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104-692: The Mabinogi are known as the Four Branches of the Mabinogi , or Pedair Cainc y Mabinogi in Welsh. The tales were compiled from oral tradition in the 11th century. They survived in private family libraries via medieval manuscripts, of which two main versions and some fragments continue to survive today. Early modern scholarship of the Mabinogi saw the tales as a garbled Welsh mythology which prompted attempts to salvage or reconstruct them. Since

208-480: A King of Britain. The Second Branch of the Mabinogi name Beli as the father of Penarddun , though this may be a mistake for brother. Beli's more prominent children include: While Arthurian literature grew to become a broadly European phenomenon, the Welsh can claim the earliest appearances of Arthur. Before Arthur became an international figure, writings and oral tales concerning him were more or less restricted to

312-632: A balance between his marital and social duties and rejoins his wife. The narrative is related to Chrétien de Troyes ' French romance Yvain, the Knight of the Lion . The narrative corresponds to Chrétien's romance Perceval, the Story of the Grail , although, as with the other Welsh romances, scholars still debate the work's exact relationship to Chrétien's poem. It is possible that this romance preserves some of

416-429: A beautiful maiden whose horse cannot be caught up with. He manages to win her hand at the expense of Gwawl , to whom she is betrothed, and she bears him a son, but the child disappears soon after his birth. Rhiannon is accused of killing him and forced to carry guests on her back as punishment. The child has been taken by a monster, and is rescued by Teyrnon and his wife, who bring him up as their own, calling him Gwri of

520-478: A bowl, unable to speak. The same fate befalls her, and the castle disappears. Manawydan and Cigfa return to England as shoemakers, but once again the locals drive them out and they return to Dyfed. They sow three fields of wheat, but the first field is destroyed before it can be harvested. The next night the second field is destroyed. Manawydan keeps watch over the third field, and when he sees it destroyed by mice he catches their leader and decides to hang it. A scholar,

624-591: A breeding pair of deer, then pigs, then wolves. After three years they are restored to human form and return. Math needs a new footholder, and Gwydion suggests his sister, Arianrhod , but when Math magically tests her virginity she gives birth to two sons. One, Dylan , immediately takes to the sea. The other child is raised by Gwydion, but Arianrhod tells him he will never have a name or arms unless she gives them to him, and refuses to do so. Gwydion tricks her into naming him Lleu Llaw Gyffes ("Bright, of deft hand"), and giving him arms. She then tells him he will never have

728-466: A chieftain based at Segontium ( Caernarfon ), and lead the Emperor to her. Everything he finds is exactly as in his dream. The maiden, whose name is Helen or Elen, accepts and loves him. Because Elen is found a virgin, Macsen gives her father sovereignty over the island of Britain and orders three castles built for his bride. In Macsen's absence, a new emperor seizes power and warns him not to return. With

832-492: A daughter of Beli Mawr , though this may be an error for sister. Penarddun and Llŷr's children include: Other figures associated with the Children of Llŷr include: Beli Mawr is an ancestor figure mentioned in various sources. Though obscure as a character, several of the many descendants attributed to him figure strongly in Welsh tradition. Works derived from Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Historia Regum Britanniae name him as

936-470: A golden bowl. Manawydan waits, then reports to Rhiannon who rebukes his failure to rescue his friend. But when she follows her son she too becomes trapped. Alone with Cigfa, Manawydan reassures her he will respect her virtue. After another attempt in England as shoemakers, the pair return to Dyfed , and Manawydan farms three fields of wheat next to Gorsedd Arberth . But his first field's harvest

1040-418: A hare and a greyhound, a fish and an otter, and a bird and a hawk. Exhausted, Gwion finally turns himself into a single grain of corn, but Ceridwen becomes a hen and eats him. Ceridwen becomes pregnant, and when she gives birth she throws the child into the ocean in a leather bag. The bag is found by Elffin , son of Gwyddno Garanhir , who sees the boy's beautiful white brow and exclaims " dyma dal iesin " ("this

1144-483: A hundred bags, telling Efnysien they contain flour, when in fact they conceal armed warriors. Efnysien kills the warriors by squeezing the bags. Later, at the feast, Efnysien throws Gwern on the fire and fighting breaks out. Seeing that the Irish are using the cauldron to revive their dead, Efnysien hides among the corpses and destroys the cauldron, although the effort costs him his life. Only seven men, all Britons , survive

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1248-558: A kitchen maid, thus preserving Elffin's claim. Taliesin then humiliates Maelgwn's bards with his skill, and frees his foster-father. While Culhwch and Olwen , also found in the Mabinogion , is primarily an Arthurian tale, in which the hero Culhwch enlists Arthur 's aid in winning the hand of Olwen , daughter of Ysbaddaden the Giant, it is full of background detail, much of it mythological in nature. Characters such as Amaethon ,

1352-408: A living by making, successively, saddles, shields and shoes. Each time their products are of such quality that local craftsmen cannot compete, and drive them from town to town. Eventually they return to Dyfed and become hunters again. A white boar leads them to a mysterious castle. Against Manawydan's advice, Pryderi goes inside, but does not return. Rhiannon goes to investigate and finds him clinging to

1456-497: A long and dangerous trip and commands her not to speak to him. Enid disregards this command several times to warn her husband of danger. Several adventures follow that prove Enid's love and Geraint's fighting ability. The couple is happily reconciled in the end, and Geraint inherits his father's kingdom. The Spoils of Annwfn is a cryptic early medieval poem of sixty lines found in the Book of Taliesin . The text recounts an expedition to

1560-561: A magical cauldron that can restore the dead to life. Matholwch and Branwen have a son, Gwern , but Matholwch proceeds to mistreat Branwen, beating her and making her a drudge . Branwen trains a starling to take a message to Brân, who goes to war against Matholwch. His army crosses the Irish Sea in ships, but Brân is so huge that he wades across. The Irish offer to make peace, and build a house big enough to entertain Bran, but inside they hang

1664-451: A priest and a bishop in turn offer him gifts if he will spare the mouse, but he refuses. When asked what he wants in return for the mouse's life, he demands the release of Pryderi and Rhiannon, and the lifting of the enchantment over Dyfed. The bishop agrees, because the mouse is in fact his wife. He has been waging magical war against Dyfed because he is a friend of Gwawl, whom Pwyll, Pryderi's father, humiliated. While Pryderi rules Dyfed, in

1768-506: A sequence, and each Branch is titled with the name of a leading protagonist. These titles are Pwyll, Branwen, Manawydan and Math , but this is a modern custom; the Branches are not titled in the mediaeval manuscripts. Only one character appears in all four Branches, Pryderi , though he is never dominant or central to any of the Branches. Pwyll Pendefeg Dyfed , " Pwyll Prince of Dyfed ", hunting on his own land, meets

1872-399: A servant to the enchantress Ceridwen . Ceridwen had a beautiful daughter and a horribly ugly son named Avagddu (elsewhere known as Morfran). Ceridwen determines to help her son by brewing a magic potion, the first three drops of which will give him the gift of wisdom and inspiration ( awen ). The potion has to be cooked for a year and a day, so Ceridwen enlists a blind man named Morda to tend

1976-434: A son and heir, but the child disappears the night he is born. Rhiannon 's maids, in fear of their lives, accuse her of killing and eating her own baby. Rhiannon negotiates a penalty where she must sit at the castle gate every day for seven years telling her terrible tale to strangers and offer them a ride on her back. Meanwhile, the child is rescued from its monstrous abductor by Teyrnon Twrf Lliant . He and his wife adopt

2080-446: A son, Dylan ail Don , who takes to the sea. She also drops a scrap of life which Gwydion scoops up and incubates in a chest by his bed. Arianrhod is deeply shamed and angered so she utterly rejects the boy. She swears a doom upon him that he cannot have a name, nor warrior arms, unless she gives them to him. Gwydion tricks her into naming the boy Lleu Llaw Gyffes (Bright Skillful Hand) by speaking to him, not knowing who he

2184-442: A tree, dying. Gwydion tracks a sow which he finds eating maggots falling from Lleu 's rotting body. Gwydion sings a magical englyn (poem) gradually bringing Lleu back to humanity. Gronw offers to compensate Lleu ; but Lleu insists on returning the blow as it was struck against him. Gronw is cowardly and attempts to evade it using a stone shield. Lleu kills Gronw with his spear, which pierces him through

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2288-646: A union which both partners welcome. The four of them, Pryderi, Cigfa, Rhiannon and her new husband Manawydan , become very good friends indeed, and travel the land of Dyfed admiring how bountiful it is. Together they sit the Gorsedd Arberth , as Pwyll once did. A clap of thunder, a bright light, and magical mist descend. Afterwards the land is devastated of all other life except wild animals. The four live by hunting, but after two years they want more, so they travel to England. In three towns in turn they craft saddles, shields and shoes of such quality that

2392-612: A wife of any race living on Earth, so Gwydion and Math make him a wife from flowers, called Blodeuwedd (possibly "Flower face", though other etymologies have been suggested). Blodeuwedd falls in love with a hunter, Gronw Pebr , and they plot to kill Lleu. Blodeuwedd tricks Lleu into revealing the means by which he can be killed, but when Gronw attempts to do the deed Lleu escapes, transformed into an eagle. Gwydion finds Lleu and transforms him back into human form, and turns Blodeuwedd into an owl, renaming her Blodeuwedd and cursing her. Gronw offers to compensate Lleu, but Lleu insists on returning

2496-495: Is Llwyd , friend of the wronged Gwawl , the mouse is Llwyd 's shapeshiften wife, and the devastation of Dyfed is to avenge Gwawl. Manawydan bargains to release of Pryderi and Rhiannon , and the lifting of the curse on Dyfed . Gwynedd in North Wales is ruled by the magician king Math fab Mathonwy , whose feet must be held by a virgin at all times except while he is at war. Math 's nephew Gilfaethwy

2600-571: Is Pryderi fab Pwyll , the king of Dyfed , who is born in the first Branch, is killed in the fourth, and is probably a reflex of the Celtic god Maponos . The only other recurring characters are Pryderi's mother Rhiannon , associated with the peaceful British prince Manawydan , who later becomes her second husband. Manawydan and his siblings Brân the Blessed ( Welsh : Bendigeidfran or Brân Fendigaidd "Blessed Crow"), Branwen and Efnysien are

2704-640: Is Irish festival of the start of summer, and the Gaulish god Belenus was associated with the Greek sun god Apollo . Aryanrhot (Arianrhod) means "silver wheel" and is associated with the moon; her one son, "Lleu," means light ("lleuad" is the Modern Welsh word for moon), while her other son, Dylan ail Don , is associated with the waves/tides (which are, of course, connected to the moon). Euron (Gronw, Gwyronwy, Gwyron): gwron means "hero" or "warrior," while

2808-491: Is a radiant brow") Taliesin, thus named, begins to recite beautiful poetry. Elffin raises Taliesin as his son, and the two become involved in several adventures. In the presence of Maelgwn , king of Gwynedd , Elffin claims that his wife is as virtuous as the king's wife, and that Taliesin is a better bard than the king's. Maelgwn locks Elffin up and sends his boorish son Rhun to defile Elffin's wife and steal her ring as evidence. However, Taliesin has Elffin's wife replaced with

2912-454: Is as he is shapeshifted. More shapeshifting fakes a military attack so Arianrhod gives them arms - dressing and arming Lleu herself. Arianrhod 's third curse is Lleu may not marry a human woman. Gwydion and Math construct a beautiful wife for him from oak blossom , broom flowers, and meadowsweet , naming her Blodeuwedd (Flower Face). But Blodeuwedd and Gronw Pebr fall deeply in love. Gronw tells her to find out

3016-524: Is celebrated as a hero. This narrative corresponds to Chrétien's Erec and Enide , in which the hero is Erec . The romance concerns the love of Geraint , one of King Arthur's men, and the beautiful Enid . The couple marry and settle down together, but rumors spread that Geraint has gone soft. Upset about this, Enid cries to herself that she is not a true wife for keeping her husband from his chivalric duties, but Geraint misunderstands her comment to mean she has been unfaithful to him. He makes her join him on

3120-425: Is cut down by thieves, and his second. He sits vigil at night, and sees a horde of mice eating the ripe corn. He catches a slow, fat one. Against Cigfa 's protest he sets up a miniature gibbet to hang it as a thief. A scholar, a priest and a bishop in turn offer him money if he will spare the mouse which he refuses. When asked what he wants for the mouse's life he first demands an explanation. The bishop tells him he

3224-506: Is deeply offended, but conciliated by Brân, who gives him a magical cauldron which can bring the dead to life; he does not know that when the dead are brought back, they will be mute and deaf. When Matholwch returns to Ireland with his new bride, he consults with his nobles about the occurrences in the Isle of the Mighty. They are outraged and believe that Matholwch was not compensated enough for

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3328-503: Is infatuated with Goewin , the royal maiden foot-holder, so Gilfaethwy 's brother Gwydion plots to aid him. He deceives Pryderi of Dyfed with magical sham gifts of horses and dogs, in exchange for Pryderi 's valuable swine, a gift from Annwfn. Dyfed makes war in revenge, so Math leaves Goewin without his protection. Gwydion and Gilfaethwy rape her, and Gwydion kills Pryderi in single combat. Math marries Goewin in compensation for her rape. He punishes

3432-544: Is king of France . Lludd's kingdom is beset by three menaces: the Coraniaid , a demonic people who can hear everything; a terrible scream that is heard every May Eve that terrifies the people; and the continual disappearance of the provisions of the king's court. Lludd asks Llefelys for help, speaking to him through a brass tube so the Coraniaid can't hear. Llefelys creates a potion of crushed insects in water which destroys

3536-480: Is never specifically named. Other figures associated with the Children of Dôn include: Llŷr , the patriarch of the other family, is possibly a borrowing of the Irish sea-god Ler . A foreign origin is further suggested by his epithet Llediaith ("half-speech"). His wife was Penarddun . According to the Mabinogion she was the mother of his three children, plus two others by Euroswydd . The Mabinogi name her as

3640-454: Is not as productive as Manu's, and Nisien is not a sacrificial character like Yemo. Alternatively, Nisien may be the Manu figure, since Efnisien is associated with death as Yemo sometimes is. Llŷr is likely a sea god, and may be cognate with the Irish god Lir (meaning "sea"; note that his son, Manannán son of Lir, may be cognate with Manawydan son of Llŷr). Unlike the section above, we find

3744-542: Is often a god of death in other related Indo-European systems. He is also a protector god, as his head (buried in London) protects the Island of Britain from invasion. Efnisien is the brother of Nisien and half-brother of Manawydan and Brân . Efnesian sows death, chaos, and destruction, while Nisien is more peaceful. The connection to the opposite twins of Proto-Indo-European myth is overt here, but Efnesian's destruction

3848-431: Is sometimes called the "Mabinogi of Branwen" after her. Branwen is a daughter of Llŷr and Penarddun . She is married to Matholwch , King of Ireland, but the marriage does not bring peace. The story opens with Branwen's brother, Brân the Blessed , giant and King of Britain , sitting on a rock by the sea at Harlech and seeing the vessels of Matholwch, King of Ireland , approaching. Matholwch has come to ask for

3952-503: Is the " White Book of Rhydderch " ( Llyfr Gwyn Rhydderch ), one of the Peniarth Manuscripts . It was scribed c. 1350 by five different writers, probably commissioned by Ieuan ab Rhydderch ab Ieuan Llwyd near Ceredigion . It was then copied and studied by various Welsh scholars. About 1658, it was acquired by the antiquary Robert Vaughan and preserved in his famous library of Hengwrt near Dolgellau , Gwynedd . In 1859 it

4056-691: Is the brother of Manawydan . His name means "crow," and bird often associated with death. Hence, he may serve as a God of death , also given his connection to the Brittonic Brennos (associated with the Dis Pater of the Gauls and that he lives on after being decapitated and hosts the living in Gwales, an island realm outside of time, in the Second Branch of The Mabinogion . The Twin figure

4160-489: The Mabinogi extends across Wales, to Ireland, and into England. It presents a legendary Britain as a united land under a king, yet with powerful separate princedoms, where native Welsh law , hud (magic), and romance, combine in a unique synergy. Possible authors who have been proposed for the Four Branches include Rhigyfarch and Gwenllian ferch Gruffydd . Each Branch contains several tale episodes in

4264-645: The Brythonic nations of Wales , Cornwall and Brittany . These tales in turn are divided roughly into Pre-Galfridian Traditions and those of Geoffrey of Monmouth . Wales also contributed to the Arthur of the Romance Tradition after the titular heir became an international sensation. Branwen Branwen, Daughter of Llŷr is a major character in the Second Branch of the Mabinogi , which

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4368-495: The Celtic Britons elsewhere before the end of the first millennium. As in most of the predominantly oral societies Celtic mythology and history were recorded orally by specialists such as druids ( Welsh : derwyddon ). This oral record has been lost or altered as a result of outside contact and invasion over the years. Much of this altered mythology and history is preserved in medieval Welsh manuscripts , which include

4472-540: The Otherworld , led by King Arthur, to retrieve a magical cauldron . The speaker relates how he journeyed with Arthur and three boatloads of men into Annwfn, but only seven returned. Annwfn is apparently referred to by several names, including "Mound Fortress," "Four-Peaked Fortress," and "Glass Fortress", though it is possible the poet intended these to be distinct places. Within the Mound Fort's walls Gweir, one of

4576-642: The Red Book of Hergest , the White Book of Rhydderch , the Book of Aneirin and the Book of Taliesin . Other works connected to Welsh mythology include the ninth-century Latin historical compilation Historia Brittonum ("History of the Britons") and Geoffrey of Monmouth 's twelfth-century Latin chronicle Historia Regum Britanniae ("History of the Kings of Britain"), as well as later folklore , such as

4680-508: The Taliesin poems (especially Cad Goddeu ), contain hints of the cyclicality of cosmogonic progressions. With this in mind, the transformations of various characters (especially Lleu and Taliesin) hint not just at reincarnation but perhaps even reconfigurations of the cosmos itself (along the lines of the Norse concept of Ragnarok as not merely signaling the end of existence, but heralding

4784-411: The White Book of Rhydderch and the Red Book of Hergest . Subsequent scholarship has identified the tale as post-medieval and it is left out of most modern editions of the Mabinogion . Still, elements of the tale predate this presentation. The tale is distinct from the Book of Taliesin , which is a collection of poems attributed to Taliesin . According to the story, Taliesin began life as Gwion Bach,

4888-581: The oak , a "valiant door keeper against the enemy". The bluebells combine and cause a "consternation" but the hero is the holly , tinted with green. A warrior fighting alongside Arawn cannot be vanquished unless his enemies can guess his name. Gwydion guesses the warrior's name, identifying him from the sprigs of alder on his shield, and sings two englyns : This account is so different from Geoffrey of Monmouth's account of Maximian (as Geoffrey calls him) in Historia regum Britanniae that scholars agree that

4992-535: The "Three Exalted Prisoners of Britain" known from the Welsh Triads , is imprisoned in chains. The narrator then describes the cauldron of the Chief of Annwn; it is finished with pearl and will not boil a coward's food. Whatever tragedy ultimately killed all but seven of them is not clearly explained. The poem continues with an excoriation of "little men" and monks, who lack in various forms of knowledge possessed by

5096-533: The 13th and 14th centuries, later than the compilation period of the work in the 11th century. The text in all three does not greatly differ, but it is thought that they are not copies of each other, but of lost earlier originals. The oldest is only a fragment; Peniarth 6 , c. 1225; containing parts of the Second and Third Branches. The other two are named by the colour of their covers: LLyfr Gwyn ("White Book") and Llyfr Coch ("Red Book"). The oldest complete version

5200-447: The 1970s the tales have become recognised as a complex secular literature, though rooted in and containing elements of Welsh Mythology, with powerfully explored characters, political, ethical and gendered themes, as well as imaginative fantasies. The style of writing is admired for its deceptive simplicity and controlled wordpower, as well as intricate doublets where mirrorings have been compared to Celtic knotwork. The world displayed within

5304-700: The Arthurian Lady of the Lake, Ceridwen in Hanes Taliesin , etc.). Rather than being separate from nature, the Celts likely saw the Otherworld as being a mysterious but essential aspect of nature and a parallel to Elfydd. While the sky and its celestial bodies are clearly separate from the earth, there does not seem to be an association between gods and the sky in extant Welsh myth (though as we see in

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5408-553: The British "wirowonos" means "man-slaying"; as a "First Man" type, he slays the "Twin" figure of Lleu Llaw Gyffes in the Fourth Branch of The Mabinogion (note: while Gronw Pebr is not Lleu's literal twin, they are foils in that Gronw persues Lleu's wife, the flower-maiden Blodeuwedd ). In Cad Goddeu , Gwron is paired with Madrud/Modron, the mother of the divine son Mabon. Manawydan may be cognate with "Manu." Brân

5512-465: The Coraniaid when sprinkled on them. The scream, he discovers, comes from two dragons fighting. He gets the dragons drunk on mead and buries them in Dinas Emrys in what is now North Wales. He then overcomes the wizard who is stealing all of Lludd's provisions and makes him serve Lludd. Guest included Hanes Taliesin in her translation of the Mabinogion , despite the absence of this tale from

5616-581: The Dream cannot be based purely on Geoffrey's version. The Dream's account also seems to accord better with details in the Triads, so it perhaps reflects an earlier tradition. Macsen Wledig, the Emperor of Rome, dreams one night of a lovely maiden in a wonderful, far-off land. Awakening, he sends his men all over the earth in search of her. With much difficulty they find her in a rich castle in Britain, daughter of

5720-483: The Fourth Branch of the Mabinogi. Amaethon , one of the sons of Dôn, steals a white roebuck and a whelp from Arawn , king of the otherworld, leading to a great battle. Gwydion fights alongside his brother and, assisted by Lleu, enchants the "elementary trees and sedges" to rise up as warriors against Arawn's forces. The alder leads the attack, while the aspen falls in battle, and heaven and earth tremble before

5824-516: The Golden hair, until his resemblance to Pwyll becomes apparent. They return him to his real parents, Rhiannon is released from her punishment, and the boy is renamed Pryderi . In the second branch Branwen , sister of Brân the Blessed, king of Britain, is given in marriage to Matholwch , king of Ireland. Branwen's half-brother Efnysien insults Matholwch by mutilating his horses, and in compensation Brân gives Matholwch new horses and treasure, including

5928-520: The House of Llŷr may have figures from each house that occupy a similar role, and other variations may occur as well. Such inconsistencies are common in Indo-European myths, however, given the natural evolutions and variations that occur over time. Dôn may originate from ghdhonos, meaning "the earth" (see above). Beli Mawr is one of her consorts and is associated with the sky and sun. Beltane

6032-465: The Irish War as one of its few survivors, to reunite with his mother Rhiannon , and his wife Cigfa . He brings with him his beloved war comrade, Manawydan , the heir to the kingship of all Britain. But Manawydan 's rights as heir to Britain have been usurped by Caswallon , and he does not want more war. Pryderi establishes him as the lord of Dyfed , including marriage to Rhiannon ,

6136-763: The Pantheon below, there likely would have been at some earlier point). Sharon Paice Macleod proposes that the ancient Celts had a concept of the World Tree that links the various realms of the world (akin to the Norse Yggdrasil ), given the centrality of trees in Celtic knowledge, but there is no clear evidence for this. The simplified chart above can be complicated by the fact that, as with other mythological systems, figures that descend from Proto-Indo-European mythology can fragment and split into several individual characters over time. The House of Dôn and

6240-540: The Vaughans of Hergest. The MS. wandered on, sometimes slightly dubiously via 'borrowing'. Edward Lhuyd is one of many who copied it to study. In 1701 it was donated to Jesus College Oxford where it remains today. Here it was copied by the young Ioan Tegid when a student at University of Oxford c. 1815-17 for Charles Bosanquet . Later Tegid, as a senior bard and scholar, assisted Lady Charlotte Guest in her bilingual publication series, The Mabinogion , which brought

6344-684: The White Tower in London. He prophesies his head will be their good companion and advise them, while they will sojourn for many years of idyllic feasting, first at Harlech in Gwynedd , then on the isle of Gwales in Dyfed . But on arriving back in Britain, Branwen dies of grief for the many who have died. Brân means 'raven'; Branwen means 'white raven'; and Efnysien means 'trouble, strife'. Pryderi of Dyfed returns from

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6448-499: The attempt. The war is still extremely bloody, and leaves no survivors except for Branwen, Bran, and seven Welsh soldiers. They sail home to Wales. Upon reaching Wales, they realize that Bran has been hit by a poisoned arrow to his leg, and he dies. Branwen, overwhelmed with grief for everyone she has lost, dies of a broken heart. In the ensuing war, all the Irish are killed save for five pregnant women who lived in Wales who repopulate

6552-526: The battle, including Pryderi , Manawydan and Bran, who is mortally wounded by a poisoned spear. Brân asks his companions to cut off his head and take it back to Britain. Branwen dies of grief on returning home. Five pregnant women survive to repopulate Ireland. Pryderi and Manawydan return to Dyfed , where Pryderi marries Cigfa and Manawydan marries Rhiannon. However, a mist descends on the land, leaving it empty and desolate. The four support themselves by hunting at first, then move to England, where they make

6656-471: The beginning of a subsequent existence for the cosmos). -Elfydd: The Earth; the realm of humans - Annwn : The Otherworld; the realm(s) of the gods. Depending on the source, this could be a more typical Indo-European underworld (i.e. a realm below the earth), or the "deep" areas within the natural realm (e.g. deep within the woods, as with the First Branch of The Mabinogion , or within/near lakes, e.g.

6760-619: The blow that was struck against him. Gronw pleads to be allowed to hide behind a rock when he attempts to kill him. Lleu agrees. He kills Gronw with his spear, which is thrown so hard it pierces him through the stone he is hiding behind. A large tradition seems to have once surrounded the Battle of the Trees , a mythological conflict fought between the sons of Dôn and the forces of Annwn , the Welsh Otherworld , and seemingly connected to

6864-475: The boy who grows heroically apace, and adores horses. They called him Gwri Wallt Efryn ( Gwri 'Golden Hair', Welsh : Gwallt Euraid ). Teyrnon sees the boy's resemblance to Pwyll , so he restores the boy to Dyfed for a happy ending. Rhiannon is vindicated as is Pwyll 's loyalty to her. Their son is renamed Pryderi "Loss", as is custom from his mother's first words to him: Pryderi puns on anxiety and labour. In due course, Pryderi inherits

6968-545: The broader Proto-Indo-European system in both the names of the deities themselves and in the later written tales that likely preserve remnants of the earlier orally transmitted narratives (see the "Pantheon" section below). Legends were not written down until after the Christianization of Britain, however, so these accounts are rather indirect; additionally, they likely evolved quite a bit over time anyway, as narrative systems typically do. John T. Koch proposes that

7072-479: The corpses to get in the Cauldron, stretches and cracks it, dying as he does so. The war had become a genocide. Five pregnant women survive to repopulate Ireland. Only Seven Survivors remained of the British host, besides Branwen . One is Manawydan , Branwen 's other brother, and his good friend Pryderi. Brân , mortally wounded by a poisoned spear, bids the survivors to cut off his head, and take it to bury at

7176-466: The court of Hyfaidd Hen, Gwawl appears in disguise and tricks Pwyll into giving him the entire wedding feast and Rhiannon. Rhiannon then guides Pwyll through a cunning strategy using her magic bag which can never be filled, to extricate her from her betrothal to the princely Gwawl. Gwawl is trapped in the bag and beaten by Pwyll 's men until he agrees to Rhiannon 's terms, including foregoing vengeance. Rhiannon eventually bears Pwyll

7280-582: The court of Nuada Airgetlám in Cath Maige Tuired . The hero of Owain, or the Lady of the Fountain , is based on the historical figure Owain mab Urien . He appears as Ywain in later continental tradition. The romance consists of a hero marrying his love, the Lady of the Fountain, but losing her when he neglects her for knightly exploits. With the aid of a lion he saves from a serpent, he finds

7384-414: The divine ploughman, Mabon ap Modron , the divine son, and the psychopomp Gwyn ap Nudd make appearances, the latter in an endless seasonal battle with Gwythyr ap Greidawl for the hand of Creiddylad . The conditions placed on Culhwch by his mother are similar to those placed on Lleu Llaw Gyffes by Arianrhod , and Culhwch's arrival at Arthur's court is reminiscent of the Irish god Lug 's arrival at

7488-617: The encounter with the woman who was to be his true love, Angharad Golden-Hand. Peredur returns to Arthur's court, but soon embarks on another series of adventures that do not correspond to material in Percival (Gawain's exploits take up this section of the French work.) Eventually the hero learns the severed head at his uncle's court belonged to his cousin, who had been killed by the Nine Witches of Gloucester. Peredur avenges his family, and

7592-409: The fire beneath the cauldron, while Gwion Bach stirs. Three hot drops spill onto Gwion's thumb as he stirred, and he instinctively puts his thumb in his mouth, instantly gaining wisdom and knowledge. The first thought that occurs to him is that Ceridwen will kill him, so he runs away. Soon enough Ceridwen engages Gwion in a transformation chase in which they turn themselves into various animals –

7696-442: The fire. This causes chaos between the two countries, and they start fighting each other. The Irish forces at first appear to be losing, but by resurrecting their dead soldiers using the magical cauldron begin to win the battle. However, Efnisien sees what he has done, and regrets it. Disguised as a dead Irish soldier he is thrown into the magical cauldron, and pushes against its walls so that it breaks into four pieces. Efnisien dies in

7800-529: The first plays the role of Percival's Gornemant and educates him in arms and warns him not to ask the significance of what he sees. The second replaces Chrétien's Fisher King, but instead of showing Peredur the Holy Grail he reveals a salver containing a man's severed head. The young knight does not ask about this and proceeds to further adventure, including a stay with the Nine Witches of Gloucester and

7904-416: The following legends in actual literary texts instead of etymological and mythical reconstructions by academic scholars. Four of the mythological stories contained in the Mabinogion are collectively known as the Four Branches of the Mabinogi . They concentrate largely on the exploits of various British deities who have been Christianized into kings and heroes. The only character who appears in every branch

8008-506: The form of new horses and treasure, then added a magical cauldron ( Welsh : Pair Dadeni ) which can restore the dead to life, although the revived persons will always remain unable to speak. The legend of this cauldron, when the two kings compare its lore, is that it came from Ireland. In Ireland, Matholwch and Branwen have a son, Gwern . The Irish nobles continue to be hostile because of what Efnysien did. Matholwch allows them to sway him, and casts Branwen away to serf in

8112-407: The giant Brân wading the sea and report this to Matholwch, who retreats beyond a river and destroys the bridges. However, Brân lays himself down over the river to serve as a bridge for his men, he said ("He would be a leader, let him be a bridge"). Matholwch, fearing war, tries to reconcile with Brân by building a house big enough for him to fit into in order to do him honour. Matholwch agrees to give

8216-412: The hand of Branwen in marriage. Brân agrees to this, and a feast is held to celebrate the betrothal. During the feast, Efnysien , a half-brother of Branwen and Brân, arrives at the stables and asks of the nature of the celebration. On being told, he is furious that his half sister has been given in marriage without his consent, and flying into a rage he mutilates the horses belonging to the Irish. Matholwch

8320-528: The head of Brân in the White Mount. Legend said that as long as the head was there, no invasion would come over the sea to Britain. At Llanddeusant, Anglesey on the banks of the Alaw can be found the cairn called Bedd Branwen , her supposed grave. Now in ruins, it still has one standing stone . It was dug up in 1800, and again in the 1960s by Frances Lynch , who found several urns with human ashes. It

8424-426: The help of men from Britain led by Elen's brother Conanus (Welsh: Kynan Meriadec, French: Conan Meriadoc), Macsen marches across Gaul and Italy and recaptures Rome. In gratitude to his British allies, Macsen rewards them with a portion of Gaul that becomes known as Brittany. Another mythological story included in the Mabinogion is the tale of Lludd and Llefelys . Lludd is king of Britain, and his brother, Llefelys,

8528-442: The house, hanging in bags on its pillars. Efnysien shrewdly suspects treachery and disbelieves the Irish story these are bags of flour. He crushes the skull of each hidden warrior, singing after he does it. Later, at the feast, Efnysien deliberately seeks to create discord. He throws his infant nephew Gwern on the fire and kills him. Fighting breaks out and the Irish use the Cauldron to revive their dead. Efnysien hides among

8632-514: The island, while only seven of the Welsh survive to return home with Branwen, taking with them the severed head of Bendigeidfran. On landing in Wales at Aber Alaw in Anglesey , Branwen dies of grief that so much destruction had been caused on her account, crying, Oi, a fab Duw! Gwae fi o'm genedigaeth. Da o ddwy ynys a ddiffeithwyd o'm hachos i! , "Oh Son of God, woe to me that I was born! Two fair islands have been laid waste because of me!" She

8736-431: The key players of the second branch, while the fourth branch concerns itself with the exploits of the family of Dôn , which includes the wizard Gwydion , his nephew, Lleu Llaw Gyffes , and his sister, Arianrhod . The first branch tells of how Pwyll , prince of Dyfed , exchanges places for a year with Arawn , the ruler of Annwn (the otherworld), defeats Arawn's enemy Hafgan , and on his return encounters Rhiannon ,

8840-523: The kingdom to Gwern , his son by Branwen, to pacify Brân. The Irish lords do not like the idea, and many hide themselves in flour bags tied to the pillars of the huge, newly built house to attack the Welsh. Efnysien, inspecting the house prior to the arrival of Brân and his men, uncovers the men hidden in the bags and kills them all by crushing their heads one by one. At the subsequent feast to celebrate Gwern's investiture as King of Ireland, Efnysien, in an unprovoked moment of rage, throws his nephew Gwern into

8944-443: The kitchens, struck on the face every day by a low-caste butcher. Branwen trains a starling to take a message to Brân across the Irish Sea . He musters his host and crosses the sea to war on Matholwch. Brân is so huge he wades across with his ships beside him. Branwen persuades the Irish to sue for peace by building a colossal building to house Brân , which he has never had before. The Irish hide two hundred warriors in

9048-478: The local craftsmen cannot compete, so their envy becomes dangerous. Pryderi dislikes the lower class way of life, and Manawydan stops him from fighting their enemies. Instead Manawydan insists on moving away. After three attempts like this, they return to Dyfed . Once more living as hunters Pryderi and Manawydan follow a shining white boar to a strange castle. Pryderi , against Manawydan 's advice, follows his hounds inside to become trapped there by

9152-617: The material found in Chrétien's source. The sequence of some events is altered and many original episodes appear, including the hero's 14-year sojourn in Constantinople reigning with the Empress, which contains remnants of a sovereignty tale. The Holy Grail is replaced with a severed head on a platter. Despite the differences, however, the influence of the French romance cannot be discounted, particularly as its first part hardly matches

9256-496: The materials collected in The Welsh Fairy Book by William Jenkyn Thomas (1908). As with other Insular Celts , no direct written accounts of the origins of the cosmos survive. We can assume that these Celts did have a complex cosmogony, given the accounts from classical authors about the depth of knowledge of the druids who passed down their knowledge via orature . However, scholars can find connections to

9360-453: The mutilation of his horses. In order to redeem his honor, Matholwch banishes Branwen to work in the kitchens. Branwen is treated cruelly by her husband Matholwch as punishment for Efnysien's mutilation of the horses, though not before she gives birth to an heir, Gwern . She tames a starling and sends it across the Irish Sea with a message to her brother and Brân brings a force from Wales to Ireland to rescue her. Some swineherds see

9464-498: The name of the goddess Dôn, for instance, likely comes from ghdhonos , meaning "the earth." In this sense she serves as the Welsh version of the dheghom figure from Proto-Indo-European mythology , i.e. the primordial Earth Goddess from which all other gods originate. According to this theory, the Children of Dôn would be comparable to the Greek Titans. John Carey suggests that the Fourth Branch of The Mabinogion , along with

9568-424: The past year. Next, Pwyll encounters Rhiannon , a beautiful and powerful maiden on a shining magical horse. They are strangely unreachable by anyone, for as they attempt to approach, Rhiannon and her horse get further away. Finally, they ask her to stop in which she complies and it is revealed that Rhiannon has chosen Pwyll as her husband, which he welcomes. On Rhiannon and Pwyll 's wedding day in

9672-545: The poet. The Welsh had been Christian for several centuries before their former mythology was written down, and their gods had long been transformed into kings and heroes of the past. Many of the characters who exhibit divine characteristics fall into two rival families, the Plant Dôn ("Children of Dôn ") and the Plant Llŷr ("Children of Llŷr "). Dôn , daughter of Mathonwy, was the matriarch of one family. Her husband

9776-400: The rule of Dyfed . In the second branch, Branwen , sister of Brân the Blessed , king of Britain , is requested by and given in marriage to Matholwch , king of Ireland. Brân 's half-brother Efnysien , angered that no one consulted him, insults Matholwch by mutilating all his valuable horses so horribly they become useless. Brân the Blessed gives Matholwch compensation in

9880-419: The second. The hero's father dies when he is young, and his mother takes him into the woods and raises him in isolation. Eventually he meets a group of knights and determines to become like them, so he travels to King Arthur's court. There he is ridiculed by Cei and sets out on further adventures, promising to avenge Cei's insults to himself and those who defended him. While travelling he meets two of his uncles,

9984-448: The secret of Lleu 's protected life, which she does in the trust of her marriage bed. She begs Lleu to explain so she can know how to protect him. The method is complicated, taking a year of almost impossible effort but Gronw completes it and Lleu falls to his spear, transforms into an eagle and departs. Blodeuwedd and Gronw then live together. Gwydion pursues a quest to find Lleu , who far away in eagle form perches up

10088-597: The shining Cŵn Annwn or "Hounds of Annwfn ", and takes another man's kill, a stag, for himself. Arawn , the king of Annwfn , is greatly offended. As recompense, Pwyll switches bodies with Arawn and dwells in Annwfn to vanquish Arawn 's adversary. Pwyll chastely shares the queen's bed for a year. Pwyll defeats Arawn 's enemy Hafgan , and is then rewarded with an alliance between his land of Dyfed , and Annwfn. Pwyll then returns home to Dyfed where he finds it has been well ruled by Arawn in

10192-523: The south of Wales, Gwynedd in the north of Wales is ruled by Math , son of Mathonwy. His feet must be held by a virgin except while he is at war. Math's nephew, Gilfaethwy , is in love with Goewin , his current footholder, and Gilfaethwy's brother Gwydion tricks Math into going to war against Pryderi so Gilfaethwy can have access to her. Gwydion kills Pryderi in single combat, and Gilfaethwy rapes Goewin. Math marries Goewin to save her from disgrace, and banishes Gwydion and Gilfaethwy, transforming them into

10296-650: The stone. Gwydion punishes Blodeuwedd by transforming her into an owl, a pariah among birds. Some of the locations mentioned in the text have been identified in reality. Many are associated with Arberth and the surrounding district. Some have not been identified and may be methodological or in need of further archeological and historical discoveries (ex. Caer Dathyl). For the Welsh text in Middle Welsh spelling see Williams, Ifor. (1930, 1951). Pedeir Keinc y Mabinogi . Allan o Lyfr Gwyn Rhydderch. CUP. Classic text for modern students, and Welsh speakers, based on all

10400-498: The surviving MSS. This was the first modern use of the title Pedair Keinc y Mabinogi . For the Welsh text in modernised spelling see J. M. Edwards, Mabinogion (o Lyfr Coch Hergest) : Pwyll, Pendefig Dyfed, Branwen Ferch Llyr, Manawyddan fab Llyr, Math fab Mathonwy (Wrecsam: Hughes A'i Fab, 1921) The Four Branches are edited individually in Middle Welsh with English glossary and notes as follows: The three mediaeval manuscripts which have survived into modern times, were scribed in

10504-795: The tales to the modern world. Her volume containing the Mabinogi was published in 1845, and her work is still popular today. Welsh Icons United a 2014 exhibition at the National Library of Wales, guested the Llyfr Coch, the Red Book, as part of its display; thus bringing the two main Mabinogi MSS. under one roof for the first time. (12 October – 15 March 2014) Welsh mythology Welsh mythology consists of both folk traditions developed in Wales , and traditions developed by

10608-413: The two brothers by shapeshifting them into animal pairs who must mate and bear young; first deer, then boars, then wolves. The sons they bear become Math 's foster sons, and after three years the brothers are reconciled with Math . Gwydion suggests his sister Arianrhod as the new footholder. Math magically tests her virginity requiring her to step over his wand. She immediately gives birth to

10712-588: Was buried beside the Afon Alaw . Brân had commanded his men to cut off his head and to "bear it even unto the White Mount, in London, and bury it there, with the face towards France." And so for seven years, his men spent feasting in Harlech, accompanied by three singing birds and Brân's head. After the seven years they go to Gwales in Penfro, where they remain for eighty years. Eventually, they go to London and bury

10816-871: Was passed to the Peniarth library by William Watkin Edward Wynne . Finally, John Williams presented it to the National Library of Wales in 1904, where it can be viewed today in two volumes. The second complete version which has survived is the " Red Book of Hergest " ( Llyfr Coch Hergest ). The scribing was c. 1382–1410, in a time of unrest culminating in Owain Glyndŵr 's uprising. The scribe has been identified as Hywel Fychan fab Hywel Goch of Buellt , who worked for Hopcyn ap Tomas ab Einion (fl. 1337–1408) near Swansea . The Hopcyn library changed hands due to war and politics several times, with owners including

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