classified as living in an urban area, compared to one in five a century earlier. Historian Richard A. Soloway wrote that "Great Britain had become the most urbanized country in
7314-424: The end of period. Initially the industrial revolution increased working hours, but over the course of the 19th century a variety of political and economic changes caused them to fall back down to and in some cases below pre-industrial levels, creating more time for leisure. Before the Industrial Revolution, daily life had changed little for hundreds of years. The 19th century saw rapid technological development with
7420-453: The end of the century. Private education for wealthier children, boys and more gradually girls, became more formalised over the course of the century. The growing middle class and strong evangelical movement placed great emphasis on a respectable and moral code of behaviour. This included features such as charity, personal responsibility, controlled habits, child discipline and self-criticism. As well as personal improvement, importance
7526-470: The end of the century. In 1876, an American patented the telephone . A little over a decade later, 26,000 telephones were in service in Britain. Multiple switchboards were installed in every major town and city. Guglielmo Marconi developed early radio broadcasting at the end of the period. The railways were important economically in the Victorian era, allowing goods, raw materials, and people to be moved around, stimulating trade and industry. They were also
7632-516: The family, and the idea that marriage should be based on romantic love gained popularity. A clear separation was established between the home and the workplace, which had often not been the case before. The home was seen as a private environment, where housewives provided their husbands with a respite from the troubles of the outside world. Within this ideal, women were expected to focus on domestic matters and to rely on men as breadwinners. Women had limited legal rights in most areas of life, and
7738-414: The first time. Whilst some attempts were made to improve living conditions, slum housing and disease remained a severe problem. The period saw significant scientific and technological development. Britain was advanced in industry and engineering in particular, but somewhat undeveloped in art and education. Great Britain's population increased rapidly, while Ireland's fell sharply. In the strictest sense,
7844-845: The greatest elevational range in the Great Smoky Mountains. In southwest Virginia, south-facing upper slopes from 975 to 1,050 m (3,199 to 3,445 ft) of Beanfield Mountain are dominated by pignut hickory, northern red oak Quercus rubra ), and white oak ( Q. alba ). This site is the most xeric habitat on the mountain because of high insolation , 70 percent slopes, and medium- to coarse-textured soils derived from Clinch sandstone . Mid-elevation slopes from 800 to 975 m (2,625 to 3,199 ft) are dominated by chestnut oak ( Q. prinus ), northern red oak, and pignut hickory and coincide with three shale formations. The range of pignut hickory encompasses 7 orders , 12 suborders, and 22 great groups of soils . About two-thirds of
7950-749: The hickories) are climax , and the trend of succession toward this climax is very strong. Although most silvicultural systems when applied to oak types will maintain a hardwood forest, the cutting methods used affects the rapidity with which other species may replace the oaks and hickories. Pignut hickory is easily damaged by fire , which causes stem degrade or loss of volume, or both. Internal discolorations called mineral streak are common and are one major reason why so few standing hickories meet trade specifications. Streaks result from yellow-bellied sapsucker pecking, pin knots , worm holes, and mechanical injuries. Hickories strongly resist ice damage and seldom develop epicormic branches. The Index of Plant Diseases in
8056-420: The management of sewage and water eventually giving the UK the most advanced system of public health protection anywhere in the world. The quality and safety of household lighting improved over the period with oil lamps becoming the norm in the early 1860s, gas lighting in the 1890s and electric lights beginning to appear in the homes of the richest by the end of the period. Medicine advanced rapidly during
8162-444: The middle of the 19th century to 'diminished cruelty to animals, criminals, lunatics, and children (in that order)'. Legal restrictions were placed on cruelty to animals. Restrictions were placed on the working hours of child labourers in the 1830s and 1840s. Further interventions took place throughout the century to increase the level of child protection. Use of the death penalty also decreased. Crime rates fell significantly in
8268-415: The middle or slightly beyond and generally cling to the nut, which is unribbed, with a thick shell. Pignut hickory begins to bear seed in quantity in 30 years, with optimum production between 75 and 200 years. The maximum age for seed production is about 300 years. Good seed crops occur every year or two with light crops in other years; frost can seriously hinder seed production. Usually less than half of
8374-494: The middle- and working-classes a role in politics. However, all women and a large minority of men remained outside the system into the early 20th century. Cities were given greater political autonomy and the labour movement was legalised. From 1845 to 1852, the Potato Famine caused mass starvation, disease and death in Ireland, sparking large-scale emigration. The Corn Laws were repealed in response to this. Across
8480-445: The nuts in colonial America , lending the species its common name. Nuts and flowers are eaten by the wild turkey and several species of songbirds . Nuts and bark are eaten by black bears , foxes , rabbits , and raccoons . Small mammals eat the nuts and leaves; 5 to 10 percent of the diet of eastern chipmunks is hickory nuts. White-tailed deer occasionally browse hickory leaves, twigs , and nuts. The kernel of hickory seeds
8586-514: The population in 1800 to less than a third by 1901. However, 1890s studies suggested that almost 10% of the urban population lived in a state of desperation lacking the food necessary to maintain basic physical functions. Attitudes towards the poor were often unsympathetic and they were frequently blamed for their situation. In that spirit, the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 had been deliberately designed to punish them and would remain
8692-486: The previous season or from inner scales of the terminal buds at the base of the current growth. The pistillate flowers appear in spikes about 6 mm (0.24 in) long on peduncles terminating in shoots of the current year. Flowers open from the middle of March in the southeast part (Florida) of the range to early June in Michigan . The catkins usually emerge before the pistillate flowers. The fruit of hickory
8798-418: The range of pignut hickory is so extensive, it is not feasible to list the associated trees , shrubs , herbs , and grasses , which vary according to elevation , topographic conditions, edaphic features, and geographic locality. Hickories are monoecious and flower in the spring. The staminate catkins of pignut hickory are 8 to 18 cm (3.1 to 7.1 in) long and develop from axils of leaves of
8904-766: The range of pignut hickory south of the Ohio River , except for a small area in Florida, is designated as humid, mesothermal . That part of the range lying north of the Ohio River is designated humid, mesothermal. Part of the species range in peninsular Florida is classed as subhumid, mesothermal. Mountains in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee are classed as wet, microthermal , and mountains in South Carolina and Georgia are classed as wet, mesothermal. Throughout its range, precipitation
9010-783: The range. The growing season varies by latitude and elevation from 140 to 300 days. Mean annual relative humidity ranges from 70 to 80 percent with small monthly differences; daytime relative humidity often falls below 50% while nighttime humidity approaches 100%. Mean annual hours of sunshine range from 2,200 to 3,000. Average January sunshine varies from 100 to 200 hours, and July sunshine from 260 to 340 hours. Mean daily solar radiation ranges from 12.57 to 18.86 million J m± (300 to 450 langleys ). In January daily radiation varies from 6.28 to 12.57 million J m± (150 to 300 langleys), and in July from 20.95 to 23.04 million J m± (500 to 550 langleys). According to one classification of climate (20),
9116-489: The recorded ranges are almost the same. The leaves of C. ovalis have mostly seven leaflets; those of C. glabra have mostly five leaflets. The two can be distinguished with certainty only in November. Since the two ranges seem to overlap, the distributions have been mapped together as a Carya glabra-ovalis complex. Carya ovalis has also been treated as an interspecific hybrid between C. glabra and C. ovata . C. ovalis
9222-405: The second half of the 19th century. Sociologist Christie Davies linked this change to attempts to morally educate the population, especially at Sunday schools . Contrary to popular belief, Victorian society understood that both men and women enjoyed copulation . Chastity was expected of women, whilst attitudes to male sexual behaviour were more relaxed. The development of police forces led to
9328-437: The seeds are sound, but 50 to 75 percent of these will germinate. The hickory shuckworm ( Laspeyresia caryana ) can seriously reduce germination . Pignut seed, averaging 440/kg (200/lb), is lighter than the seed of other hickory species. The nuts are disseminated mainly by gravity, but the range of seeding is extended by squirrels and chipmunks . Hickories exhibit embryo dormancy which is overcome naturally by overwintering in
9434-1236: The species range is dominated by Ultisols , which are low in bases and have subsurface horizons of clay accumulation. They are usually moist but are dry during part of the warm season. Udults is the dominant suborder and Hapludults and Paleudults are the dominant great groups. These soils are derived from a variety of parent materials- sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, glacial till , and in places varying thickness of loess -which vary in age from Precambrian to Quaternary . A wide range of soil fertility exists as evidenced by soil orders- Alfisols and Mollisols which are medium to high in base saturation to Ultisols which are low in base saturation. Pignut hickory responds to increases in soil nitrogen similarly to American beech ( Fagus grandifolia ), sugar maple ( Acer saccharum ), and blackgum ( Nyssa sylvatica ). These species are rated as intermediate in nitrogen deficiency tolerance and consequently are able to grow with lower levels of nitrogen than are required by "nitrogen- demanding" white ash ( Fraxinus americana ), yellow-poplar ( Liriodendron tulipifera ), and American basswood ( Tilia americana ). Hickories are considered "soil improvers" because their leaves have
9540-402: The spread of diseases and squalid living conditions in many places exacerbated the problem. The population of England, Scotland and Wales grew rapidly during the 19th century. Various factors are considered contributary to this, including a rising fertility rate (though it was falling by the end of the period), the lack of a catastrophic pandemic or famine in the island of Great Britain during
9646-481: The style of Italian Renaissance Revival . The grounds were expanded and remapped in 1888 to their modern size of nearly 300 acres (1.2 km). In the 1980s, razor wire was added to the brick walls surrounding Cave Hill to keep out after-hours visitors. The first scenic overlook for the cemetery, Twin Lakes Scenic Overlook, opened on August 20, 2008. The signature Baxter Avenue entrance, called
9752-465: The tops of hills, and lakes and ponds in the valleys. The Cave Hill Cemetery Co. was chartered in February 1848, and the cemetery was dedicated on July 25, 1848. Reverend Doctor Edward Porter Humphrey delivered the dedicatory address and elaborated on the idea of the garden cemetery, noting, among other things, that ". . .Reason and taste suggest that [this cemetery] should be decorated appropriately by
9858-436: The tops of trees. The foliage of heavily infested trees turns red within a few weeks after attack, and the trees soon die. There is one generation per year in northern areas and normally two broods per year in the South. Control consists of felling infested trees and destroying the bark during winter months or storing infested logs in ponds. Logs and dying trees of several hardwood species including pignut hickory are attacked by
9964-531: The undersides of the leaf. These may coalesce and cause widespread blotching. Mildew invades the leaves and twigs and may form witches' brooms by stimulating bud formation. Although locally prevalent, mildew offers no problem in the management of hickory. The stem canker ( Nectria galligena ) produces depressed areas with concentric bark rings that develop on the trunk and branches. Affected trees are sometimes eliminated through breakage or competition and sometimes live to reach merchantable size with cull section at
10070-402: The war effort, and the evangelical movement's push for moral improvement. There is evidence that the expected standards of moral behaviour were reflected in action as well as rhetoric across all classes of society. For instance, an analysis suggested that less than 5% of working class couples cohabited before marriage. Historian Harold Perkin argued that the change in moral standards led by
10176-441: Was accepted as a polymorphic species especially variable in size and shape of its nuts and is possibly a hybrid . The relationships may be more complex after a long and reticulate phylogeny , according to detailed chemical analyses of hickory nut oils. Carya glabra is a 64 chromosome species that readily hybridizes with other hickories, especially C. ovalis . One hybrid, C. x demareei Palmer ( C. glabra x cordiformis )
10282-474: Was built off Payne Street in 1910, closest to the military sections. There are several service entrances around the perimeter. Other buildings include the stone office building near the lake, and the Rustic Shelter House built in 1892 at a cost of $ 565. The cemetery contains monuments and graves of three Union generals. The 32nd Indiana Monument , also known as the " August Bloedner Monument",
10388-534: Was expanded again by the Second Reform Act in 1867. The Third Reform Act in 1884 introduced a general principle of one vote per household. All these acts and others simplified the electoral system and reduced corruption. Historian Bruce L Kinzer describes these reforms as putting the United Kingdom on the path towards becoming a democracy. The traditional aristocratic ruling class attempted to maintain as much influence as possible while gradually allowing
10494-485: Was generally then known as natural philosophy, but it took a while to catch on. Having been previously dominated by amateurs with a separate income, the Royal Society admitted only professionals from 1847 onwards. The British biologist Thomas Henry Huxley indicated in 1852 that it remained difficult to earn a living as a scientist alone. Scientific knowledge and debates such as that about Charles Darwin 's On
10600-448: Was given to social reform. Utilitarianism was another philosophy that saw itself as based on science rather than on morality, but also emphasised social progress. An alliance formed between these two ideological strands. The reformers emphasised causes such as improving the conditions of women and children, giving police reform priority over harsh punishment to prevent crime, religious equality, and political reform in order to establish
10706-473: Was in contemporaneous usage to describe the era. The era can also be understood in a more extensive sense—the 'long Victorian era'—as a period that possessed sensibilities and characteristics distinct from the periods adjacent to it, in which case it is sometimes dated to begin before Victoria's accession—typically from the passage of or agitation for (during the 1830s) the Reform Act 1832 , which introduced
10812-644: Was interred on June 10, 2016. Also interred are the founder of Kentucky Fried Chicken , Colonel Harland Sanders ; and Mia Zapata , lead singer of punk band The Gits . Paul Hornung , Heisman trophy winner and Green Bay Packer , was interred in 2020. Victorian era In the history of the United Kingdom and the British Empire , the Victorian era was the reign of Queen Victoria , from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. Slightly different definitions are sometimes used. The era followed
10918-401: Was low, punishments severe, work was dangerous and disrupted children's development (often leaving them too tired to play even in their free time). Early labour could do lifelong harm; even in the 1960s and '70s, the elderly people of industrial towns were noted for their often unusually short stature, deformed physiques, and diseases associated with unhealthy working conditions. Reformers wanted
11024-459: Was published in 1913 for a segregate of C. glabra . It was reduced to a synonym of C. glabra in Little's 1953 checklist but was elevated to a variety in the 1979 edition. The principal difference is in the husk of the fruit , opening late and only partly, or remaining closed in C. glabra but promptly splitting to the base in C. ovalis. However, many trees are intermediate in this trait, and
11130-468: Was the predominant power in the world. Victorian society valued a high standard of personal conduct across all sections of society. The emphasis on morality gave impetus to social reform but also placed restrictions on certain groups' liberty. Prosperity rose during the period, but debilitating undernutrition persisted. Literacy and childhood education became near universal in Great Britain for
11236-432: Was well developed, education and the arts were mediocre. Wage rates continued to improve in the later 19th century: real wages (after taking inflation into account) were 65 per cent higher in 1901 compared to 1871. Much of the money was saved, as the number of depositors in savings banks rose from 430,000 in 1831 to 5.2 million in 1887, and their deposits from £14 million to over £90 million. Children had always played
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