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87-445: Cake is a flour confection made from flour , sugar, and other ingredients and is usually baked . In their oldest forms, cakes were modifications of bread , but cakes now cover a wide range of preparations that can be simple or elaborate and which share features with desserts such as pastries , meringues , custards , and pies . The most common ingredients include flour, sugar, eggs, fat (such as butter , oil , or margarine ),

174-444: A wedding cake , birthday cake , or Halloween . The chocolate company Cadbury (under the guidance of Richard Cadbury ) was the first to commercialize the connection between romance and confectionery, producing a heart-shaped box of chocolates for Valentine's Day in 1868. Tourists commonly eat confections as part of their travels. The indulgence in rich, sugary foods is seen as a special treat, and choosing local specialties

261-607: A "staple food" for tax purposes requires that the sugar or fat content be no more than 2% of the weight of the flour, so some products sold as bread in the US would be treated as confectionery there. Cakes have a somewhat bread-like texture, and many earlier cakes, such as the centuries-old stollen (fruit cake), or the even older king cake , were rich yeast breads. The variety of styles and presentations extends from simple to elaborate. Major categories include butter cakes , tortes , and foam cakes . Confusingly, some confections that have

348-543: A fiancée for her betrothed. The cake has been described as "somewhere between a firm sponge – with a greater proportion of flour to fat and eggs than a Victoria sponge cake – and a shortbread base and was proof of the bride-to-be's baking skills". Traditionally it is a two-layer cake filled and topped with strawberries or raspberries and whipped cream. Cakes are frequently described according to their physical form. Cakes may be small and intended for individual consumption. Larger cakes may be made to be sliced and served as part of

435-566: A hazard if consumed. Flour confections Confectionery is the art of making confections , or sweet foods. Confections are items that are rich in sugar and carbohydrates although exact definitions are difficult. In general, however, confections are divided into two broad and somewhat overlapping categories: bakers' confections and sugar confections . Bakers' confectionery, also called flour confections , includes principally sweet pastries, cakes, and similar baked goods . Baker's confectionery excludes everyday breads , and thus

522-530: A high-moisture environment into a low-moisture candy, rendering it rubbery, or the loss of desirable water from a high-moisture candy into a dry environment, rendering the candy dry and brittle. Another factor, affecting only non-crystalline amorphous candies, is the glass transition process. This can cause amorphous candies to lose their intended texture. Both bakers' and sugar confections are used to offer hospitality to guests. Confections are used to mark celebrations or events, such as Christmas , Easter ,

609-498: A leavening agent, while others use baking soda or baking powder. These cakes often have a crumb topping called streusel or a light glaze drizzle. Baked flourless cakes include clementine cakes , baked cheesecakes , and flourless chocolate cakes . Layer cakes are cakes made with layers of sponge or butter cake filled with cream, jam, or other filling to hold the layers together. One-egg cakes are made with one egg. They can be made with butter or vegetable shortening. One egg cake

696-518: A less sweet version, known as almond paste ), fondant icing (also known as sugar paste), and buttercream are used as covering icings and to create decorations. Floral sugarcraft or wired sugar flowers are an important part of cake decoration. Cakes for special occasions, such as wedding cakes, are traditionally rich fruit cakes or occasionally Madeira cakes , that are covered with marzipan and iced using royal icing or sugar-paste. They are finished with piped borders (made with royal icing) and adorned with

783-516: A liquid, and a leavening agent , such as baking soda or baking powder . Common additional ingredients include dried , candied , or fresh fruit, nuts , cocoa , and extracts such as vanilla, with numerous substitutions for the primary ingredients. Cakes can also be filled with fruit preserves , nuts, or dessert sauces (like custard , jelly , cooked fruit , whipped cream , or syrups ), iced with buttercream or other icings , and decorated with marzipan , piped borders, or candied fruit. Cake

870-440: A meal or social function. Common shapes include: Special cake flour with a high starch-to-gluten ratio is made from fine-textured, soft, low-protein wheat. It is strongly bleached and compared to all-purpose flour, cake flour tends to result in cakes with a lighter, less dense texture. Therefore, it is frequently specified or preferred in cakes meant to be soft, light or bright white, such as angel food cake . However, if cake flour

957-404: A much lesser value. Rosaldo argues a "universal asymmetry" between the sexes that primarily caused these separations to arise. This model mainly focuses on the generational subordination of women in relation to men throughout history and across different cultures, defining the domestic and public spheres in very black and white terms. This earlier model, has since been challenged by researchers in

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1044-797: A piped message, wired sugar flowers, hand-formed fondant flowers, marzipan fruit, piped flowers, or crystallized fruits or flowers such as grapes or violets . The shelf life of cakes packages for commercial sale depends on several factors. Cakes are intermediate moisture products prone to mold growth. Commercial cakes are frequently and commonly exposed to different mold varieties before they are packaged for sale, including Aspergillus flavus and various penicillins , and Aspergillus niger . Preservatives and oxygen absorbents are currently used to control and inhibit mold growth. The CDC has recommended not to eat raw cake batter because it can contain pathogens like Salmonella and E. coli . Cake batter uses raw flour which can contain live bacteria and present

1131-489: A protein matrix (generally beaten eggs) to provide leavening , sometimes with a bit of baking powder or other chemical leaven added. Egg-leavened sponge cakes are thought to be the oldest cakes made without yeast. Angel food cake is a white cake that uses only the whites of the eggs and is traditionally baked in a tube pan. The French Génoise is a sponge cake that includes clarified butter . Highly decorated sponge cakes with lavish toppings are sometimes called gateau ,

1218-413: A rolled fondant icing . Commercial bakeries tend to use lard for the fat, and often whip the lard to introduce air bubbles. This makes the icing light and spreadable. Home bakers either use lard, butter, margarine , or some combination thereof. Sprinkles are small firm pieces of sugar and oils that are colored with food coloring . In the late 20th century, new cake decorating products became available to

1305-465: A soft, cake-like texture. Others are crisp or hard. Sugar confections include sweet, sugar-based foods, which are usually eaten as snack food . This includes sugar candies , chocolates , candied fruits and nuts, chewing gum , and sometimes ice cream . In some cases, chocolate confections are treated as a separate category, as are sugar-free versions of sugar confections. Different dialects of English use regional terms for sugar confections: In

1392-457: A space for women's academic and professional advancement, the separation of spheres also provided an excuse for keeping women out of fields not specifically marked as female. Thus many talented women scientists were pushed into professorships in home economics rather than in their principal fields. Some women educators resisted this typecasting even while working within the framework of separation. Frances Shimer , founder of Shimer College , which

1479-477: A woman's profession was also closely linked to the ideology of separate spheres, as women came to be regarded as uniquely skilled at classroom management . In coeducational universities in the late 19th century, the separation of spheres contributed to the emergence of home economics as a field of advanced study for the woman's sphere, and the dean of women as frequently the only high-ranking woman administrator in coeducational institutions. Although it created

1566-485: Is table sugar , which is chemically a disaccharide containing both glucose and fructose . Hydrolysis of sucrose gives a mixture called invert sugar , which is sweeter and is also a common commercial ingredient. Finally, confections, especially commercial ones, are sweetened by a variety of syrups obtained by hydrolysis of starch . These sweeteners include all types of corn syrup . Bakers' confectionery includes sweet baked goods, especially those that are served for

1653-592: Is a subset of products produced by a baker . Sugar confectionery includes candies (also called sweets , short for sweetmeats , in many English-speaking countries), candied nuts, chocolates, chewing gum, bubble gum, pastillage , and other confections that are made primarily of sugar. In some cases, chocolate confections (confections made of chocolate) are treated as a separate category, as are sugar-free versions of sugar confections. The words candy (Canada and US), sweets (UK, Ireland, and others), and lollies (Australia and New Zealand) are common words for some of

1740-651: Is because the domestic and public spheres are almost always overlapping in some way, regardless of a cultural female subservience or even egalitarianism. Women enter public spaces in order to fulfill duties that fall within their domestic responsibilities. Men must return to the private, or domestic, space eventually to bring home the spoils of labor from the public sphere. In this sense, there are two separate spheres created and enforced by gender ideologies; but they are not dichotomous. They, instead, form an integrated system of life in society, varying only in levels of intensities from culture to culture. According to Cary Franklin,

1827-416: Is called for, a substitute can be made by replacing a small percentage of all-purpose flour with cornstarch or removing two tablespoons from each cup of all-purpose flour. Some recipes explicitly specify or permit all-purpose flour, notably where a firmer or denser cake texture is desired. A cake can fail to bake properly, which is called "falling". In a cake that "falls", parts may sink or flatten, because it

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1914-411: Is nothing else here so high for mortals." — Rev. John Milton Williams, Woman Suffrage , Bibliotheca Sacra (1893) Women's confinement to the private sphere was reinforced by cultural and legal arrangements, such as the lack of women's suffrage , legal prohibitions against women undertaking professions like medicine and law and discouragement from obtaining higher education. Strong support for

2001-447: Is often complemented with frosting in a can. Cakes are broadly divided into several categories, based primarily on ingredients and mixing techniques. There are about hundreds of different types of cakes, but there are two broad categories, that culinary divide them into: shortened, and unshorted cakes. Unshortened cakes contain no fat while shortened cakes do. These types may be combined in baking. Although clear examples of

2088-535: Is often enhanced by covering it with icing , or frosting, and toppings such as sprinkles , which are also known as "jimmies" in certain parts of the United States and "hundreds and thousands" in the United Kingdom. The frosting is usually made from powdered (icing) sugar, sometimes a fat of some sort, milk or cream, and often flavorings such as a vanilla extract or cocoa powder . Some decorators use

2175-443: Is often served as a celebratory dish on ceremonial occasions, such as weddings, anniversaries , and birthdays. There are countless cake recipes; some are bread-like, some are rich and elaborate, and many are centuries old. Cake making is no longer a complicated procedure; while at one time considerable labor went into cake making (particularly the whisking of egg foams), baking equipment and directions have been simplified so that even

2262-609: Is popular. For example, visitors to Vienna eat Sachertorte and visitors to seaside resorts in the UK eat Blackpool rock candy. Transportable confections like fudges and tablet may be purchased as souvenirs . Generally, confections are low in micronutrients and protein but high in calories . They may be fat-free foods , although some confections, especially fried doughs and chocolate, are high-fat foods. Many confections are considered empty calories and ultra-processed foods . Specially formulated chocolate has been manufactured in

2349-411: Is sometimes colored. Using different piping tips and various techniques, a cake decorator can make many different designs. Basic decorating tips include open star, closed star, basketweave, round, drop flower, leaf, multi, petal, and specialty tips. An embossing mat is used to create embossed effects. A cake turntable that cakes are spun upon may be used in cake decoration. Royal icing , marzipan (or

2436-592: The Middle Ages and into the modern era. The oldest recorded use of the word confectionery discovered so far by the Oxford English Dictionary is by Richard Jonas in 1540, who spelled or misspelled it as "confection nere" in a passage " Ambre , muske , frankencense , gallia muscata and confection nere ", thus in the sense of "things made or sold by a confectioner". Also according to the OED,

2523-473: The Progressive Era . By the early 20th century, however, dissident anthropologists and other social scientists began to challenge the biological determination of human behavior, revealing great similarities between men and women and suggesting that many sex differences were socially constructed. Despite these new insights and social and economic changes such as women's entry into the labor force,

2610-536: The ancient Greeks . In Politics , Aristotle described two separate spheres in Greek society, the home ( oikos ) and the city ( polis ). Some have interpreted his views as confining women to the private realm while men were supposed to occupy the public sphere of the polis . Each sphere intermingled in different ways with the other. Debates over the "proper" roles of women and men continued throughout antiquity. The modern ideology of separate spheres emerged in

2697-474: The dessert course. Bakers' confections are sweet foods that feature flour as a main ingredient and are baked . Major categories include cakes , sweet pastries , doughnuts , scones , and cookies . In the Middle East and Asia, flour-based confections predominate. The definition of which foods are "confectionery" vs "bread" can vary based on cultures and laws. In Ireland, the definition of "bread" as

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2784-468: The upper and middle classes in the 19th century. "True women" were supposed to be pious, pure, submissive and domestic. Domesticity, in particular, was regarded as a laudable virtue as the home was considered a woman's proper sphere. Unlike Tocqueville, Welter and other 20th-century historians were critical of the separate spheres ideology, seeing it as a source of women's denigration. In Woman, Culture, and Society (1974), Michelle Rosaldo emphasizes

2871-417: The "separate sphere" ideals that confined women exclusively to the domestic sphere. Theorists such as Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx have argued that following the rise of capitalism, the home lost its control of the means of production and consequently became a private, separate sphere. As a result, Engels contended, women were excluded from participating directly in the production process and relegated to

2958-511: The 16th century, a cumfit was more specifically a seed, nut or small piece of spice enclosed in a round or ovoid mass of sugar. The production of comfits was a core skill of the early confectioner , who was known more commonly in 16th and 17th century England as a comfitmaker. Reflecting their original medicinal purpose, however, comfits were also produced by apothecaries and directions on how to make them appear in dispensatories as well as cookery texts. An early medieval Latin name for an apothecary

3045-616: The 6th and 4th centuries BCE, the Persians , followed by the Greeks , made contact with the Indian subcontinent and its "reeds that produce honey without bees". They adopted and then spread sugar and sugarcane agriculture. Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia . In the early history of sugar usage in Europe, it was initially the apothecary who had

3132-668: The Duties of the Female Sex (1797) and Henry Venn 's The Complete Duty of Man (1763) were two popular evangelical texts which described proper behavior for men and women, arguing that a woman's primary duty was to care for those in her domestic circle and obey her husband. In her paper "Separate Spheres or Shared Dominions", Cathy Ross suggests that the separate spheres ideology had ambiguous effects on women's lives. She argues that while it "was clear that women were supposed to be subordinate and that home and children were their sphere",

3219-1187: The European Union, the Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community (NACE) scheme (revision 2) matches the UN classification, under code number 10.82. In the United States, the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS 2012) splits sugar confectionery across three categories: National industry code 311340 for all non-chocolate confectionery manufacturing, 311351 for chocolate and confectionery manufacturing from cacao beans, and national industry 311352 for confectionery manufacturing from purchased chocolate. Ice cream and sorbet are classified with dairy products under ISIC 1050, NACE 10.52, and NAICS 311520. Sugar confectionery items include candies, lollipops , candy bars , chocolate , cotton candy , and other sweet items of snack food . Some of

3306-462: The French word for cake. Chiffon cakes are sponge cakes with vegetable oil, which adds moistness. Chocolate cakes are butter cakes, sponge cakes, or other cakes flavored with melted chocolate or cocoa powder . German chocolate cake is a variety of chocolate cake. Coffee cake is generally thought of as a cake to serve with coffee or tea at breakfast or a coffee break . Some types use yeast as

3393-700: The Roman period, the name for cake became "placenta", which was derived from the Greek term. A placenta was baked on a pastry base or inside a pastry case. The Greeks invented beer as a leavener , frying fritters in olive oil , and cheesecakes using goat's milk . In ancient Rome , the basic bread dough was sometimes enriched with butter, eggs, and honey, which produced a sweet and cake-like baked good. The Latin poet Ovid refers to his and his brother's birthday party and cake in his first book of exile, Tristia . Early cakes in England were also essentially bread:

3480-664: The US, a chocolate-coated candy bar (e.g. Snickers ) would be called a candy bar , in Britain more likely a chocolate bar than unspecifically a sweet . The United Nations' International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC) scheme (revision 4) classifies both chocolate and sugar confectionery as ISIC 1073, which includes the manufacture of chocolate and chocolate confectionery; sugar confectionery proper (caramels, cachous, nougats, fondant, white chocolate ), chewing gum, preserving fruit, nuts, fruit peels, and making confectionery lozenges and pastilles. In

3567-520: The US. There is no specific maximum in the EU. Candy colorants, particularly yellow colorants such as E102 Tartrazine , E104 Quinoline Yellow WS and E110 Sunset Yellow FCF , have many restrictions around the world. Tartrazine, for example, can cause allergic and asthmatic reactions and was once banned in Austria, Germany, and Norway. Some countries such as the UK have asked the food industry to phase out

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3654-407: The US. This inspired psychologist Ernest Dichter to find a solution to the cake mix problem in the frosting . Since making the cake was so simple, housewives and other in-home cake makers could expend their creative energy on cake decorating inspired by, among other things, photographs in magazines of elaborately decorated cakes. Ever since boxed cake mix has become a staple of supermarkets, it

3741-406: The categories and types of sugar confectionery include the following: Shelf life is largely determined by the amount of water present in the candy and the storage conditions. High-sugar candies, such as boiled candies, can have a shelf life of many years if kept covered in a dry environment. Spoilage of low-moisture candies tends to involve a loss of shape, color, texture, and flavor, rather than

3828-486: The civil rights statutes of the Second Reconstruction. Deborah Rotman, an anthropologist at Notre Dame, analyzed this concept of separate spheres among the people of Deerfield, Massachusetts in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. In this community, there was a clear divide between men and women by means of a "proper allocation" in which females were given the domestic residence or sphere and

3915-428: The difference between cake and bread are easy to find, the precise classification has always been elusive. Butter cakes are made from creamed butter, sugar, eggs, and flour. They rely on the combination of butter and sugar beaten for an extended time to incorporate air into the batter. A classic pound cake is made with a pound each of butter, sugar, eggs, and flour. Another type of butter cake that takes its name from

4002-616: The domestic realm. Rousseau described women's primary duties in Emile, or On Education , stating that "women's entire education should be planned in relation to men. To please men, to be useful to them, to win their love and respect, to raise them as children, to care for them as adults, correct and console them, make their lives sweet and pleasant; these are women's duties in all ages and these are what they should be taught from childhood." The popular beliefs about inherent sex differences remained deeply embedded in popular consciousness throughout

4089-434: The field, claiming the spheres cannot be outlined in such simplistic terms. Woman, Culture, and Society co-editor Louis Lamphere breaks down Rosaldo's model and discusses the spheres in different terms. Rather than assume universal asymmetry, Lamphere considers various societies worldwide. Even in some Middle Eastern cultures that place women in extreme positions of subordination, the model could not be so easily applied. This

4176-419: The finished confection. Pastries can be elaborately decorated, or they can be plain dough. Doughnuts may be fried or baked. Scones and related sweet quick breads , such as bannock , are similar to baking powder biscuits and, in sweeter, less traditional interpretations, can seem like a cupcake . Cookies are small, sweet baked treats. They originated as small cakes, and some traditional cookies have

4263-427: The growth of dangerous microbes. Impermeable packaging can reduce spoilage due to storage conditions. Candies spoil more quickly if they have different amounts of water in different parts of the candy (for example, a candy that combines marshmallow and nougat), or if they are stored in high-moisture environments. This process is due to the effects of water activity , which results in the transfer of unwanted water from

4350-476: The history of the separate spheres model in the United States. Henke points out that between 1820 and 1860 (a period sometimes called the dawn of separate spheres) three parenting models were common for two-parent, mother/father families: According to Henke, many parenting books from this era suggested that mothers should take primary responsibility for their children. Yet, some parenting books argued that mothers and fathers should have separate childrearing duties or

4437-453: The idea that these separate spheres can be explained in terms of a dichotomy, in the sense that these gender-oriented domains are viewed as so totally separate that it only reinforces the ideology of gender separation and inequality. Activities given to men, versus those assigned to women, were seen as having more value and contributing greatly to the society. Adversely, the woman's so-called simpler roles of housework and childrearing were held at

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4524-539: The ideological framework in Deerfield, women found themselves voting in school boards, working on municipal water projects and fundraising as men had done before them. Despite the traditional understanding of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century of completely separate public and private spheres, the Deerfield community challenged these "dichotomies of domesticity" and paved the way for equal rights for men and women. The separation between female and male spheres

4611-552: The ideology, is the realm of domestic life, focused on childcare, housekeeping and religion. In Europe and North America, the idealization of separate spheres emerged during the Industrial Revolution . As an observable phenomenon, however, the existence of separate spheres is much older. The idea that women should inhabit a separate domestic sphere has appeared in Western thought for centuries, extending back to

4698-467: The importance of focusing on structurally altering the family sphere to create gender equality in the education and workplace spheres. The family sphere acted as a catalyst, because: unless it changed, women would simply lack access to the opportunities already available to men. Franklin also pointed out that the gender inequality among the American population in the 60’s and 70’s was a major contributor to

4785-469: The men were given the "economically productive agricultural land". Men would migrate away from the women if agriculture was depleting in their given agricultural space. As the men were moving to work outside the home, women began to acclimate to the economic atmosphere and gain more opportunities in the public sphere with all the men working elsewhere. These women soon had various roles in the public and private spheres in Deerfield. As equal rights became part of

4872-470: The most amateur of cooks may bake a cake. The term "cake" has a long history. The word itself is of Viking origin, from the Old Norse word "kaka". The ancient Greeks called cake πλακοῦς ( plakous ), which was derived from the word for "flat", πλακόεις ( plakoeis ). It was baked using flour mixed with eggs, milk, nuts, and honey. They also had a cake called "satura", which was a flat, heavy cake. During

4959-541: The most important role in the production of sugar-based preparations. Medieval European physicians learned the medicinal uses of the material from the Arabs and Byzantine Greeks. One Middle Eastern remedy for rheums and fevers were little, twisted sticks of pulled sugar called in Arabic al fänäd or al pänäd . These became known in England as alphenics, or more commonly as penidia, penids, pennet or pan sugar. They were

5046-576: The most obvious differences between a "cake" and "bread" were the round, flat shape of the cakes and the cooking method, which turned cakes over once while cooking, while bread was left upright throughout the baking process. Sponge cakes , leavened with beaten eggs, originated during the Renaissance , possibly in Spain . During the Great Depression , there was a surplus of molasses and

5133-412: The most popular varieties of sugar confectionery . The occupation of confectioner encompasses the categories of cooking performed by both the French patissier (pastry chef) and the confiseur (sugar worker). The confectionery industry also includes specialized training schools and extensive historical records. Traditional confectionery goes back to ancient times and continued to be eaten through

5220-491: The need to provide easily made food to millions of economically depressed people in the United States. One company patented a cake-bread mix to deal with this economic situation and thereby established the first line of cake in a box. In doing so, cake, as it is known today, became a mass-produced good rather than a home- or bakery-made specialty. Later, during the post-war boom , other American companies (notably General Mills ) developed this idea further, marketing cake mix on

5307-471: The occasion for which they are intended. For example, wedding cakes , birthday cakes , cakes for first communion , Christmas cakes, Halloween cakes, and Passover plava (a type of sponge cake sometimes made with matzo meal) are all identified primarily according to the celebration they are intended to accompany. The cutting of a wedding cake constitutes a social ceremony in some cultures. The Ancient Roman marriage ritual of confarreatio originated in

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5394-431: The past for military use as a high-density food energy source. Many sugar confections, especially caramel-coated popcorn and the different kinds of sugar candy , are defined in US law as foods of minimal nutritional value . Contaminants and coloring agents in confectionery can be particularly harmful to children. Therefore, confectionery contaminants, such as high levels of lead , have been restricted to 1 ppm in

5481-494: The precursors of barley sugar and modern cough drops . In 1390, the Earl of Derby paid "two shillings for two pounds of penydes. " As the non-medicinal applications of sugar developed, the comfitmaker, or confectioner gradually came into being as a separate trade. In the late medieval period the words confyt, comfect or cumfitt were generic terms for all kinds of sweetmeats made from fruits, roots, or flowers preserved with sugar. By

5568-422: The principle of convenience, especially to housewives. When sales dropped heavily in the 1950s, marketers discovered that baking cakes, once a task at which housewives could exercise skill and creativity, had become dispiriting. This was a period in American ideological history when women, retired from the war-time labor force, were confined to the domestic sphere while still exposed to the blossoming consumerism in

5655-631: The proportion of ingredients used is 1-2-3-4 cake : 1 cup butter, 2 cups sugar, 3 cups flour, and 4 eggs. According to Beth Tartan, this cake was one of the most common among the American pioneers who settled North Carolina. Baking powder is in many butter cakes, such as Victoria sponge . The ingredients are sometimes mixed without creaming the butter, using recipes for simple and quick cakes. Sponge cakes (or foam cakes) are made from whipped eggs, sugar, and flour. Traditional sponge cakes are leavened only with eggs. They rely primarily on trapped air in

5742-449: The public sphere. Similarly, Christian fundamentalists supported the separate spheres ideology and opposed women's suffrage as well as other attempts to broaden women's influence in the public sphere. Theological conservatism has been found to have a stable effect on the endorsement of separate spheres ideology. Leading evangelicals propagated a view of womanhood which reinforced gendered division. Thomas Gisborne 's An Enquiry into

5829-419: The public. These include several specialized sprinkles and even methods to print pictures and transfer the image onto a cake. Special tools are needed for more complex cake decorating , such as piping bags and various piping tips, syringes and embossing mats . To use a piping bag or syringe, a piping tip is attached to the bag or syringe using a coupler. The bag or syringe is partially filled with icing which

5916-534: The same time, the Enlightenment and the French Revolution helped spread the ideas of liberty, equality and political rights, but in practice such rights were denied to women, who were seen as belonging to a different social sphere. Feminist writers like Olympe de Gouges , Mary Wollstonecraft and Lucy Stone demanded political equality for women as well as men and provided searing criticisms of

6003-506: The sense of "the art and business of a confectioner" is first recorded in 1743, and the earliest use in the sense of a "confectioner's shop" dates to 1803. Before sugar was readily available in the ancient western world, confectionery was based on honey . Honey was used in Ancient China , Ancient India , Ancient Egypt , Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome to coat fruits and flowers to preserve them or to create sweetmeats. Between

6090-431: The separate spheres ideology did not disappear. "Woman has no call to the ballot-box, but she has a sphere of her own, of amazing responsibility and importance. She is the divinely appointed guardian of the home...She should more fully realize that her position as wife and mother and angel of the home, is the holiest, most responsible and queenlike assigned to mortals; and dismiss all ambition for anything higher, as there

6177-436: The separate spheres of women and men a positive development, arguing: although the women of the United States are confined within the narrow circle of domestic life and their situation is in some respects one of extreme dependence, I have nowhere seen women occupying a loftier position; and if I were asked...to what the singular prosperity and growing strength of that people ought mainly to be attributed, I should reply,—to

6264-419: The separation of spheres came from antisuffragists who relied on the notion of inherent sexual differences to argue that women were unfit for political participation. Antifeminist men's groups in late 19th and early 20th century United States responded to the societal changes and shift in gender relations by advocating a return to a strict separation of spheres that would keep women from competing with men in

6351-425: The separation of spheres enabled women "to reach out to other women in sisterhood, in solidarity, on the common ground of domesticity". The ideology of separate spheres contributed to resistance to coeducation and to the emergence of gendered educational institutions such as the female seminary and women's college in higher education and the woman's club in continuing education . The rise of teaching as

6438-418: The sharing of a cake. Particular types of cake may be associated with particular festivals, such as stollen or chocolate log (at Christmas), babka and simnel cake (at Easter), or mooncake . There has been a long tradition of decorating an iced cake at Christmas time; other cakes associated with Christmas include chocolate log and mince pies . A Lancashire Courting Cake is a fruit-filled cake baked by

6525-578: The subordinate domestic sphere. Another major commentator on the modern idea of "separate spheres" was the French political thinker Alexis de Tocqueville . In Democracy in America (1840), in a chapter entitled How the Americans understand the Equality of the sexes , Tocqueville wrote: "In no country has such constant care been taken as in America to trace two clearly distinct lines of action for

6612-417: The superiority of their women. Betty Friedan 's The Feminine Mystique (1963) asserted that women were being forced to rely on their husbands and children as the sole sources of their identity by an historically constructed oppressive paradigm, not by any "intrinsic" predisposition. Drawing on Friedan, historian Barbara Welter identified a "Cult of True Womanhood" , an ideal of femininity prevalent among

6699-499: The two sexes and to make them keep pace one with the other, but in two pathways that are always different." He observed that married women, in particular, were subject to many restrictions, noting that "the independence of woman is irrecoverably lost in the bonds of matrimony", adding that "in the United States the inexorable opinion of the public carefully circumscribes woman within the narrow circle of domestic interests and duties and forbids her to step beyond it." Tocqueville considered

6786-403: The use of these colorants, especially for products marketed to children. Separate spheres The patriarchal ideology of separate spheres, based primarily on notions of biologically determined gender roles and/or patriarchal religious doctrine, claims that women should avoid the public sphere – the domain of politics, paid work, commerce and law. Women's "proper sphere", according to

6873-545: The wake of the Industrial Revolution. Prior to the industrialization of the Western world, family members worked side by side and the workplace was located mostly in and around the home. With the shift from home-based to factory production, men left the home to sell their labor for wages while women stayed home to perform unpaid domestic work. The separate spheres ideology reflected and fueled these changes. At

6960-483: The women’s rights movements in the mid-1960s proposed that to achieve true equality between the sexes, it would be necessary for laws to be put in place to move past the simple separate spheres model and address the “interspherical impacts”. In 1966, the National Organization for Women (NOW) pushed for equality of women in society and in the workplace by means of changes in family regulation. NOW stressed

7047-440: The word cake in their names, such as cheesecake , are not technically cakes, while others, such as Boston cream pie are cakes despite seeming to be named something else. Pastry is a large and diverse category of baked goods, united by the flour-based doughs used as the base for the product. These doughs are not always sweet, and the sweetness may come from the sugar, fruit, chocolate, cream, or other fillings that are added to

7134-639: Was confectionarius , and it was in this sort of sugar work that the activities of the two trades overlapped and that the word "confectionery" originated. In the cuisine of the Late Ottoman Empire diverse cosmopolitan cultural influences were reflected in published recipes such as European-style molded jellies flavored with cordials. In Europe, Ottoman confections (especially "lumps of delight" ( Turkish delight ) became very fashionable among European and British high society. An important study of Ottoman confectionery called Conditorei des Orients

7221-440: Was a woman's school from 1866 to 1950, insisted that she was "in favor of the co-education of the sexes" and that the education at her school was equal to what was given to young men. In the 21st century, the legacy of the separation of spheres has a lasting impact perpetuating the separation of various academic and professional fields into gendered areas. A 2013 study by Jacqueline Henke from Arkansas State University explores

7308-503: Was an economical recipe when using two eggs for each cake was too costly. Although clear examples of the difference between cake and bread are easy to find, the precise classification has always been elusive. For example, banana bread may be properly considered either a quick bread or a cake. Yeast cakes are the oldest and are very similar to yeast bread. Such cakes are often very traditional in form and include such pastries as babka and stollen . Cakes may be classified according to

7395-402: Was baked at a temperature that is too low or too hot, when it has been underbaked and when placed in an oven that is too hot at the beginning of the baking process. The use of excessive amounts of sugar, flour, fat or leavening can also cause a cake to fall. A cake can also fall when subjected to cool air that enters an oven when the oven door is opened during the cooking process. A finished cake

7482-597: Was heavily influenced by biological determinism , the notion that women and men are naturally suitable for different social roles due to their biological and genetic makeup. The idea of biological determinism was popular during the Age of Enlightenment and among such thinkers as Jean-Jacques Rousseau who argued that women were inherently different from men and should devote themselves to reproduction and domesticity. Women were considered passive, dependent on men and, due to their reproductive capacity, ill-suited for life outside

7569-480: Was published by the royal confectioner Friedrich Unger in 1838. The first confectionery in Manchester, England was opened by Elizabeth Raffald who had worked six years in domestic service as a housekeeper. Confections are defined by the presence of sweeteners. These are usually sugars, but it is possible to buy sugar-free candies, such as sugar-free peppermints . The most common sweetener for home cooking

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