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115-543: The crater name Cabeus first appeared in the 1651 work Almagestum Novum by Giovanni Riccioli , who named it after Niccolò Cabeo . However, the position of the Cabeus crater was in the location later assigned to Newton crater . The official name and location for this crater was adopted by the IAU Commission 17, as established in the 1935 work Named Lunar Formations by Mary A. Blagg and Karl Müller. This crater

230-474: A caricature even of Galileo's [conjecture] – let alone Galileo's true thought on the matter! Ferrara, Italy Ferrara ( / f ə ˈ r ɑːr ə / ; Italian: [ferˈraːra] ; Emilian : Fràra [ˈfraːra] ) is a city and comune (municipality) in Emilia-Romagna , Northern Italy , capital of the province of Ferrara . As of 2016, it had 132,009 inhabitants. It

345-512: A collection of coins and Renaissance medals. The Renaissance Palazzo Paradiso , part of the Ferrara University library system, displays part of the manuscript of Orlando furioso and letters by Tasso as well as Ludovico Ariosto 's grave. Its famous alumni include Nicolaus Copernicus and Paracelsus . The northern quarter, which was added by Ercole I in 1492–1505 thanks to the master plan of Biagio Rossetti , and hence called

460-595: A few years under Napoleon and during the 1848 revolution, the ghetto lasted until Italian unification in 1859. In 1799, the Jewish community saved the city from sacking by troops of the Holy Roman Empire . During the spring of 1799, the city had fallen into the hands of the Republic of France , which established a small garrison there. On 15 April, Lieutenant Field Marshal Johann von Klenau approached

575-590: A general trend in Italy and Europe, Ferrara has come to rely more on tertiary and tourism, while the heavy industry, still present in the town, has been largely phased out. After almost 450 years, another earthquake struck Ferrara in May 2012 causing only limited damage to the historic buildings of the town and no victims. The town of Ferrara lies on the southern shores of the Po river , about 44 km (27 mi) north-east of

690-464: A hydrogen signature was detected. Potential sources for this hydrogen include water deposits from comet or meteorite impacts, the solar wind or out-gassing. This crater is sufficiently large that the temperature within the shaded region is below 100 K (−173 °C). This would allow water ice to remain on or near the crater surface for billions of years without sublimating. The United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration launched

805-539: A large urban park around the town and are a popular destination for joggers and cyclists. In 2007, there were 135,369 people residing in Ferrara, of whom 46.8% were male and 53.2% were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 12.28% of the population compared to pensioners who number 26.41%. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06% (minors) and 19.94% (pensioners). The average age of Ferrara residents

920-476: A major role. There is uncertainty among scholars about the proposed Roman origin of the settlement in its current location ( Tacitus and Boccaccio refer to a "Forum Alieni" ), for little is known of this period, but some archeologic evidence points to the hypothesis that Ferrara could have been originated from two small Byzantine settlements: a cluster of facilities around the Cathedral of St. George, on

1035-456: A man of encyclopedic knowledge but also as someone who could understand and discuss all the relevant issues in cosmology, observational astronomy, and geography of the time. Riccioli's works are in Latin . Riccioli's books about prosody were revised many times and underwent many editions. The whole "Galilean proof" [of Earth's immobility] as constructed and "proved" by Riccioli is nothing but

1150-491: A particularly fine telescope, in late 1632. Also in that section Riccioli includes reports of Jovian cloud belts appearing and disappearing over time. The appearance of the physico-mathematical argument in the Reformed Astronomy was the occasion for Stefano degli Angeli (1623–1697) to launch an "unexpected, somewhat disrespectful and sometimes flippant attack" on Riccioli and the argument. James Gregory published

1265-401: A pendulum would complete 86,400 swings in a 24-hour period. This he directly tested, twice, by using stars to mark time and recruiting a team of nine fellow Jesuits to count swings and maintain the amplitude of swing for 24 hours. The results were pendulums with periods within 1.85%, and then 0.69%, of the desired value; and Riccioli even sought to improve on the latter value. The seconds pendulum

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1380-812: A project—known as MEIS, after its initials in Italian—to be completed in 2021, with additional buildings that will create a major Jewish cultural hub and add exhibits focusing on the Jews in the Italian Renaissance and the Shoah. During the Renaissance the Este family, well known for its patronage of the arts, welcomed a great number of artists, especially painters, that formed the so-called School of Ferrara . The astounding list of painters and artists includes

1495-597: A prominent lunar crater "Copernicus" , and he named other important craters after other proponents of the Copernican theory such as Kepler , Galileo and Lansbergius . Because craters that he and Grimaldi named after themselves are in the same general vicinity as these, while craters named for some other Jesuit astronomers are in a different part of the Moon, near the very prominent crater named for Tycho Brahe, Riccioli's lunar nomenclature has at times been considered to be

1610-517: A report in England in 1668 on the resulting public and personal dispute on the matter of falling objects. This was a prelude to Robert Hooke 's (1635–1703) invitation to Isaac Newton (1642–1727) to resume his scientific correspondence with the Royal Society, and to their ensuing discussion about the trajectory of falling bodies "that turned Newton's mind away from 'other business' and back to

1725-517: A rich Jewish family during the dictatorship of Benito Mussolini and World War II . Furthermore, Wim Wenders and Michelangelo Antonioni 's Beyond the Clouds in (1995) and Ermanno Olmi 's The Profession of Arms in (2001), a film about the last days of Giovanni dalle Bande Nere , were also shot in Ferrara. In the third season of Medici (TV Series) , Girolamo Riario 's men seize Ferrara, 100 miles from Florence and takes their salt. Based on

1840-580: A strong program of experimentation, such as with falling bodies. One of the most famous Italian Jesuits of the time, Giuseppe Biancani (1565–1624), was teaching at Parma when Riccioli arrived there. Biancani accepted new astronomical ideas, such as the existence of lunar mountains and the fluid nature of the heavens, and collaborated with the Jesuit astronomer Christoph Scheiner (1573–1650) on sunspot observations. Riccioli mentions him with gratitude and admiration. By 1628 Riccioli's studies were complete and he

1955-535: A tacit expression of sympathy for a Copernican theory that, as a Jesuit, he could not publicly support. However, Riccioli said he put the Copernicans all in stormy waters (the Oceanus Procellarum ). Another noteworthy feature of the map is that Riccioli included on it a direct statement that the Moon is not inhabited. This ran counter to speculations about an inhabited Moon that had been present in

2070-664: A university city second only to Bologna, remained a part of the Papal States for almost 300 years, an era marked by a steady decline; in 1792 the population of the town was only 27,000, less than in the 17th century. In 1805–1814 it was briefly part of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy , a client-state of the French Empire . After the 1815 Congress of Vienna , Ferrara was given back to the Pope, now guaranteed by

2185-462: A voluminous correspondence with others who shared his interests, including Hevelius , Huygens , Cassini , and Kircher . He was awarded a prize by Louis XIV in recognition of his activities and their relevance to contemporary culture. Riccioli continued to publish on both astronomy and theology up to his death. He died in Bologna at 73 years of age. One of Riccioli's most significant works

2300-681: Is Alan Fabbri of the Lega Nord . The urban organisation is governed by the Italian Constitution (art. 114), the Municipal Statute and several laws, notably the Legislative Decree 267/2000 or Unified Text on Local Administration ( Testo Unico degli Enti Locali ). The current division of the seats in the city council, after the 2019 local election, is the following: The imposing Este Castle , sited in

2415-460: Is pasticcio di maccheroni , a domed macaroni pie, consisting of a crust of sweet dough enclosing macaroni in a Béchamel sauce , studded with porcini mushrooms and ragù alla bolognese . The traditional Christmas first course is cappelletti , large meat filled ravioli served in chicken broth. It is often followed by salama da sugo , a very big, cured sausage made from a selection of pork meats and spices kneaded with red wine. Seafood

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2530-427: Is 49, compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Ferrara grew by 2.28%, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.85%. The current birth rate of Ferrara is 7.02 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births. Ferrara is known as the oldest Italian city with a population over 100,000, as well the city with lowest birth rate. As of 2006 , 95.59% of

2645-548: Is 60 km across. The slope of the crater walls is 10–15°. Because of the crater's location near the lunar south pole, the main part of the crater is illuminated by the Sun during only 25% of each lunar day. The inner walls receive illumination for 30% of a lunar day, while part of the western end of the crater is in permanent shadow. The south polar region of the Moon was surveyed by the Lunar Prospector spacecraft and

2760-405: Is a worn formation that has been eroded by subsequent impacts. The rim is eroded and uneven, with prominent ridges at the northern and southern ends. A small crater lies across the northeastern rim and there is 10–11 km crater on the interior floor near the west-southwestern rim. Near the center of the crater floor is a small ridge. The floor of the crater has an average depth of 4 km and it

2875-612: Is also an important part of the local tradition, that boast rich fisheries in the Po delta lagoons and Adriatic sea. Pasta with clams and grilled or stewed eel dishes are especially well-known. Popular food items include also zia garlic salami and the traditional coppia bread, protected by the IGP ( protected geographical status ) label. Not unusual is the typical kosher salami made of goose meat stuffed in goose neck skin. Local patisserie include spicy pampepato chocolate pie, tenerina ,

2990-400: Is considered one of the most important examples of Renaissance urban planning and contributed to the selection of Ferrara as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . In spite of having entered its golden age, Ferrara was severely hit by a war against Venice fought and lost in 1482–84. Alfonso I succeeded to the throne in 1505 and married the notorious Lucrezia Borgia . He again fought Venice in

3105-501: Is displayed in the National Gallery of Palazzo dei Diamanti . The Renaissance literary men and poets Torquato Tasso (author of Jerusalem Delivered ), Ludovico Ariosto (author of the romantic epic poem Orlando Furioso ) and Matteo Maria Boiardo (author of the grandiose poem of chivalry and romance Orlando Innamorato ) lived and worked at the court of Ferrara during the 15th and 16th century. The Ferrara Bible

3220-441: Is known as the " Coriolis effect "; third, an argument based on the appearance of stars as seen through the telescopes of the time. Riccioli discusses the physico-mathematical argument in regard to arguments both for and against Earth's motion. Galileo offered a conjecture in his 1632 Dialogue that the apparent linear acceleration of a stone falling from a tower was the result of two uniform circular motions acting in combination –

3335-521: Is known today as the Coriolis effect after the nineteenth-century physicist Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis (1792–1843). However, the rightward deflection actually occurs regardless of the direction the cannon is pointed (a much more developed understanding of physics than what was available in Riccioli's time is required to explain this). At any rate, the effect would have been too small for cannoneers of

3450-649: Is not proportional to weight. His limited agreement with Galileo was significant, coming as it did from an unsympathetic reader who had gone so far as to include the text of Galileo's condemnation in his own publications. Riccioli and Grimaldi extensively studied the Moon, of which Grimaldi drew maps. This material was included in Book 4 of the New Almagest . Grimaldi's maps were based on earlier work by Johannes Hevelius and Michael van Langren . On one of these maps, Riccioli provided names for lunar features—names that are

3565-415: Is of equal or greater density; if both objects are of equal weight the denser one descends more quickly. For example, in dropping balls of wood and lead that both weighed 2.5 ounces, Riccioli found that upon the leaden ball having traversed 280 Roman feet the wooden ball had traversed only 240 feet (a table in the New Almagest contains data on twenty one such paired drops). He attributed such differences to

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3680-522: Is one of the finest examples of Romanesque architecture . The duomo has been renovated many times through the centuries, thus its resulting eclectic style is a harmonious combination of the Romanesque central structure and portal, the Gothic upper part of the façade and the Renaissance campanile . The sculptures of the main portal are attributed to Nicholaus  [ it ] . The upper part of

3795-606: Is situated 44 kilometres (27 miles) northeast of Bologna , on the Po di Volano, a branch channel of the main stream of the Po River , located 5 km (3 miles) north. The town has broad streets and numerous palaces dating from the Renaissance , when it hosted the court of the House of Este . For its beauty and cultural importance, it has been designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site . The first documented settlements in

3910-546: Is the town's oldest, crossed by a myriad of narrow alleys that date back to the Early Middle Ages . Casa Romei  [ it ] is perhaps the best preserved Medieval building in Ferrara. It was the private residence of merchant Giovanni Romei, related by marriage to the Este family, and likely the work of the court architect Pietrobono Brasavola. Thanks to the nuns of the Corpus Domini order, much of

4025-610: The Addizione Erculea , features a number of Renaissance palazzi . Among the finest is Palazzo dei Diamanti ("Diamond Palace"), named after the diamond points into which the façade's stone blocks are cut. The palazzo houses the National Picture Gallery, with a large collection of the school of Ferrara, which first rose to prominence in the latter half of the 15th century, with Cosimo Tura , Francesco Cossa and Ercole dei Roberti . Noted masters of

4140-594: The Centaur upper stage of its Atlas V carrier rocket impacted Cabeus, followed shortly thereafter by the impact of the LCROSS spacecraft itself. The impact of the Centaur was intended to throw up a plume of lunar surface material to be sampled by sensors carried on the LCROSS spacecraft as it traversed the plume. But the debris plumes were smaller than predicted. Preliminary data from the LCROSS spectrometer measurements of

4255-587: The Empire of Austria . A bastion fort was erected in the 1600s by Pope Paul V on the site the Castel Tedaldo , an old castle at the south-west angle of the town, this was occupied by an Austrian garrison from 1832 until 1859. The fortress was completely dismantled following the birth of the Kingdom of Italy and the bricks were used for new constructions throughout the town. During the last decades of

4370-629: The Italian Wars after joining the League of Cambrai . In 1509 he was excommunicated by Pope Julius II , but was able to overcome the Papal and Spanish armies in 1512 at the Battle of Ravenna . These successes were based on Ferrara's artillery, produced in his own foundry which was the best of its time. Upon his death in 1534, Alfonso I was succeeded by his son Ercole II , whose marriage in 1528 to

4485-615: The Italian communes is the City Council ( Consiglio Comunale ), which, in towns having between 100,000 and 250,000 population, is composed by 32 councillors elected every five years with a proportional system, contextually to the mayoral elections. The executive body is the City Committee ( Giunta Comunale ), composed by 12 assessors , that is nominated and presided over by a directly elected mayor. The current mayor of Ferrara

4600-568: The LCROSS , impactor spacecraft on 18 June 2009, to look for water at the Lunar south pole . On 28 September 2009, Cabeus proper was selected as the impact target for the LCROSS mission, switching the target from satellite crater Cabeus A. The change was made after review of the latest data gathered by other lunar exploration craft, which indicated that Cabeus proper had a higher concentration of hydrogen than Cabeus A. At 11:31 UTC on 9 October 2009

4715-464: The Middle Ages , and that sometimes reveals the influence of its important Jewish community. The signature dish is cappellacci di zucca , special ravioli with a filling of butternut squash , Parmesan and flavored with nutmeg . It is served with a sauce of butter and sage or bolognese sauce . Another peculiar dish, that was allegedly cooked by Renaissance chef Cristoforo di Messisbugo ,

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4830-528: The Mirandola fortress. The besieged garrison made several sorties from the Saint Paul's Gate, which were repulsed by the insurgent peasants. The French attempted two rescues of the beleaguered fortress: the first, on 24 April, when a force of 400 Modenese was repulsed at Mirandola and the second, General Montrichard tried to raise the city-blockade by advancing with a force of 4,000. Finally, at

4945-664: The Papacy in 754 or 756. In 988 Ferrara was ceded by the Church to the House of Canossa , but at the death of Matilda of Tuscany in 1115 it became a free commune . During the 12th century the history of the town was marked by the wrestling for power between two preeminent families, the Guelph Adelardi and the Ghibelline Salinguerra. The powerful Imperial House of Este threw their decisive weight behind

5060-535: The Paris Observatory cited it extensively even though it was an old book at that point; the 1912 Catholic Encyclopedia calls it the most important literary work of the Jesuits during the seventeenth century. Within its two volumes were ten "books" covering every subject within astronomy and related to astronomy at the time: Riccioli envisioned that the New Almagest would have three volumes, but only

5175-432: The Renaissance . He vehemently preached against the moral corruption of much of the clergy at the time, and his main opponent was Pope Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia). During the time that Renée of France was Duchess of Ferrara, her court attracted Protestant thinkers such as John Calvin and Olympia Fulvia Morata . The court became hostile to Protestant sympathizers after the marriage of Renée's daughter Anna d'Este to

5290-572: The "probably the lengthiest, most penetrating, and authoritative" analysis of this question made by "any author of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries", in his opinion apparently superseding even Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems — Ptolemaic and Copernican . Indeed, one writer has recently described Book 9 as "the book Galileo was supposed to write". Within Book 9 Riccioli discusses 126 arguments concerning Earth's motion — 49 for and 77 against. To Riccioli

5405-424: The 126 arguments. However, translations of arguments of the New Almagest , and discussions of the arguments to any extent by more modern writers are rare: only for three arguments of the 126 are such translations and discussions readily available. These are, first, an argument Riccioli called the "physico-mathematical argument", which was related to one of Galileo's conjectures; second, an argument based on what today

5520-464: The 16th century best known for madrigals is thought to have been born in Ferrara. Ferrara is the birthplace of Italian film directors Michelangelo Antonioni and Florestano Vancini . The latter shot in Ferrara his 1960 film Long Night in 1943 . The town was also the setting of the famous 1970 movie The Garden of the Finzi-Continis by Vittorio De Sica , that tells the vicissitudes of

5635-419: The 16th-century School of Ferrara include Lorenzo Costa and Dosso Dossi , the most eminent of all, Girolamo da Carpi and Benvenuto Tisi (il Garofalo) . The district is also home to University of Ferrara Botanic Garden . The town is still almost totally encircled by 9 kilometres (6 miles) of ancient brick walls , mostly built between 1492 and 1520. Today the walls, after a careful restoration, make up

5750-408: The 1800s and the early 1900s, Ferrara remained a modest trade centre for its large rural hinterland that relied on commercial crops such as sugar beet and industrial hemp . Large land reclamation works were carried out for decades with the aim to expand the available arable land and eradicate malaria from the wetlands along the Po delta. Mass industrialisation came to Ferrara only at the end of

5865-741: The 1930s with the set-up of a chemical plant by the Fascist regime that should have supplied the regime with synthetic rubber . During the Second World War Ferrara was repeatedly bombed by Allied warplanes that targeted and destroyed railway links and industrial facilities. After the war, the industrial area in Pontelagoscuro was expanded to become a giant petrochemical compound operated by Montecatini and other companies, that at its peak employed 7,000 workers and produced 20% of plastics in Italy. In recent decades, as part of

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5980-498: The Copernican theory. The other arguments Riccioli presents in Book 9 of the New Almagest were diverse. There were arguments concerning: whether buildings could stand or birds could fly if Earth rotated; what sorts of motions were natural to heavy objects; what constitutes the more simple and elegant celestial arrangement; whether the heavens or the Earth was the more suited for motion and the more easily and economically moved; whether

6095-463: The Copernicans in his assertions that rotation of the Earth would not necessarily be felt, and that it would not ruin buildings or leave birds behind. Some authors have suggested that Riccioli may have been a secret Copernican, required due to his position as a Jesuit to pretend to oppose the theory. Another prominent astronomical publication of Riccioli's was his 1665 Astronomia Reformata ( Reformed Astronomy )—another large volume, although only half

6210-613: The Earth should reveal itself because on a rotating Earth, the ground moves at different speeds at different times. Riccioli was born in Ferrara . He entered the Society of Jesus on 6 October 1614. After completing his novitiate , he began to study humanities in 1616, pursuing those studies first at Ferrara, and then at Piacenza . From 1620 to 1628 he studied philosophy and theology at the College of Parma . Parma Jesuits had developed

6325-450: The Earth's poles, where there would be little or no circular motion caused by Earth's rotation; and even at the equator where there would be more motion caused by Earth's rotation, the rate of fall predicted by Galileo's idea was too slow. Riccioli argued that the problems with Galileo's conjecture were a mark against the Copernican world system, but modern writers differ in regards to Riccioli's reasoning on this. Riccioli also argued that

6440-641: The Este Castle, adjacent to the Corso Roma, now known as the Corso Martiri della Libertà, was the site of an infamous massacre in 1943. On December 13, 2017, the first day of Hanukkah , Italy's Museum of Italian Judaism and the Shoah opened on the site of a restored two-story brick prison built in 1912 that counted Jews among its detainees during the Fascist period. This is the initial phase of

6555-410: The Finzi-Continis , Long Night in 1943 ). In historical fiction, British author Sarah Dunant set her 2009 novel Sacred Hearts in a convent in Ferrara. Ferrara gave birth to Girolamo Savonarola , the famous medieval Dominican priest and leader of Florence from 1494 until his execution in 1498. He was known for his book burning , destruction of what he considered immoral art, and hostility to

6670-479: The Middle Ages to the present day. It played an important role when Ferrara enjoyed its greatest splendor in the 15th and 16th century, with the duke Ercole I d'Este . The situation of the Jews deteriorated in 1598, when the Este dynasty moved to Modena and the city came under papal control. The Jewish settlement, located in three streets forming a triangle near the cathedral, became a ghetto in 1627. Apart from

6785-606: The Salinguerra and eventually reaped the benefits of victory for themselves. Thus, in 1264 Obizzo II d'Este was proclaimed lifelong ruler of Ferrara, taking the additional titles of Lord of Modena in 1288 and of Reggio in 1289. His rule marked the end of the communal period in Ferrara and the beginning of the Este rule, which lasted until 1598. In 1452 Borso d'Este was created duke of Modena and Reggio by Emperor Frederick III and in 1471 duke of Ferrara by Pope Paul II . Lionello and, especially, Ercole I were among

6900-403: The above-mentioned Cabeo had argued that this rule had not been rigorously demonstrated. His results showed that, while falling bodies generally showed constant acceleration, there were differences determined by weight and size and density. Riccioli said that if two heavy objects of differing weight are dropped simultaneously from the same height, the heavier one descends more quickly so long as it

7015-527: The actions by Riario, Pope Sixtus IV condemns Riario and accepts Lorenzo's invitation to a peace conference in Bagnolo. The attack by Riario’s men on Ferrara was filmed at Castle of Oliveto in Castelfiorentino , once the residence of the noble Pucci family of Florence. The Palio of St. George is a medieval-themed horse race held every last Sunday of May. Established in 1279, it is probably

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7130-509: The air, and noted that air density had to be considered when dealing with falling bodies. He illustrated the reliability of his experiments by providing detailed descriptions of how they were carried out, so that anyone could reproduce them, complete with diagrams of the Torre de Asinelli that showed heights, drop locations, etc. Riccioli noted that while these differences did contradict Galileo's claim that balls of differing weight would fall at

7245-466: The appearance of stars in the telescope posed for the Copernican theory had been noted as early as 1614 by Simon Marius, who said telescopic observations of the disks of stars supported the Tychonic theory. The problem was acknowledged by Copernicans such as Martin van den Hove (1605–1639), who also measured the disks of stars and acknowledged that the issue of vast star sizes might lead people to reject

7360-579: The area of the present-day Province of Ferrara date from the 6th century BC. The ruins of the Etruscan town of Spina , established along the lagoons at the ancient mouth of Po river , were lost until modern times, when drainage schemes in the Valli di Comacchio marshes in 1922 first officially revealed a necropolis with over 4,000 tombs, evidence of a population centre that in Antiquity must have played

7475-404: The basis for the nomenclature of lunar features still in use today. For example, Mare Tranquillitatis (The Sea of Tranquility, site of the Apollo 11 landing in 1969), received its name from Riccioli. Riccioli named large lunar areas for weather. He named craters for significant astronomers, grouping them by philosophies and time periods. Although Riccioli rejected the Copernican theory, he named

7590-504: The best of modern telescopes. But during most of the seventeenth century it was thought that these disks seen in a telescope were the actual bodies of stars. In the Copernican theory, the stars had to lie at vast distances from Earth in order to explain why no annual parallax was seen among them. Riccioli and Grimaldi made numerous measurements of star disks using a telescope, providing a detailed description of their procedure so that anyone who wanted could replicate it. Riccioli then calculated

7705-417: The center of the universe was a more or less noble position; and many others. Many of the anti-Copernican arguments in the New Almagest had roots in the anti-Copernican arguments of Tycho Brahe. Riccioli argued vigorously against the Copernican system, and even characterized certain arguments for terrestrial immobility as unanswerable. However, he also rebutted certain anti-Copernican arguments, siding with

7820-428: The daily rotation of Earth, and a second uniform circular motion belonging to the stone and acquired from being carried along by the tower. Galileo says that [T]he true and real motion of the stone is never accelerated at all, but is always equable and uniform.... So we need not look for any other causes of acceleration or any other motions, for the moving body, whether remaining on the tower or falling, moves always in

7935-445: The end of the German occupation. During the Second World War, 96 of Ferrara's 300 Jews were deported to German concentration and death camps; five survived. The Italian Jewish writer, Giorgio Bassani , was from Ferrara. His celebrated book, The Garden of the Finzi-Continis , was published in Italian as Giardino dei Finzi-Contini, 1962, by Giulio Einaudi editore s.p.a. It was made into a film by Vittorio de Sica in 1970. During WWII,

8050-416: The end of the month, a column led by Pierre-Augustin Hulin reached and relieved the fortress. Klenau took possession of the town on 21 May, and garrisoned it with a light battalion. The Jewish residents of Ferrara paid 30,000  ducats to prevent the pillage of the city by Klenau's forces; this was used to pay the wages of Gardani's troops. Although Klenau held the town, the French still possessed

8165-833: The enthusiasm for astronomy arose within him he could never extinguish it, and so he became more committed to astronomy than theology. Eventually his superiors in the Jesuit order officially assigned him to the task of astronomical research. However, he also continued to write on theology (see below ). Riccioli built an astronomical observatory in Bologna at the College of St. Lucia, equipped with many instruments for astronomical observations, including telescopes , quadrants , sextants , and other traditional instruments. Riccioli dealt not only with astronomy in his research, but also with physics, arithmetic, geometry, optics, gnomonics , geography, and chronology. He collaborated with others in his work, including other Jesuits, most notably Francesco Maria Grimaldi (1618–1663) at Bologna, and he kept up

8280-418: The fact that references to a Roman degree in antiquity had always been 75 milliaria or 375,000 pedes. He is often credited with being one of the first to telescopically observe the star Mizar and note that it was a double star ; however, Castelli and Galileo observed it much earlier. In the words of Alfredo Dinis, Riccioli enjoyed great prestige and great opposition, both in Italy and abroad, not only as

8395-526: The fervently Catholic Duke of Guise. The Ferrarese musician Girolamo Frescobaldi was one of the most important composers of keyboard music in the late Renaissance and early Baroque periods. His masterpiece Fiori musicali ( Musical Flowers ) is a collection of liturgical organ music first published in 1635. It became the most famous of Frescobaldi's works and was studied centuries after his death by numerous composers, including Johann Sebastian Bach . Maurizio Moro (15??–16??) an Italian poet of

8510-518: The first (with its 1500 pages split into two parts) was completed. Riccioli is credited with being the first person to precisely measure the acceleration due to gravity of falling bodies. Books 2 and 9 of the New Almagest Riccioli included a significant discussion of and extensive experimental reports on the motions of falling bodies and pendulums. He was interested in the pendulum as a device for precisely measuring time. By counting

8625-443: The fortress with a modest mixed force of Austrian cavalry, artillery and infantry augmented by Italian peasant rebels, commanded by Count Antonio Bardaniand and demanded its capitulation. The commander refused. Klenau blockaded the city, leaving a small group of artillery and troops to continue the siege. For the next three days, Klenau patrolled the countryside, capturing the surrounding strategic points of Lagoscuro , Borgoforte and

8740-548: The frontispiece of the New Almagest illustrates (see figure at right), Riccioli favoured a modified version of Tycho Brahe's system; here is how he described the system that "came to [his] mind" when he was in Parma ;: "it shares everything with the Tychonian system, except the orbits of Saturn and Jupiter; for [me] their center was not the Sun, but Earth itself". Many writers make references to Riccioli's analysis and

8855-409: The impact plume appeared to confirm the presence of water in the crater. Analysis of the plume observations supports the presence of water in the regolith. Absorption in the near-infrared can be attributed to ice and water vapor, while emissions in the ultraviolet indicate the presence of hydroxyl radicals, which also supports the likelihood of water. The estimated total amount of water vapor and ice in

8970-476: The length of the New Almagest . The contents of the two significantly overlap; the Reformed Astronomy might be thought of as a condensed and updated version of the New Almagest . The Reformed Astronomy contains an extensive report on the changing appearance of Saturn. Included in the section on Jupiter is an apparent record of a very early (if not the earliest) observation of Jupiter's Great Red Spot , made by Leander Bandtius, Abbot of Dunisburgh and owner of

9085-472: The main façade, with arcades of pointed arches, dates from the 13th century. The recumbent marble lions guarding the portals are copies of the originals, now in the cathedral's museum. An elaborated 13th-century relief depicting the Last Judgement is found in the second storey of the porch. The interior was restored in baroque style in 1712. The marble campanile attributed to Leon Battista Alberti

9200-435: The most important patrons of the arts in late 15th- and early 16th-century Italy. During this time, Ferrara grew into an international cultural centre, renowned for its architecture, music, literature and visual arts. The architecture of Ferrara greatly benefited from the genius of Biagio Rossetti , who was requested in 1484 by Ercole I to draft a masterplan for the expansion of the town. The resulting " Erculean Addition "

9315-449: The names of Andrea Mantegna , Vicino da Ferrara , Giovanni Bellini , Leon Battista Alberti , Pisanello , Piero della Francesca , Battista Dossi , Dosso Dossi , Cosmé Tura , Francesco del Cossa and Titian . In the 19th and 20th centuries, Ferrara again hosted and inspired numerous painters who grew fond of its eerie atmosphere. Among them Giovanni Boldini , Filippo de Pisis and Giorgio de Chirico . A large collection of paintings

9430-422: The number of pendulum swings that elapsed between transits of certain stars, Riccioli was able to experimentally verify that the period of a pendulum swinging with small amplitude is constant to within two swings out of 3212 (0.062%). He also reported that a pendulum's period increases if the amplitude of its swing is increased to 40 degrees. He sought to develop a pendulum whose period was precisely one second – such

9545-463: The oldest such competition in the world. The Ferrara Buskers Festival is a non-competitive parade of street musicians from all over the world. At the 2017 edition, more than 1,000 artists from 35 different nations took part in the festival, including dancers, clowns, equilibrists, jugglers and other original performers. Additionally, the town hosts the yearly Ferrara Balloons Festival , a large hot-air balloon show. The town's football team, SPAL ,

9660-467: The original decorations in the inner rooms have been saved. The house features fresco cycles in the "Sala delle Sibille" ("room of sibyls"), an original terracotta fireplace bearing the coat of arms of Giovanni Romei in the adjoining Saletta dei Profeti ("room of the prophets"), depicting allegories from the Bible, and in other rooms, some of which were commissioned by cardinal Ippolito d'Este , paintings by

9775-429: The physical sizes that the measured stars would need to have in order for them both to be as far away as was required in the Copernican theory to show no parallax, and to have the sizes seen with the telescope. The result in all cases was that the stars were huge – dwarfing the sun. In some scenarios one single star would exceed the size of the entire universe as estimated by a geocentrist like Tycho Brahe. This problem that

9890-471: The plume is up to 155 ± 12 kg , or an estimated 5.6 ± 2.9% by mass. The spectral signatures of other volatiles were observed, matching the signatures of carbon dioxide , light hydrocarbons , and sulfur -bearing compounds. By convention these features are identified on lunar maps by placing the letter on the side of the crater midpoint that is closest to Cabeus. Giovanni Riccioli Giovanni Battista Riccioli , SJ (17 April 1598 – 25 June 1671)

10005-407: The poles, the ground moves more slowly, whereas on parallels nearer the equator, the ground moves more rapidly. Therefore, were a cannon, aimed directly at a target to the north, to fire a ball, that ball would strike slightly to the east (right) of the target, thanks to the Earth's rotation. But, if the cannon were fired to the east there would be no deflection, as both cannon and target would move

10120-482: The population was Italian . The largest immigrant group was other European nations with Ukraine and Albania : 2.59% followed by North Africa: 0.51%, and East Asia : 0.39%. The city is predominantly Roman Catholic , with small Orthodox Christian adherents. The historical Jewish community is still surviving. The Jewish community of Ferrara is the only one in Emilia Romagna with a continuous presence from

10235-495: The question was not between the geocentric world system of Ptolemy and the heliocentric world system of Copernicus, for the telescope had unseated the Ptolemaic system; it was between the geo-heliocentric world system developed by Tycho Brahe in the 1570s (in which the Sun, Moon, and stars circle an immobile Earth, while the planets circle the Sun – sometimes called a "geo-heliocentric" or "hybrid" system) and that of Copernicus. As

10350-517: The regional capital, Bologna , and 87 km (54 mi) south of Venice . The territory of the municipality, entirely part of the Padan plain , is overwhelmingly flat, situated on average just 9 metres (30 ft) above sea-level. The proximity to the largest Italian river has been a constant concern in the history of Ferrara, that has been affected by recurrent, disastrous floods, the latest occurring as recently as 1951. The Idrovia Ferrarese links

10465-632: The right bank of the main branch of the Po, which then ran much closer to the city than today, and a castrum , a fortified complex built on the left bank of the river to defend against the Lombards. Ferrara appears first in a document of the Lombard king Desiderius of 753 AD, when he captured the town from the Exarchate of Ravenna . Later the Franks , after routing the Lombards, presented Ferrara to

10580-530: The river Po from Ferrara to the Adriatic at Porto Garibaldi. The climate of the Po valley is classified as humid subtropical (Cfa) under the Köppen climate classification , a type of climate commonly referred to as "warm temperate" that features mild winters and hot summers, heavy rains in spring and autumn but there is also a lot of rain even in the driest month of January for Ferrara. The legislative body of

10695-503: The rotation of the Earth should reveal itself in the flight of artillery projectiles, because on a rotating Earth the ground moves at different speeds at different latitudes. He wrote that If a ball is fired along a Meridian toward the pole (rather than toward the East or West), diurnal motion will cause the ball to be carried off [that is, the trajectory of the ball will be deflected], all things being equal: for on parallels of latitude nearer

10810-403: The same distance in the same direction. Riccioli said that the best of cannoneers could fire a ball right into the mouth of an enemy's cannon; if this deflection effect existed in northward shots they would have detected it. Riccioli argued that the absence of this effect indicated that the Earth does not rotate. He was correct in his reasoning in that the effect he describes actually does occur. It

10925-416: The same manner; that is, circularly, with the same rapidity, and with the same uniformity.... if the line described by a falling body is not exactly this, it is very near to it... [and] according to these considerations, straight motion goes entirely out the window and nature never makes any use of it at all. Riccioli explained that this conjecture could not work: It could not apply to the fall of bodies near

11040-404: The same rate, it was possible Galileo observed the fall of bodies made of the same material but of differing sizes, for in that case the difference in fall time between the two balls is much smaller than if the balls are of same size but differing materials, or of the same weight but differing sizes, etc., and that difference is not apparent unless the balls are released from a very great height. At

11155-435: The school of Camillo and Cesare Filippi (16th century). Palazzo Schifanoia was built in 1385 for Alberto V d'Este . The palazzo includes frescoes depicting the life of Borso d'Este , the signs of the zodiac and allegorical representations of the months. The vestibule was decorated with stucco mouldings by Domenico di Paris  [ it ] . The building also contains fine choir-books with miniatures and

11270-503: The second daughter of Louis XII , Renée of France , brought great prestige to the court of Ferrara. Under his reign, the Duchy remained an affluent country and a cultural powerhouse. However, an earthquake struck the town in 1570, causing the economy to collapse, and when Ercole II's son Alfonso II died without heirs in 1597, the House of Este lost Ferrara to the Papal States . Ferrara,

11385-494: The study of terrestrial and celestial mechanics." The Reformed Astronomy featured an adaptation to the accumulating observational evidence in favor of Johannes Kepler's elliptical celestial mechanics: it incorporated elliptical orbits into the geo-heliocentric Tychonic theory. Riccioli accepted Kepler's ideas, but remained opposed to the heliocentric theory. Indeed, following the dispute with Angeli, Riccioli's attitude toward heliocentrism hardened. Between 1644 and 1656, Riccioli

11500-483: The time to detect. Riccioli also used telescopic observations of stars to argue against the Copernican theory. Viewed through the small telescopes of his time, stars appeared as small but distinct disks. These disks were spurious – caused by the diffraction of waves of light entering the telescope. Today they are known as Airy disks , after the nineteenth-century astronomer George Biddell Airy (1801–1892). The real disks of stars are generally too tiny to be seen even with

11615-441: The time, various people had expressed concern with Galileo's ideas about falling bodies, arguing that it would be impossible to discern the small differences in time and distance needed to adequately test Galileo's ideas, or reporting that experiments had not agreed with Galileo's predictions, or complaining that suitably tall buildings with clear paths of fall were not available to thoroughly test Galileo's ideas. By contrast, Riccioli

11730-610: The town's fortress. After making the standard request for surrender at 08:00, which was refused, Klenau ordered a barrage from his mortars and howitzers. After two magazines caught fire, the commandant was summoned again to surrender; there was some delay, but a flag of truce was sent at 21:00, and the capitulation was concluded at 01:00 the next day. Upon taking possession of the fortress, Klenau found 75 new artillery pieces, plus ammunition and six months worth of provisions. In 1938, Mussolini's fascist government instituted racial laws reintroducing segregation of Jews which lasted until

11845-446: The very centre of the town, is iconic of Ferrara. A very large manor house featuring four massive bastions and a moat, it was erected in 1385 by architect Bartolino da Novara with the function to protect the town from external threats and to serve as a fortified residence for the Este family. It was extensively renovated in the 15th and 16th centuries. The Cathedral of Saint George , designed by Wiligelmus and consecrated in 1135,

11960-462: The works of Nicholas of Cusa, Giordano Bruno, and even Kepler, and which would continue on in works of later writers such as Bernard de Fontenelle and William Herschel . A substantial portion of the New Almagest (Book 9, consisting of 343 pages) is devoted to an analysis of the world system question: Is the universe geocentric or heliocentric? Does the Earth move or is it immobile? The historian of science Edward Grant has described Book 9 as being

12075-571: Was ordained . He requested missionary work, but that request was turned down. Instead, he was assigned to teach at Parma. There he taught logic, physics, and metaphysics from 1629 to 1632, and engaged in some experiments with falling bodies and pendulums. In 1632 he became a member of a group charged with the formation of younger Jesuits, among whom Daniello Bartoli . He spent the 1633–1634 academic year in Mantua , where he collaborated with Niccolò Cabeo (1576–1650) in further pendulum studies. In 1635 he

12190-757: Was a 1553 publication of the Ladino version of the Tanakh used by Sephardi Jews . It was paid for and made by Yom-Tob ben Levi Athias (the Spanish Marrano Jerónimo de Vargas , as typographer) and Abraham ben Salomon Usque (the Portuguese Jew Duarte Pinhel , as translator), and was dedicated to Ercole II d'Este . In the 20th century, Ferrara was the home and workplace of writer Giorgio Bassani , well known for his novels that were often adapted for cinema ( The Garden of

12305-498: Was able to engage in precise experiments with falling bodies. He verified that falling bodies followed Galileo 's "odd-number" rule so that the distance travelled by a falling body increases in proportion to the square of the time of fall, indicative of constant acceleration. According to Riccioli, a falling body released from rest travels 15 Roman feet (4.44 m) in one second, 60 feet (17.76 m) in two seconds, 135 feet (39.96 m) in three seconds, etc. Other Jesuits such as

12420-431: Was able to show that he had carried out repeated, consistent, precise experiments in an ideal location. Thus as D. B. Meli notes, Riccioli's accurate experiments were widely known during the second half of the [seventeenth] century and helped forge a consensus on the empirical adequacy of some aspects of Galileo's work, especially the odd-number rule and the notion that heavy bodies fall with similar accelerations and speed

12535-451: Was an Italian astronomer and a Catholic priest in the Jesuit order. He is known, among other things, for his experiments with pendulums and with falling bodies, for his discussion of 126 arguments concerning the motion of the Earth, and for introducing the current scheme of lunar nomenclature . He is also widely known for discovering the first double star. He argued that the rotation of

12650-423: Was back at Parma, where he taught theology and also carried out his first important observation of the Moon. In 1636 he was sent to Bologna to serve as Professor of theology. Riccioli described himself as a theologian, but one with a strong and ongoing interest in astronomy since his student days, when he studied under Biancani. He said that many Jesuits were theologians, but few were astronomers. He said that once

12765-553: Was established in 1907. In 2017 it was promoted to Serie A , Italy's top-level football league, after a 49-year absence. Its home ground is Paolo Mazza Memorial Stadium , with a capacity of 16,134. Ferrara's basketball team Kleb Basket Ferrara competes in the Serie A2 Basket and plays its home games at the Palasport di Ferrara . The culinary tradition of Ferrara features many typical dishes that can be traced back to

12880-432: Was his 1651 Almagestum Novum ( New Almagest ), an encyclopedic work consisting of over 1500 folio pages (38 cm x 25 cm) densely packed with text, tables, and illustrations. It became a standard technical reference book for astronomers all over Europe: John Flamsteed (1646–1719), the first English astronomer royal, a Copernican and a Protestant, used it for his Gresham lectures ; Jérôme Lalande (1732–1807) of

12995-501: Was initiated in 1412 but is still incomplete, missing one projected additional storey and a dome, as it can be observed from numerous historical prints and paintings on the subject. Near the cathedral and the castle also lies the 15th-century city hall, that served as an earlier residence of the Este family, featuring a grandiose marble flight of stairs and two ancient bronze statues of Niccolò III and Borso of Este. The southern district

13110-454: Was occupied by topographical measurements, working with Grimaldi, determining values for the circumference of Earth and the ratio of water to land. Defects of method, however, gave a less accurate value for degrees of arc of the meridian than Snellius had achieved a few years earlier. Snellius had been mistaken by approximately 4,000 meters; but Riccioli was more than 10,000 meters in error. Riccioli had come up with 373,000 pedes despite

13225-475: Was then used as a standard for calibrating pendulums with different periods. Riccioli said that for measuring time a pendulum was not a perfectly reliable tool, but in comparison with other methods it was an exceedingly reliable tool. With pendulums to keep time (sometimes augmented by a chorus of Jesuits chanting in time with a pendulum to provide an audible timer) and a tall structure in the form of Bologna's Torre de Asinelli from which to drop objects, Riccioli

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