Orange: rural Mapuche; Dark: urban Mapuche; White: non-Mapuche inhabitants
89-544: The Caleuche (from the Mapudungun kalewtun, "to transform, to change" and che , "people": "transformed people"), also called The Enchanted Ship , Barcoiche , The Ghost Ship , or The Warlocks' Ship , is a legendary ghost ship from Chilote mythology in southern Chile . The legend of Caleuche is related to many aspects of history and the beliefs of the Chiloé archipelago. Renato Cárdenas‘s book of Chiloé mythology
178-427: A " creative destruction " for farmers of Southern Chile. A large area of former pastures and cultivated fields around the lower course of Cruces River was permanently flooded as a result of c. 2 m of subsidence caused by the earthquake. Over the years the new wetlands were colonized chiefly by Egeria densa ( Spanish : luchecillo ). Egeria densa and other plants created a rich aquatic ecosystem that attracted
267-400: A 5.5 km-long fissure on 135° heading where 21 individual vents have been found. These vents produced an output of about 0.25 km DRE both in form of lava flows and tephra . The eruption ended on 22 July 59 days later. As a result of an evacuation plan, there were no reported human deaths associated with the eruption. The levels of material damage were relatively low despite
356-583: A connection between the Merindonal subgroup mentioned above and the Mapuche language does not exist. Current linguists reject Greenberg's findings due to methodological concerns and opt instead for more conservative methods of classification. Moreover, many linguists do not accept the existence of an Amerindian language family due to the lack of available information needed to confirm it. Other authorities such as SIL International classify Mapuche as one of
445-468: A few others. The hospital of Valdivia, built in 1939, suffered major damage and patients had to be evacuated. The United States quickly set up a field hospital following the earthquake. Aided by the United States, a geological survey of Valdivia was done following the earthquake and resulted in the city's first geological map. Mexico built and donated the public school Escuela México after
534-487: A leg attached to their back as an Ivunche, forced to work on the ship for all of eternity. As common as the tale of a haunted ship of dead and enslaved sailors, there also exists a version of this tale where the Magical Ship houses sorcerers of Chiloé, and they party and transport merchandise. It is also stated that the sorcerers return from a voyage that they make every 3 months in order to strengthen their powers. It
623-710: A linguist from the United States, proposed a system of classification of the many indigenous languages of the Americas in which the Amerindian language family would include the large majority of languages found on the South American continent, which were formerly grouped in distinct families. The only families that fell outside of his framework were the Eskimo–Aleut languages and Na-Dene languages . According to this classification, Mapuche would be considered part of
712-678: A long-term policy after the earthquake. As a result of the earthquake, an international technological cooperation programme was established in the dairy sector. More specifically, the German and Danish governments helped to create the Centro Tecnológico de la Leche (the Milk Technological Centre) in the Southern University of Chile . The scholar Erik Dahmén believes that the earthquake resulted in
801-645: A migratory wave arising from the collapse of the Tiwanaku Empire around 1000 CE. There is a more recent lexical influence from the Quechuan languages ( pataka 'hundred', warangka 'thousand'), associated with the Inca Empire , and from Spanish. As result of Inca rule, there was some Mapudungun– Imperial Quechua bilingualism among the Mapuches of Aconcagua Valley at the time of the arrival of
890-474: A new life as crewmembers who will pass eternity partying and celebrating. The Magical Ship was created by el Millalobo for la Pincoya and her brothers for this purpose. Another version of this tale says that the Mystical Ship would also appear in the seas of Chiloé to fascinate the fishermen with beautiful music, and upon doing so they would be converted to enslaved crewmembers who are cursed forever with
979-423: A permanent bird fauna, notably black-necked swans . The protected area of Carlos Anwandter Nature Sanctuary was created in 1981 to protect the ecosystem. A whole neighbourhood of Corral , Corral Bajo was wiped by the tsunami, while the nearby upper area, Corral Alto, suffered the loss of about 20 to 30% of its houses. Among the material loses were a series stilt houses between Corral Bajo and Amargos. After
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#17327734094581068-583: A push from more northern Huilliches , who in turn were being displaced by Mapuches . According to Ramírez "more than a dozen Mapuche – Rapa Nui cognates have been described". Among these are the Mapuche/Rapa Nui words toki / toki (axe), kuri / uri (black) and piti / iti (little). As the 16th and 17th century Central Chile was becoming a melting pot for uprooted indigenous peoples, it has been argued that Mapuche, Quechua and Spanish coexisted there, with significant bilingualism, during
1157-452: A remnant of Spanish colonialism . Mapudungun is not an official language of the countries Chile and Argentina, receiving virtually no government support throughout its history. However, since 2013, Mapuche, along with Spanish, has been granted the status of an official language by the local government of Galvarino , one of the many Communes of Chile . It is not used as a language of instruction in either country's educational system despite
1246-592: A southward migrating foreshock sequence to the main Valdivia shock, which occurred just 15 minutes after the third event. The earthquake interrupted and effectively ended a protest by coal miners from Lota , who were attempting to march to Concepción to demand higher salaries. The Valdivia earthquake occurred at 15:11 UTC-4 on 22 May, and affected all of Chile between Talca and Chiloé Island , more than 400,000 square kilometres (150,000 sq mi). Coastal villages, such as Toltén , were struck. At Corral ,
1335-623: Is a collection of stories, legends and magic derived from oral tradition. The Caleuche is also known as the Marino, the Ship of Magic, the Ship of Fire, or the Barcoiche. They are all names given to the Caluche, a marvelous ship of music and lights that travels along Chiloé canals. Certain conditions, such as foggy days, make it possible to sense and see the ship. Sounds of chains, parties, music, and
1424-468: Is a historically debated topic and hypotheses have changed over time. In a 1970 publication, Stark argued that Mapuche is related to Mayan languages of Mesoamerica . The following year, Hamp adopted this same hypothesis. Stark later argued in 1973 that Mapuche descended from a language known as 'Yucha' which is a sister of Proto-Mayan language and a predecessor of the Chimuan languages , which hail from
1513-464: Is centered in Arauco Province , Sub-group II is the dialect of Angol , Los Ángeles and the middle and lower Bío Bío River . Sub-group III is centered around Purén . In the areas around Lonquimay , Melipeuco and Allipén River dialect sub-group IV is spoken. Sub-group V is spoken at the coast of Araucanía Region including Queule , Budi Lake and Toltén . Temuco is the epicenter of
1602-576: Is its extraordinary speed. In order to witness these phenomena without being seen, one must cover one’s mouth: the first thing it senses is breath. There are also varieties of trees behind which one can hide so as to not be captured by the Caleuche, some being the Chilean wineberry and the olivillo . People fear being captured by the Magical Ship: one can never be too cautious. Many believe that
1691-533: Is located along the Pacific Ring of Fire , a known zone of high seismicity. The earthquake was a megathrust earthquake resulting from the release of mechanical stress between the subducting Nazca plate and South American plate on the Peru–Chile Trench , off the coast of southern Chile. Because of its geography, Chile remains one of the most seismically active countries in the world. The focus of
1780-557: Is said that only crewmembers can board the ship and use the Caballo marino Chilote as a form of transportation. Per Millalobo’s orders, it is prohibited that others board or enter the ship by any means. Another version is that the crew of the Caleuche makes magical pacts with certain traders ensuring them prosperity in exchange for favors such as using their houses for parties or other illegal or dark purposes. Because of this version of
1869-410: Is that it is a ship that can appear and disappear in the middle of the night, and that is it dangerous to find oneself among the mythical ship. The most widely-accepted theory is that the ship recovers the dead and revive them to live eternally on the ship, surrounded by parties and celebrations. A popular version of this tale states that the ship recovers bodies of the dead from the water and gives them
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#17327734094581958-694: The Aleutian Islands . The epicenter of this megathrust earthquake was near Lumaco , approximately 570 kilometres (350 mi) south of Santiago , with Valdivia being the most affected city. The tremor caused localised tsunamis that severely battered the Chilean coast, with waves up to 25 metres (82 ft). The main tsunami traveled across the Pacific Ocean and devastated Hilo, Hawaii , where waves as high as 10.7 metres (35 ft) were recorded over 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) from
2047-561: The Liquiñe-Ofqui Fault . Some of these areas remain sparsely vegetated while others have naturally developed more or less pure stands of Nothofagus dombeyi . These landslides did not cause many fatalities nor significant economic losses because most of the areas were uninhabited, with only minor roads. One landslide caused destruction and alarm following its blockage of the outflow of Riñihue Lake (see below). About 100 km (62 mi) south of Riñihue Lake, landslides in
2136-642: The Valdivia River , sank after being moved 1.5 km (0.93 mi) backward and forward in the river; as of 2005, its mast was still visible from the road to Niebla . Soil subsidence also destroyed buildings, deepened local rivers and created wetlands in such places as the Río Cruces and Chorocomayo , a new aquatic park north of the city. Extensive areas of the city were flooded. The electricity and water systems of Valdivia were totally destroyed. Witnesses reported underground water flowing up through
2225-589: The Zona Austral and also with Chonan languages of Patagonia , some of which are now extinct. However, according to Key, there is a closer relation still between Mapuche and the Pano-Tacanan languages from Bolivia and Perú, a connection also made by Loos in 1973. Key also argued that there is a link to two Bolivian language isolates: the Mosetén and Yuracaré languages . In 1987, Joseph Greenberg ,
2314-546: The 17th century. However the indigenous language that has influenced Chilean Spanish the most is Quechua rather than Mapuche. In colonial times, many Spanish and Mestizos spoke the Mapuche language. For example, in the 17th century, many soldiers at the Valdivian Fort System had some command of Mapuche. During the 17th and 18th centuries, most of Chiloé Archipelago 's population was bilingual , and according to John Byron , many Spaniards preferred to use
2403-433: The 1960s the autumn of 1960 in southern Chile was not particularly dry nor warm. The tsunami that struck the coast of southern Chile destroyed seaside farms, killing numerous livestock and people. Barns and industrial structures were destroyed by the quake. The dairy industry was among the few industries of the affected zone that received subsidies and investment after the earthquake. It received state support through
2492-827: The Andean language family, within the Meridional subgroup which also includes the Kawésgar language, the Puelche language , the Tehuelche language and the Yagán language. To Greenberg, Araucano isn't an individual language, but rather a subgroup composed of four languages: Araucano, Mapuche, Moluche, and Pehuenche. However, the comparative methods employed by Greenberg are controversial. In 1994, Viegas Barros directly contradicted Greenberg's hypothesis and part of Key's, arguing that
2581-590: The Andes in a strip running from Lota (37° S) southwards. The area of intensities of VII or more did not penetrate into the Central Valley north of Lleulleu Lake (38° S) and south of Castro (42.5° S). Two days after the earthquake Cordón Caulle , a volcanic vent close to Puyehue volcano , erupted. Other volcanoes may also have erupted, but none were recorded because of the lack of communication in Chile at
2670-476: The Andes where its residents eternally reside. Chiloé sailors recommend that one is very respectful when trying to navigate through the area; they suggest that one not sing nor whistle, as it angers the Caleuche and gives rise to the misfortune it may bring. Between the various hypotheses that have been proposed on the origin of the legend, it is suggested that it could be a readaptation of the European legend of
2759-542: The Chilean crewmembers of a generation ship discover a "ghost ship" trailing the flotilla of colony vessels and dub the ship Caleuche . The Caleuche is a living vessel which travels the world, carrying a crew of monster hunters in The Luke Coles Book Series by Josh Walker . The Caleuche is a ghost pirate ship that sails around the globe, captained by the Sirena Chilota mermaid from
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2848-528: The Chilean government's commitment to provide full access to education in Mapuche areas in southern Chile. There is an ongoing political debate over which alphabet to use as the standard alphabet of written Mapudungun. In 1982, it was estimated that there were 202,000 Mapuche speakers in Chile, including those that speak the Pehuenche and Huilliche dialects, and another 100,000 speakers in Argentina as of
2937-472: The Chiloé archipelago. These were supposedly the sounds of the Caleuche stealthily delivering goods and treasures to those with whom it had a pact. However, most people rejected this supernatural explanation and instead blamed the merchant's prosperity on mortal, rather than supernatural, smugglers. The legend of the Caleuche is referred to in Alastair Reynolds ' 2001 novel Chasm City , when
3026-858: The Mapuche territory today. Around Temuco , Freire and Gorbea the sub-group VI is spoken. Group VII is spoken in Valdivia Province plus Pucón and Curarrehue . The last "dialect" sub-group is VIII which is the Huilliche language spoken from Lago Ranco and Río Bueno to the south and is not mutually intelligible with the other dialects. These can be grouped in four dialect groups: north, central, south-central and south. These are further divided into eight sub-groups: I and II (northern), III–IV (central), V-VII (south-central) and VIII (southern). The sub-groups III-VII are more closely related to each other than they are to I-II and VIII. Croese finds these relationships as consistent, but not proof, with
3115-734: The Spanish in the 1530s and 1540s. The discovery of many Chono toponyms in Chiloé Archipelago , where Huilliche , a language closely related to Mapudungun, has been dominant, suggest that Mapudungun displaced Chono there prior to the arrival of the Spanish in the mid-16th century. A theory postulated by chronicler José Pérez García holds that the Cuncos settled in Chiloé Island in Pre-Hispanic times as consequence of
3204-426: The areas in which it is spoken and has also incorporated loanwords from both Spanish and Quechua . Depending on the alphabet, the sound /tʃ/ is spelled ⟨ch⟩ or ⟨c⟩ , and /ŋ/ as ⟨g⟩ or ⟨ng⟩ . The language is called either the "speech ( d/zuŋun ) of the land ( mapu )" or the "speech of the people ( tʃe )". An ⟨n⟩ may connect
3293-486: The city of Valdivia near the coast. As the San Pedro River was blocked, the water level of Riñihue Lake started to rise quickly. Each meter the water level rose was equivalent to 20 million cubic meters, which meant that 480 million cubic meters of water would release into the San Pedro River (easily overpowering its flow capacity of 400 cubic metres (14,000 cu ft) per second if it rose above
3382-673: The coast, mainly the foot of the Chilean Coast Range , and the shores of Llanquihue Lake . A seiche (type of standing wave) of more than 1 meter was observed on Panguipulli Lake following the earthquake. On 22 May, a seiche occurred also in Nahuel Huapi Lake , on the Argentine side of the Andes , more than 200 km away from Valdivia. The wave, most likely produced by an earthquake-triggered sediment slide at
3471-577: The coastal town of Queule , a carabinero reported hundreds of people dead or missing some days after the tsunami. Historians Yoselin Jaramillo and Ismael Basso report that people in Queule decades later know about 50 people to have died because of the earthquake and tsunami. The earthquake triggered numerous landslides , mainly in the steep glacial valleys of the southern Andes . Within the Andes, most landslides occurred on forested mountain slopes around
3560-460: The community, participation in Chilean society, and the individual's choice towards the traditional or modern/urban way of life. There is no consensus among experts regarding the relation between Mapuche and other indigenous languages of South America and it is classified as a language isolate , or more conservatively, an unclassified language while researchers await more definitive evidence linking it to other languages. The origin of Mapuche
3649-408: The dominating outline of the ship makes it unmistakable. For some it is a mesmerizing sight and can pass right through other vessels, while others claim to have attended parties inside the ship - though they would have preferred it be on land and in the company of women! For those parties they make a deal with merchants who have daughters, and The Caleuche provides them with merchandise in exchange; thus
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3738-492: The earthquake destroyed Valdivia's flood barriers, general land subsidence exposed new areas to flooding. Parts of the botanical garden of the Austral University of Chile that were next to Cau-Cau River and the city's southern outskirts along Route 206 were permanently flooded. The earthquakes damaged an area that had suffered a long period of economic decline, which began with shifts in trade routes due to
3827-454: The earthquake many families in Corral relocated to the neighbourhood of La Aguada. The economy of the coastal town of Queule had during the 1950s developed significantly. Its economy based on fishing, agriculture and industry had grown. Queule was connected by road in 1957 to the rest of the country and the town had developed into a balneario (resort town). This era of prosperity ended with
3916-520: The earthquake was relatively shallow at 33 km (21 mi), considering that earthquakes in northern Chile and Argentina may reach depths of 70 km (43 mi). A 2019 research paper postulates that the Liquiñe-Ofqui fault had a M w 9.07 strike-slip subevent along with the M w 9.37 main thrust sub-event which could help account for how the plate boundary event seemingly "overspent" its tectonic budget. In other words,
4005-563: The earthquake. Valdivia's bridges suffered only minor damage. The damage caused to Calle-Calle Bridge led to its temporary closure after the earthquake, with traffic redirected to Teja Island through Caucau River where people crossed it on boats and, reportedly, also a rudimentary and temporary wooden bridge. Land subsidence in Corral Bay improved navigability as shoal banks, produced earlier by sediments from Madre de Dios and other nearby gold mines, sank and were compacted. As
4094-433: The earthquake. Between two sparsely populated and isolated Andean valleys, the eruption had few eyewitnesses and received little attention by local media, which was preoccupied with the severe and widespread damage and losses caused by the earthquake. The eruption was first noticed and reported as an explosion by the crew of a United States Air Force plane that was heading to Santiago from Puerto Montt . The eruption fed
4183-459: The epicenter. The death toll and monetary losses arising from this widespread disaster are not certain. Various estimates of the total number of fatalities from the earthquake and tsunamis have been published, ranging between 1,000 and 6,000 killed. Different sources have estimated the monetary cost ranged from US$ 400 million to $ 800 million (or US$ 4.1 billion to $ 8.2 billion in 2023, adjusted for inflation). Chile
4272-526: The expansion of railroads in southern Chile and the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914. Unlike Valdivia, Osorno was saved from major destruction. In Osorno only about 20 houses were totally destroyed, although many firewalls and chimneys collapsed. Puerto Montt , a major city today, had in the early 1960s about 49,500 inhabitants. The bulk of the damage in Puerto Montt was located in
4361-508: The extent that a single word can require a translation that produces a complete sentence. trari- SURROUND - mansun- ox- pa- CIS - rke- SURPRISE - la- NEG - (y)- ( E )- a- FUT - y- IND - 1960 Valdivia earthquake The 1960 Valdivia earthquake and tsunami (Spanish: Terremoto de Valdivia ) or the Great Chilean earthquake ( Gran terremoto de Chile ) on 22 May 1960
4450-547: The fault would have moved as a consequence of the 22 May Valdivia earthquake. Earthquake-induced tsunamis affected southern Chile, Hawaii, Japan, the Philippines, China, eastern New Zealand , southeast Australia, and the Aleutian Islands . Some localized tsunamis severely battered the Chilean coast, with waves up to 25 m (82 ft). The main tsunami crossed the Pacific Ocean at a speed of several hundred km/h and devastated Hilo, Hawaii , killing 61 people. Most of
4539-472: The final, 24-meter-high dam. This potential disaster would have violently flooded all the settlements along the course of the river in less than five hours, with more dire consequences if the dam suddenly broke. About 100,000 people lived in the affected zone. Plans were made to evacuate Valdivia, and many people left. To avoid the destruction of the city, several military units and hundreds of workers from ENDESA , CORFO , and MOP started an effort to control
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#17327734094584628-590: The ghost ship known as The Flying Dutchman. It has also been argued that it was based on real events, such as the disappearance of the Dutch ship "The Calanche" or the mysterious disappearances of the Spanish Estrecho de Magallanes. Another possibility is that the legend has origins based on the arrival of ships to the archipelago of the Netherlands, led by Baltazar de Cordes, in an expedition that captured
4717-491: The high magnitude of the earthquake. Part of the reason behind this was the limited infrastructure development of the region next to the rupture zone. Structures that had been designed to resist earthquakes performed well during the earthquake, chiefly suffering damage when affected by soil subsidence or small fault movements. Houses built by their owners fared badly. In the regions of Maule and Bío Bío , houses built from adobe and masonry proved weak, while from Araucanía to
4806-398: The incident. As of 2000, the remnants of Canelo were still visible. Santiago , another ship anchored at Corral at the time of the quake, managed to leave Corral in a bad state but was wrecked off the coast of Mocha Island on 24 May. The schooner La Milagrosa departed from Queule on 22 May to load a cargo of Fitzroya wood shingles in a small port south of Corral. La Milagrosa
4895-485: The island for a brief period in the year 1600. Another interpretation is that it was originally only an invention to hide contraband operations in the Chiloé Archipelago. There are some who credit its origin to the phenomenon of the osnis (unidentified submersible objects). Overall, there are various versions that complement and/or differ from each other in detail. Nevertheless, what they all share in common
4984-663: The lake bottom, killed two people and destroyed a pier in San Carlos de Bariloche city. During the Great Chilean earthquake, several landslides west of Tralcán Mountain blocked the outflow of Riñihue Lake . Riñihue Lake is the lowest of the Seven Lakes chain and receives a constant inflow from the Enco River . The blocked San Pedro River , which drains the lake, passes through several towns before reaching
5073-511: The lake. Twenty-seven bulldozers were put into service, but they had severe difficulties moving in the mud near the dams, so dykes had to be constructed with shovels from June onwards. The work was not restricted to the lake; drainages from other parts of the Seven Lakes were dammed to minimize additional flow into Riñihue Lake. These dams were removed later, with the exception of Calafquén Lake , which still retains its dam. By 23 June,
5162-520: The land') or Mapudungun (from mapu 'land' and dungun 'speak, speech', meaning 'the speech of the land'; also spelled Mapuzugun and Mapudungu ) is an Araucanian language related to Huilliche spoken in south-central Chile and west-central Argentina by the Mapuche people. It was formerly known as Araucanian , the name given to the Mapuche by the Spaniards; the Mapuche avoid it as
5251-439: The legend when a person in Chiloé gets rich quickly, it is often attributed to his having made a pact with the crew of the Caleuche . Rumors like these were rampant following the 1960 Valdivia earthquake because some houses were untouched by the fires that swept through Chiloé afterwards. In that same decade there were stories that the sounds of a ship dropping anchor could be heard around the houses of many prosperous merchants in
5340-531: The local Huilliche language because they considered it "more beautiful". Around the same time, Governor Narciso de Santa María complained that Spanish settlers in the islands could not speak Spanish properly, but could speak Veliche, and that this second language was more used. Mapudungun was once the main language spoken in central Chile. The sociolinguistic situation of the Mapuche has changed rapidly. Now, nearly all of Mapuche people are bilingual or monolingual in Spanish. The degree of bilingualism depends on
5429-406: The locals explain the rapid appearance of merchants who are never seen buying anything, but prosper quickly. Those protected by The Caleuche generally have black hens and tarred boats with ropes of quilineja . The Caleuche can both disappear and take on the appearance of whatever it desires so as to not be seen; its sailors can transform into sea lions or dolphins. Another one of the ship’s features
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#17327734094585518-474: The lowlands, which absorbed great amounts of energy. Many city blocks with destroyed buildings in the city center remained empty until the 1990s and 2000s, with some of them still used as parking lots . Before the earthquake, some of these blocks had modern concrete buildings built after the Great Valdivia fire of 1909. Around the main city square most buildings collapsed except for Edificio Prales and
5607-468: The main dam had been lowered from 24 to 15 m (79 to 49 ft), allowing 3 billion cubic metres of water to leave the lake gradually, but still with considerable destructive power. The team was led by ENDESA engineer Raúl Sáez . On 24 May, 38 hours after the main shock of the 1960 Valdivia earthquake, the Cordón Caulle volcano erupted. The eruption was believed to have been triggered by
5696-411: The main port of Valdivia, the water level rose 4 m (13 ft) before it began to recede. At 16:20 UTC-4, a wave of 8 m (26 ft) struck the Chilean coast, mainly between Concepción and Chiloé. Another wave measuring 10 m (33 ft) was reported ten minutes later. Hundreds of people were already reported dead by the time the tsunami struck. One ship, Canelo , starting at the mouth of
5785-441: The mountains around Golgol River caused the river to dam up; when it burst through the earthen dam, it created a flood down to Puyehue Lake . The Golgol landslides destroyed parts of international Route 215-CH , which connects to Bariloche in Argentina through Cardenal Antonio Samoré Pass . While most landslides clustered around north–south strips in the Andes, other areas that were affected by large numbers of landslides were
5874-418: The neighborhood of Barrio Modelo and the northern part of Bahía Angelmó , where artificial fills subsided. Angelmó and other coastal areas of Puerto Montt were among the few urban areas that suffered "total destruction" by the earthquake. After the earthquake a myth related the unusually warm and clear weather conditions prior to the earthquake to its triggering. When compared with the years that followed in
5963-639: The northern coast of Perú , and Uru-Chipaya ( Uruquilla and Chipaya ) languages, which are spoken by those who currently inhabit the islands of Lake Titicaca and peoples living in Oruro Department in Bolivia , respectively. This hypothesis was later rejected by Campbell in the same year. The research carried out by Mary R. Key in 1978 considered Mapuche to be related to other languages of Chile : specifically Kawésgar language and Yagán language which were both spoken by nomadic canoer communities from
6052-545: The northwest corner of Llanquihue Lake . Puerto Octay was the center of a north–south elliptical area in the Central Valley , where the intensity was at the highest outside the Valdivia Basin. East of Puerto Octay, in a hotel in Todos los Santos Lake , stacked dishes were reported to have remained in place. With the exception of poor building sites, the zone of Mercalli scales intensities of VII or more all lay west of
6141-813: The original legends in The Vampire Blade Book Series by M.C. Waring. In film and television, Raúl Ruiz 's Three Crowns of the Sailor (1983) and Litoral (2008) and Jorge Olguín 's Caleuche: The Call of the Sea (2012) are all loosely inspired by the legend. Caleuche Chasma , the deepest canyon on the moon Charon , is named after the Caleuche . The exoplanet HD 164604 b is also formally named Caleuche. Mapudungun Mapuche ( / m ə ˈ p uː tʃ i / mə- POO -che , Mapuche and Spanish: [maˈputʃe] ; from mapu 'land' and che 'people', meaning 'the people of
6230-420: The potential slip in that segment of the plate interface. The 1960 Chilean earthquakes were a sequence of strong earthquakes that affected Chile between 21 May and 6 June 1960, centered in the Araucanía , Aysén , and Bío Bío regions of the country. The first three quakes, all registering in the planet's top 10 by magnitude for 1960 , are grouped together as the 1960 Concepción earthquakes. The first of these
6319-399: The previous and current more widely accepted explanation for the earthquake involves the Peru-Chile Trench slipping further than its accumulated slip deficit (the amount of slip available for an earthquake) should allow. The alternative explanation, with two faults slipping nearly simultaneously, could help explain the true mechanism of the earthquake. Subduction zones are known to produce
6408-550: The sailors of this ship have a leg attached to their spine, similar to the Imbunche, while others describe them as well-presented, wearing special clothing and having cold hands upon greeting. In general, they are honest in their behaviour, and with the help of their crewmates they rescue shipwreck survivors. Some believe that their final destination is the port named City of the Caesars, a marvellous place hidden away somewhere along
6497-459: The salvaged remnants of Penco . Canelo was anchored at Corral when the quake struck, filling a cargo of wood and other products destined for northern Chile. The engine of Canelo was warmed up after the earthquake. After hours of drifting around in Corral Bay and Valdivia River, the ship was wrecked and subsequently abandoned by its crew at 1800 local time. Two men on board Canelo died in
6586-572: The soil . Despite the heavy rains of 21 May, the city was without a water supply. The river turned brown with sediment from landslides and was full of floating debris, including entire houses. The lack of potable water became a serious problem in one of Chile's rainiest regions. The earthquake did not strike all the territory with the same strength; measured with the Mercalli scale, tectonically depressed areas suffered heavier damage. The two most affected areas were Valdivia and Puerto Octay , near
6675-415: The south of Chile (the language's stronghold) are "highly competent" in the language. Speakers of Chilean Spanish who also speak Mapudungun tend to use more impersonal pronouns when speaking Spanish. In Cautín Province and Llifén contact with Mapuche language may be the reason why there is aa lack of yeísmo among some Spanish speakers. The language has also influenced the Spanish lexicon within
6764-632: The south weak houses were mainly those built with inappropriate wood that had decayed over time. It has been estimated that about 40 percent of the houses in Valdivia were destroyed, leaving 20,000 people homeless. The most affected structures were those built of concrete, which in some cases collapsed completely, because they were not built using modern earthquake engineering. Traditional wooden houses fared better; although many were uninhabitable if they did not collapse. Houses built upon elevated areas suffered considerably less damage compared to those on
6853-431: The speed at which a rupture front expands across the surface of the fault, has been estimated as 3.5 km (2.2 mi) per second. The average slip across all 27 Nazca subfaults was estimated to be 11 m , with 25–30 m of slip 200–500 km south of the epicenter on offshore subfaults. While the Valdivia earthquake was extraordinarily large, the 2016 Chiloé earthquake hints that it did not release all
6942-404: The strongest earthquakes on Earth, as their particular structure allows more stress to build up before energy is released. Geophysicists consider it a matter of time before this earthquake will be surpassed in magnitude by another. The earthquake's rupture zone was ≈ 800 km (500 mi) long, stretching from Arauco (37° S) to below the Chiloé Archipelago (44° S). Rupture velocity,
7031-639: The theory of origin of the Mapuche proposed by Ricardo E. Latcham . The Mapudungun spoken in the Argentinian provinces of Neuquen and Río Negro is similar to that of the central dialect group in Chile, while the Ranquel (Rankülche) variety spoken in the Argentinian province of La Pampa is closer to the northern dialect group. Mapuche is a polysynthetic language with noun incorporation and root composition. Broadly speaking this means that words are formed by morpheme agglutination of lexical elements to
7120-531: The time. The relatively low death toll in Chile (5,700) is explained in part by the low population density in the region, and by building practices that took into account the area's high geological activity. Earthquake lights were reported in Purén . One of the main aftershocks occurred on 6 June in Aysén Region . This magnitude 7.7 earthquake probably occurred along the Liquiñe-Ofqui Fault , meaning that
7209-495: The tsunami swell penetrated along Calle-Calle River as far as Huellelhue putting afloat piles of firewood that lay in the fields. After the 21 May Concepción earthquake, people in Ancud sought refuge in boats. A carabinero (police) boat, Gloria , was towing a few of these boats when the second earthquake struck on 22 May. As the sea regressed Gloria became stranded between Cerro Guaiguén and Cochinos Island . The stranded boat
7298-566: The tsunami-related deaths in Japan occurred in the northeast Sanriku region of Honshu . The Chilean coast was devastated by a tsunami from Mocha Island (38° S) to Aysén Region (45° S). Across southern Chile, the tsunami caused huge loss of life, damage to port infrastructure, and the loss of many small boats. Further north, the port of Talcahuano did not suffer any major damage, only some flooding. Some tugboats and small sailboats were stranded on Rocuant Island near Talcahuano. In Valdivia
7387-458: The two languages that form that Araucana family along with Huilliche. However, most current linguists maintain a more conservative stance, classifying Mapuche as a language that remains separated from other indigenous languages of South America while its differences and similarities to them are being studied. I II III IV V VI VII VIII Linguist Robert A. Croese divides Mapudungun into eight dialectal sub-groups (I-VIII). Sub-group I
7476-781: The two words. There are thus several ways to write the name of the language: Moulian et al. (2015) argue that the Puquina language influenced Mapuche language long before the rise of the Inca Empire . The influence of Puquine is thought to be the reason for the existence of Mapuche-Aymara-Quechua cognates . The following Pre-Incan cognates have been identified by Moulian et al. : sun ( Mapudungun : antü , Quechua : inti ), moon ( Mapudungun : küllen , Quechua : killa ), warlock ( Mapudungun : kalku , Quechua : kawchu ), salt ( Mapudungun : chadi , Quechua : cachi ) and mother ( Mapudungun : ñuque , Quechua : ñuñu ). This areal linguistic influence may have arrived with
7565-490: The year 2000. However, a 2002 study suggests that only 16% of those who identify as Mapuche speak the language (active speakers) and 18% can only understand it ( passive speakers ). These figures suggest that the total number of active speakers is about 120,000 and that there are slightly more passive speakers of Mapuche in Chile. As of 2013 only 2.4% of urban speakers and 16% of rural speakers use Mapudungun when speaking with children, and only 3.8% of speakers aged 10–19 years in
7654-651: Was battered by the currents and waves of the tsunami for four days while moving south. Outside Corral the crew rescued six nearly unconscious and dehydrated children on board two boats. The boats found were used to navigate in Valdivia River and Corral Bay but had drifted into the high sea. The coastal localities of Mississippi and Mehuín were struck by the tsunami causing the loss of fishing boats. 150 boats, most of them used for fishing are reported to have "disappeared" in Mehuín. Some kilometres north of Mahuín at
7743-469: Was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded . Most studies have placed it at 9.4–9.6 on the moment magnitude scale , while some studies have placed the magnitude lower than 9.4. It occurred in the afternoon (19:11 GMT , 15:11 local time), and lasted 10 minutes. The resulting tsunamis affected southern Chile , Hawaii , Japan , the Philippines , eastern New Zealand , southeast Australia , and
7832-538: Was the 8.1 M w Concepción earthquake at 06:02 UTC-4 on 21 May 1960. Its epicenter was near Curanilahue . Telecommunications to southern Chile were cut off and President Jorge Alessandri cancelled the traditional ceremony of the Battle of Iquique memorial holiday to oversee the emergency assistance efforts. The second and third Concepción earthquakes occurred the next day at 06:32 UTC-4 (7.1 M w ) and 14:55 UTC-4 (7.8 M w ) on 22 May. These earthquakes formed
7921-505: Was wrecked when a tsunami wave engulfed it. All the new infrastructure of the small port of Bahía Mansa was destroyed by the tsunami, which reached heights of up to 10 metres above sea level there. The boat Isabella in Bahía Mansa quickly left the port but lost its anchors. In the Valdivia River and Corral Bay , several vessels were wrecked by the earthquake, among them Argentina , Canelo , Carlos Haverbeck , Melita , and
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