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77-421: Caliche is generally light-colored but can range from white to light pink to reddish-brown, depending on the minerals present. Caliche is a mark of older landscapes. It generally occurs on or very near the surface. Where caliche layers originate at some depth from the soil surface, intact landscapes and buried landscapes are more likely than eroded surfaces to have caliche well below the soil surface. Layers vary from

154-614: A Principality of north Wales. The southern principality was made up of the counties of Ceredigion and Carmarthenshire , areas that had previously been part of the Welsh kingdom of Deheubarth ('the southern land'). The legal responsibility for this area lay in the hands of the Justiciar of South Wales based at Carmarthen . Other parts of southern Wales were in the hands of various Marcher Lords . The Laws in Wales Acts 1542 created

231-451: A caliche that is close to the surface. Caliche can also form on outcrops of porous rocks or in rock fissures where water is trapped and evaporates. In general, caliche deposition is a slow process, requiring several thousand years. The depth of the caliche layer is sensitive to mean annual rainfall. When rainfall is around 35 centimeters (14 in) per year, the caliche layer will be as shallow as 25 centimeters (9.8 in). When rainfall

308-432: A discernible layer, and finally, a thicker, solid bed. However, caliche also forms in other ways. It can form when water rises through capillary action . In an arid region, rainwater sinks into the ground very quickly. Later, as the surface dries out, the water below the surface rises, carrying up dissolved minerals from lower layers. These precipitate as water evaporates and carbon dioxide is lost. This water movement forms

385-619: A few inches to feet thick, and multiple layers can exist in a single location. The caliche layer in a soil profile is sometimes called a K horizon. In northern Chile and Peru , caliche also refers to mineral deposits that include nitrate salts. Caliche can also refer to various claylike deposits in Mexico and Colombia . In addition, it has been used to describe some forms of quartzite , bauxite , kaolinite , laterite , chalcedony , opal , and soda niter . A similar material, composed of calcium sulfate rather than calcium carbonate ,

462-421: A hard-rock base material, such as limestone, is available. A nearly pure source of calcium carbonate is necessary to refine sugar . It must contain at least 95% calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) and have a low magnesium content. In addition, the material must meet certain physical requirements so it does not break down when burned. Although caliche does not generally meet all of the requirements for sugar refining, it

539-583: A heritage with other ex- anthracite mining areas in eastern Carmarthenshire , as much as with the Glamorgan valleys. The local slang , dialect and phrases of the South Wales Valleys communities have been referred to as ' Wenglish ', and are often used with comic effect. The dialect is found in such coastal towns as Barry , as featured in the BBC comedy series, Gavin & Stacey . Welsh

616-586: A litter layer; water saturation > 30 consecutive days in most years or drained ; generally regarded as peat layer or organic limnic layer. O: Organic horizon or organotechnic layer, not forming part of a litter layer; water saturation ≤ 30 consecutive days in most years and not drained; generally regarded as non-peat and non-limnic horizon. A: Mineral horizon at the mineral soil surface or buried; contains organic matter that has at least partly been modified in-situ; soil structure and/or structural elements created by cultivation in ≥ 50% (by volume, related to

693-823: A principal raw material in Portland cement production. The Great House at Casa Grande Ruins National Monument , Arizona , US, was built with walls of caliche. Caliche was also used in mortars used in of the Mayan buildings in the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico . A dormitory in Ingram, Texas , and a demonstration building in Carrizo Springs, Texas , for the United States Department of Energy were also built using caliche as part of studies by

770-475: A series of cycle tracks and other outdoor amenities. Large areas of forestry and open moorland also contribute to the amenity of the landscape. Merthyr Tydfil ( Welsh : Merthyr Tudful ) grew around the Dowlais Ironworks which was founded to exploit the locally abundant seams of iron ore , and in time it became the largest iron-producing town in the world. New coal mines were sunk nearby to feed

847-410: A soil type. Some soils do not have a clear development of horizons. A soil horizon is a result of soil-forming processes ( pedogenesis ). Layers that have not undergone such processes may be simply called "layers". Many soils have an organic surface layer, which is denominated with a capital letter "O" (letters may differ depending on the system). The mineral soil usually starts with an A horizon. If

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924-511: A third of south Wales, containing Pen y Fan , the highest British mountain south of Cadair Idris in Snowdonia . A point of some discussion is whether the first element of the name should be capitalised: 'south Wales' or 'South Wales'. As the name is a geographical expression rather than a specific area with well-defined borders, style guides such as those of the BBC and The Guardian use

1001-406: A well-developed subsoil horizon as a result of soil formation exists, it is generally called a B horizon. An underlying loose, but poorly developed horizon is called a C horizon. Hard bedrock is mostly denominated R. Most individual systems defined more horizons and layers than just these five. In the following, the horizons and layers are listed more or less by their position from top to bottom within

1078-471: Is a composite of sodium nitrate (NaNO 3 ) and potassium nitrate (KNO 3 ). Salitre was an important source of export revenue for Chile until World War I, when Europe began to produce both nitrates industrially in large quantities. The deposits contain an average of 7.5% sodium nitrate, as well as sodium sulfate (18.87%), sodium chloride (4.8%), and smaller amounts of potassium, calcium, magnesium, borate , iodine, and perchlorate . About two-thirds of

1155-447: Is around 75 centimeters (30 in) per year, the caliche layer will be at a depth of around 125 centimeters (49 in). The caliche layer disappears complete in temperate climates if annual rainfall exceeds 100 centimeters (39 in). The source of the calcium in caliche may be the underlying bedrock, but caliche can form even over bedrock that is not rich in calcium. This is attributed to calcium brought in as aeolian dust . While

1232-483: Is called gypcrust . Caliche forms where annual precipitation is less than 65 centimeters (26 in) per year and the mean annual temperature exceeds 5 °C (41 °F). Higher rainfall leaches excess calcium completely from the soil, while in very arid climates, rainfall is inadequate to leach calcium at all and only thin surface layers of calcite are formed. Plant roots play an important role in caliche formation, by releasing large amounts of carbon dioxide into

1309-475: Is defined by having a certain minimum content of soil organic carbon. In the WRB, this is 20% (by weight). The H horizon is formed from organic residues that are not incorporated into the mineral soil. The residues may be partially altered by decomposition. Contrary to the O horizons, the H horizons are saturated with water for prolonged periods, or were once saturated but are now drained artificially. In many H horizons,

1386-451: Is followed by the ρ. 4. If two suffixes belong to the same soil-forming process, they follow each other immediately; in the combination of t and n, the t is written first; rules 1, 2 and 3 have to be followed, if applicable. Examples: Btn, Bhs, Bsh, Bhsm, Bsmh. 5. If in a B horizon the characteristics of the suffixes g, h, k, l, o, q, s, t, v, or y are strongly expressed, the suffix w is not used, even if its characteristics are present; if

1463-631: Is mainly derived from iron oxides. Iron oxides and clay minerals accumulate as a result of weathering. In soil, where substances move down from the topsoil, this is the layer where they accumulate. The process of accumulation of clay minerals, iron, aluminum, and organic compounds, is referred to as illuviation . The B horizon has generally a soil structure. C) Substratum: Layer of non-indurated poorly weathered or unweathered rocks. This layer may accumulate more soluble compounds like CaCO 3 . Soils formed in situ from non-indurated material exhibit similarities to this C layer. R) Bedrock : R horizons denote

1540-511: Is not regarded to form part of a litter layer. The soil surface (0 cm) is by convention the surface of the soil after removing, if present, the litter layer and, if present, below a layer of living plants (e.g. living mosses). The mineral soil surface is the upper limit of the uppermost layer consisting of mineral material. A soil layer is a zone in the soil, approximately parallel to the soil surface, with properties different from layers above and/or below it. If at least one of these properties

1617-1392: Is now a compulsory language up to GCSE level for all students who start their education in Wales. Several secondary schools offering Welsh medium education operate in this area, for example Ysgol Gyfun Llanhari in Pontyclun , Ysgol Gyfun Y Cymmer in Porth in the Rhondda , Ysgol Gyfun Rhydywaun in Penywaun in the Cynon Valley , Ysgol Gyfun Gwynllyw in Pontypool , Ysgol Gyfun Cwm Rhymni in Blackwood , Ysgol Gymraeg Plasmawr in Cardiff and Ysgol Gyfun Garth Olwg in Church Village . A significant number of people from ethnic minority communities speak another language as their first language, particularly in Cardiff and Newport. Commonly spoken languages in some areas include Punjabi , Bengali , Arabic , Somali and Chinese , and increasingly Central European languages such as Polish . In

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1694-627: Is overprinted with urban regeneration, tourism and multi-national investment. Large factory units, either empty or turned over to retail use, bear witness to the lack of success in replacing older industries. The native language of the majority of people in South Wales is English , but there are many who also speak Welsh . In western parts of Glamorgan , particularly the Neath and Swansea Valleys , there remain significant Welsh-speaking communities such as Ystradgynlais and Ystalyfera , which share

1771-416: Is pronounced, a lighter coloured E subsurface soil horizon is apparent at the base of the A horizon. The A horizon may also be the result of a combination of soil bioturbation and surface processes that winnow fine particles from biologically mounded topsoil . In this case, the A horizon is regarded as a "biomantle". B) Subsoil : This layer normally has less organic matter than the A horizon, so its colour

1848-535: Is the result of soil-forming processes, the layer is called a soil horizon . In the following, the term layer is used to indicate the possibility that soil-forming processes did not occur. The following layers are distinguished (see Chapter 3.3 of the WRB Manual): The designation consists of a capital letter (master symbol), which in most cases is followed by one or more lowercase letters (suffixes). H: Organic or organotechnic layer, not forming part of

1925-537: Is used in areas where another source of calcium carbonate, such as limestone, is not present. While caliche requires beneficiation to meet the requirements, its use can still be significantly cheaper than shipping in limestone. In the Atacama Desert in northern Chile , vast deposits of a mixture, also referred to as caliche , are composed of gypsum , sodium chloride and other salts, and sand, associated to salitre ("Chile saltpeter"). Salitre , in turn,

2002-511: The A horizon of the soil. Carbon dioxide levels here can exceed 15 times normal atmospheric values. This allows calcium carbonate to dissolve as bicarbonate . Where rainfall is adequate but not excessive, the calcium bicarbonate is carried down into the B horizon . Here there is less biological activity, the carbon dioxide level is much lower, and the bicarbonate reverts to insoluble carbonate. A mixture of calcium carbonate and clay particles accumulates, first forming grains, then small clumps, then

2079-520: The Center for Maximum Potential Building Systems . In many areas, caliche is also used for road construction, either as a surfacing material, or more commonly, as base material. It is one of the most common road materials used in Southern Africa . Caliche is widely used as a base material when it is locally available and cheap. However, it does not hold up to moisture (rain), and is never used if

2156-595: The Court of Great Sessions in Wales based on four legal circuits. The Brecon circuit served the counties of Brecknockshire , Radnorshire and Glamorgan while the Carmarthen circuit served Cardiganshire, Carmarthenshire and Pembrokeshire . Monmouthshire was attached to the Oxford circuit for judicial purposes. These seven southern counties were thus differentiated from the six counties of north Wales. The Court of

2233-586: The Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire and the tin mines of Cornwall such as Geevor Tin Mine , as a large but experienced and willing workforce was required. Whilst some of the migrants left, many settled and established in the south Wales Valleys between Swansea and Abergavenny as English-speaking communities with a unique identity. Industrial workers were housed in cottages and terraced houses close to

2310-616: The National Coal Board . These industries have since largely been replaced by service sector industries. The cities along the M4 corridor are home to a number of high-profile blue-chip companies such as Admiral Insurance , Legal & General and the Welsh-based Principality Building Society . A large number of telephone call centres are located in the region and in particular in

2387-623: The Presbyterian Church of Wales ), whose distinctive grey stone chapels can be seen in many parts. These were mainly Welsh-language congregations. Anglicanism in South Wales became autonomous from the Church of England with the Welsh Church Act 1914 , but the immediate demise of the denomination feared at that time has not taken place in the Church in Wales . There are a number of Brethren Assemblies in Cardiff and in

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2464-527: The furnaces and in time produced coal for export. By the 1831 census, the population of Merthyr was 60,000—more at that time than Cardiff, Swansea and Newport combined—and its industries included coal mines , iron works , cable factory , engine sheds and sidings and many others. The town was also the birthplace of Joseph Parry , composer of the song Myfanwy . The Heads of the Valleys towns, including Rhymney , Tredegar and Ebbw Vale , rose out of

2541-628: The "diagnostic horizons", for the definition; examples are the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB), the USDA soil taxonomy and the Australian Soil Classification . Diagnostic horizons are usually indicated with names, e.g. the "cambic horizon" or the "spodic horizon". The WRB lists 40 diagnostic horizons. In addition to these diagnostic horizons, some other soil characteristics may be needed to define

2618-478: The 1870s, coal was transported by rail transport networks to Newport Docks , at the time the largest coal exporting docks in the world, and by the 1880s coal was being exported from Barry, Vale of Glamorgan . The Marquess of Bute , who owned much of the land north of Cardiff , built a steam railway system on his land that stretched from Cardiff into many of the South Wales Valleys where the coal

2695-517: The 19th and early 20th centuries, there was a vigorous literary and musical culture centred round eisteddfodau . Despite a few timid attempts to emulate this literature in English, it can be argued that few writers seem to connect with either the landscape or the literary tradition. The one exception, to some extent, can be considered to be Dylan Thomas. The South Wales landscape is marked by numerous chapels, places of worship (past and present) of

2772-569: The Bracchi, Italians in the café and catering trades often from Bardi in the Apennines. Post-war diversity has brought mosques , especially in Cardiff and Newport, Sikh gurdwaras , including one on the mountain near Abercynon and a growing number of Evangelical and Pentecostal congregations. These often add a strongly international element into local life, such as the "Pont" twinning project between Pontypridd and Mbale , Uganda , and

2849-554: The Great Sessions came to an end in 1830, but the counties survived until the Local Government Act 1972 which came into operation in 1974. The creation of the county of Powys merged one northern county ( Montgomeryshire ) with two southern ones (Breconshire and Radnorshire). There are thus different concepts of south Wales. Glamorgan and Monmouthshire are generally accepted by all as being in south Wales. But

2926-703: The Swansea area and Free Presbyterian Churches in Rhiwderin , near Newport and at Merthyr Tydfil . The Roman Catholic community, despite systematic persecution, survived in the 17th to 19th centuries, especially in Brecon and among minor gentry such as the Vaughans of Welsh Bicknor , on the Monmouthshire–Herefordshire border. Among members of foreign origin of later urban Catholic congregations were

3003-579: The Valleys area. Merthyr Tydfil is home to the principal UK call centre for German mobile telephone company, T-Mobile . Many jobs are also provided in small-scale and family businesses. One site of note on the M4 corridor is Port Talbot Steelworks – the largest steel producer in the UK and one of the biggest in Europe. The television and film sectors are fast becoming a major industry in South Wales. In 2021,

3080-423: The WRB, this is 20% (by weight). The O horizon is formed from organic residues that are not incorporated into the mineral soil. The residues may be partially altered by decomposition. Contrary to the H horizons, the O horizons are not saturated with water for prolonged periods and not drained artificially. In many O horizons, the residues are leaves, needles, twigs, moss, and lichens. Although these horizons form above

3157-486: The Welsh language, although the interests of the latter lay more in society and culture than in the evocation of natural scenery. This natural environment changed to a considerable extent during the early Industrial Revolution when the Glamorgan and Monmouthshire valley areas were exploited for coal and iron . By the 1830s, hundreds of tons of coal were being transported by barge to ports in Cardiff and Newport . In

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3234-437: The Welsh screen sector saw a turnover of £575 million. Prominent film studios have been established in Cardiff (Wolf Studios Wales, Seren Stiwdios, Enfys Studios) as well as Bridgend (Dragon Studios) and Swansea (Bay Studios). Great Western Railway operate services from Swansea , Cardiff Central and Newport to London Paddington with Class 800s . Most services in South Wales are operated by Transport for Wales Rail on

3311-407: The characteristics of the mentioned suffixes are weakly expressed and the characteristics of the suffix w are present as well, the suffixes are combined. 6. In H and O layers, the i, e or a is written first. 7. The @, f and b are written last, if b occurs together with @ or f (only if other suffixes are present as well): @b, fb. 8. Besides that, combinations must be in the sequence of dominance,

3388-579: The creation of "Fairtrade" relationships with primary producers worldwide. The former heavy industries of coal and iron production have disappeared since the economic struggles of the 1970s, with the closures of that decade continuing sharply into the 1980s, and by July 1985 just 31 coal pits remained in the region. Further closures left the region with just one deep mine by the early 1990s, and this finally closed in January 2008, by which time it had transferred to private ownership after being sold off by

3465-485: The deposits are insoluble gangue minerals. The caliche beds are from 2 cm to several meters thick in alluvial deposits, where the soluble minerals form a cement in unconsolidated regolith . Nitrate-bearing caliche is also found impregnating bedrock to form bedrock deposits. Caliche beds can cause problems for agriculture. First, an impermeable caliche layer prevents water from draining properly, which can keep roots from getting enough oxygen. Salts can also build up in

3542-466: The dominant one first. Examples: Btng, Btgb, Bkcyc. If the characteristics of two or more master layers are superimposed to each other, the master symbols are combined without anything in between, the dominant one first, each one followed by its suffixes. Examples: AhBw, BwAh, AhE, EAh, EBg, BgE, BwC, CBw, BsC, CBs. If the characteristics of two or more master layers occur in the same depth range, but occupy distinct parts clearly separated from each other,

3619-401: The east and mid Wales to the north. Generally considered to include the historic counties of Glamorgan and Monmouthshire , south Wales extends westwards to include Carmarthenshire and Pembrokeshire . In the western extent, from Swansea westwards, local people would probably recognise that they lived in both south Wales and west Wales . The Brecon Beacons National Park covers about

3696-408: The fine earth), i.e. rock structure, if present, in < 50% (by volume). E: Mineral horizon; has lost by downward movement within the soil (vertically or laterally) one or more of the following: Fe, Al, and/or Mn species; clay minerals; organic matter. B: Mineral horizon that has (at least originally) formed below an A or E horizon; rock structure, if present, in < 50% (by volume, related to

3773-536: The fine earth); one or more of the following processes of soil formation : Nota bene: B horizons may show other accumulations as well. C: Mineral layer; unconsolidated (can be cut with a spade when moist), or consolidated and more fractured than the R layer; no soil formation, or soil formation that does not meet the criteria of the A, E, and B horizon. R: Consolidated rock; air-dry or drier specimens, when placed in water, will not slake within 24 hours; fractures, if present, occupy < 10% (by volume, related to

3850-703: The form 'south Wales'. In a more authoritative style guide, the Welsh Government , in their international gateway website, Wales.com, state that it should always be capitalised. It is always capitalised on motorway signs. Between the Statute of Rhuddlan of 1284 and the Laws in Wales Act 1535 , crown land in Wales formed the Principality of Wales . This was divided into a Principality of south Wales and

3927-582: The formation of other caliches is relatively well understood, the origin of Chilean caliche is not clearly known. One possibility is that the deposits were formed when a prehistoric inland sea evaporated. Another theory is that it was deposited due to weathering of the Andes . One of the world's largest deposits of calcrete is in the Makgadikgadi Pans in Botswana , where surface calcretes occur at

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4004-595: The giant coal tip unstable, resulting in the Aberfan disaster . The recent dumping of small particles of coal and ash known as 'tailings' seems to have been partly responsible. A 30-foot-high (9 m) black wave tore downhill across the Glamorganshire Canal and swept away houses on its path towards the village school. 114 children and 28 adults were killed. The Rhondda Valleys (Rhondda Fach and Rhondda Fawr) housed around 3,000 people in 1860, but by 1910

4081-399: The industrial revolution, producing coal, metal ores and later steel . Aberfan : The Merthyr Vale colliery began to produce coal in 1875. Spoil from the mine workings was piled on the hills close to the village which grew nearby. Tipping went on until the 1960s. Although nationalised, the National Coal Board failed to appreciate the danger they had created. In October 1966, heavy rain made

4158-584: The layer of partially weathered or unweathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile. Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise of continuous masses (as opposed to boulders) of hard rock that cannot be excavated by hand. Soils formed in situ from bedrock will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer. The designations are found in Chapter 10 of the World Reference Base for Soil Resources Manual , 4th edition (2022). The chapter starts with some general definitions : The fine earth comprises

4235-643: The location of a now-desiccated prehistoric lake. Highly indurated (hardened) caliche is known as calcrete, and it gives rise to characteristic landforms in arid environments. Calcrete is found throughout the geologic record, forming a record of past climate. Examples include Mississippian calcretes in South Wales and Pliocene to Pleistocene caprock of the Llano Estacado of Texas , US, and Mormon Mesa , Nevada , US. Caliches can store significant amounts of carbon, making them of significance to

4312-447: The master symbols are combined with the slash (/), the dominant one first, each one followed by its suffixes. Examples: Bt/E (interfingering of E material into a Bt horizon), C/Bt (Bt horizon forming lamellae within a C layer). W cannot be combined with other master symbols. H, O, I, and R can only be combined using the slash. The sequence of the layers is from top to down with a hyphen in between. If lithic discontinuities occur,

4389-457: The mineral soil surface, they may be buried by mineral soil and therefore be found at greater depth. A horizons : These are mineral horizons that formed at the surface or below an O horizon. All or much of the original rock structure has been obliterated. Additionally, they are characterized by one or more of the following: South Wales South Wales ( Welsh : De Cymru ) is a loosely defined region of Wales bordered by England to

4466-586: The mines and foundries in which they worked. The large influx over the years caused overcrowding which led to outbreaks of Cholera , and on the social and cultural side, the near-loss of the Welsh language in the area. The 1930s inter-war Great Depression in the United Kingdom saw the loss of almost half of the coal pits in the South Wales Coalfield , and their number declined further in

4543-440: The observed horizons. [REDACTED] A) Surface soil : Layer of mineral soil with most organic matter accumulation and soil life . Additionally, due to weathering , oxides (mainly iron oxides) and clay minerals are formed and accumulated. It has a pronounced soil structure. But in some soils, clay minerals, iron , aluminum , organic compounds, and other constituents are soluble and move downwards. When this eluviation

4620-467: The overall global carbon cycle . In Jurassic geological settings, the caliche is often indicator of warm climate with well marked wet-dry seasonality that could indicate seasonal monsoons. Caliche is used in construction worldwide. Its reserves in the Llano Estacado in Texas can be used in the manufacture of Portland cement ; the caliche meets the chemical composition requirements and has been used as

4697-546: The population had soared to 160,000. The Rhondda had become the heart of a massive South Wales coal industry. Mining accidents below ground were common, and in 1896 fifty-seven men and boys were killed in a gas explosion at the Tylorstown Colliery . An enquiry found that the pit involved had not been properly inspected over the previous 15 months. Ebbw Vale, the valley of the Ebbw River which stretches from

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4774-408: The residues are predominantly mosses. Although these horizons form above the mineral soil surface, they may be buried by mineral soil and therefore be found at greater depth. H horizons may be overlain by O horizons that especially form after drainage. O horizons or layers : These are layers of organic material. Organic material is defined by having a certain minimum content of soil organic carbon. In

4851-429: The soil constituents ≤ 2 mm. The whole soil comprises fine earth, coarse fragments, artefacts, cemented parts, and dead plant residues of any size. A litter layer is a loose layer that contains > 90% (by volume, related to the fine earth plus all dead plant residues) recognizable dead plant tissues (e.g. undecomposed leaves). Dead plant material still connected to living plants (e.g. dead parts of Sphagnum mosses)

4928-453: The soil due to the lack of drainage. Both of these situations are detrimental to plant growth. Second, the impenetrable nature of caliche beds excludes plant roots, limiting plant access to nutrients, water, and anchorage. Third, caliche beds can also cause the surrounding soil to be basic . The basic soil, along with calcium carbonate from the caliche, can prevent plants from getting enough nutrients, especially iron . An iron deficiency makes

5005-421: The soil profile. Not all of them are present in every soil. Soils with a history of human interference, for instance through major earthworks or regular deep ploughing, may lack distinct horizons almost completely. When examining soils in the field, attention must be paid to the local geomorphology and the historical uses to which the land has been put, in order to ensure that the appropriate names are applied to

5082-629: The status of Breconshire or Carmarthenshire, for instance, is more debatable. In the western extent, from Swansea westwards, local people might feel that they live in both south Wales and west Wales . Areas to the north of the Brecon Beacons and Black Mountains are generally considered to be in Mid Wales. The valleys and upland mountain ridges were once a very rural area noted for its river valleys and ancient forests and lauded by romantic poets such as William Wordsworth as well as poets in

5159-567: The strata are indicated by preceding figures, starting with the second stratum. I and W layers are not considered as strata. All layers of the respective stratum are indicated by the figure: Example: Oi-Oe-Ah-E-2Bt-2C-3R. If two or more layers with the same designation occur, the letters are followed by figures. The sequence of figures continues across different strata. Examples: Oi-Oe-Oa-Ah-Bw1-Bw2-2Bw3-3Ahb1-3Eb-3Btb-4Ahb2-4C, Oi-He-Ha-Cr1-2Heb-2Hab-2Cr2-3Crγ. Source: H horizons or layers : These are layers of organic material. Organic material

5236-431: The suffix that indicates the substance that forms the concretions or nodules; if this is true for more than one suffix, each one is followed by the c. 2. The m follows the suffix that indicates the substance that is the cementing agent; if this is true for more than one suffix, each one is followed by the m. 3. The ρ follows the suffix that indicates the relict features; if this is true for more than one suffix, each one

5313-404: The surrounding material, i.e. 'coarser' or 'sandier' than the horizons above and below. The identified horizons are indicated with symbols, which are mostly used in a hierarchical way. Master horizons (main horizons) are indicated by capital letters. Suffixes, in form of lowercase letters and figures, further differentiate the master horizons. There are many different systems of horizon symbols in

5390-529: The theological innovations of some trained ministers, and created new congregations such as that at Hengoed near Ystrad Mynach . In the same century, churches were sometimes involved in the Methodist movement, especially at Groeswen and Watford near Caerphilly , which both received frequent visits from John Wesley The largest denomination, however, became the Calvinist Methodists (later

5467-417: The town of Ebbw Vale to Newport, includes the mining towns and villages of Newbridge , Risca , Crumlin , Abercarn and Cwmcarn . The Carboniferous Black Vein coal seams in the area lay some 900 feet (275 metres) below the surface and the mining activity associated with it was responsible for many tragic subsurface explosions, roof collapses and mining accidents . Now the Valleys' heavy industrial past

5544-599: The various Christian Nonconformist congregations. The Baptist congregation at Ilston , Gower , moved to Swansea, Massachusetts , but after the restoration of the Anglican worship with the issue of the Book of Common Prayer in 1662, several "gathered" churches survived belonging to the Baptist, Independent and Presbyterian denominations. In the 18th century members of some of these congregations became dissatisfied with

5621-555: The whole soil); not resulting from the cementation of a soil horizon. I: ≥ 75% ice (by volume, related to the whole soil), permanent, below an H, O, A, E, B or C layer. W: Permanent water above the soil surface or between layers, may be seasonally frozen. This is the list of suffixes to the master symbols. In brackets is indicated to which master symbols the suffixes can be added. The suffixes e and i have different meanings for organic and mineral layers. I and W layers have no suffixes. Combination of suffixes: 1. The c follows

5698-439: The world. No one system is more correct—as artificial constructs, their utility lies in their ability to accurately describe local conditions in a consistent manner. Due to the different definitions of the horizon symbols, the systems cannot be mixed. In most soil classification systems, horizons are used to define soil types. The German system uses entire horizon sequences for definition. Other systems pick out certain horizons,

5775-774: The years following World War II . This number is now very low, following the UK miners' strike (1984–85) , and the last 'traditional' deep-shaft mine, Tower Colliery , closed in January 2008. Despite the intense industrialisation of the coal mining valleys, many parts of the landscape of South Wales such as the upper Neath valley, the Vale of Glamorgan and the valleys of the River Usk and River Wye remain distinctly beautiful and unspoilt and have been designated Sites of Special Scientific Interest . In addition, many once heavily industrialised sites have reverted to wilderness, some provided with

5852-588: The youngest leaves turn yellow. Soil saturation above the caliche bed can make the condition worse. Its hardness can also make digging for projects such as canals more difficult. Soil profile A soil horizon is a layer parallel to the soil surface whose physical, chemical and biological characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath. Horizons are defined in many cases by obvious physical features, mainly colour and texture. These may be described both in absolute terms (particle size distribution for texture, for instance) and in terms relative to

5929-459: Was being found. Lord Bute then charged fees per ton of coal that was transported out using his railways. With coal mining and iron smelting being the main trades of south Wales, many thousands of immigrants from the Midlands , Scotland , Ireland , Cornwall and even Italy came and set up homes and put down roots in the region. Very many came from other coal mining areas such as Somerset ,

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