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192-588: The day of his death, 10 June OS , is Portugal's national day . Much of the information about Luís de Camões' biography raises doubts and, probably, much of what circulates about him is nothing more than the typical folklore that is formed around a famous figure. Only a few dates are documented that guide its trajectory. The ancestral home of the Camões family had its origins in the Kingdom of Galicia , not far from Cape Finisterre . On his paternal side, Luís de Camões

384-673: A Corpus Christi procession, he got into an altercation with a certain Gonçalo Borges, employee of the Royal Palace, and wounded him with a sword. Sentenced to prison, he later received a letter of pardon and was released by royal order on 7 March 1553, which says: " he is a young man and poor and he is going to serve in India this year ". Manuel de Faria e Sousa found in the registers of the Armada of India , for that year 1553, under

576-522: A preceptor of Francisco, son of the Count of Linhares , D. António de Noronha, but this now seems hardly plausible. It is also said that he adopted a bohemian lifestyle, frequenting taverns and getting involved in tumultuous love affairs. Several ladies are cited by name in late biographies of the poet as having been the object of his affection, but those identifications are currently considered apocryphal additions to his legend. Among them, for example, there

768-583: A solar year . Consequently, holy days in Islam migrate around the solar year on a 32-year cycle. Some countries in the Islamic world use the Gregorian calendar for civil purposes, while retaining the Islamic calendar for religious purposes. For example, Saudi Arabia adopted the Gregorian calendar for the purpose of paying public sector staff effective 1 October 2016; private sector employers had already adopted

960-510: A body of exegetes and commentators had already been formed, giving the study of Camões great depth. In 1655 Os Lusíadas arrived in England in Fanshawe's translation, but would only gain notoriety there about a century later, with the publication of William Julius Mickle's poetic version in 1776, which, although successful, did not prevent the emergence of another dozen English translations until

1152-536: A continuous expansion and always for the better. In a way, the Renaissance was an original and eclectic attempt to harmonize pagan Neoplatonism with the Christian religion, eros with charitas, together with oriental, Jewish and Arab influences, and where the study of magic, astrology and the occult was not absent. It was also the time when strong national states began to be created, commerce and cities expanded and

1344-509: A força humana, E entre gente remota edificaram Novo Reino, que tanto sublimaram; ..... Cantando espalharei por toda a parte, Se a tanto me ajudar o engenho e arte." "The feats of Arms, and famed heroick Host,⁠ ⁠from occidental Lusitanian strand, ⁠who o'er the waters ne'er by seaman crost, ⁠farèd beyond the Taprobáne-land , ⁠forceful in perils and in battle-post, ⁠with more than promised force of mortal hand; and in

1536-506: A good knowledge of works by Ptolemy , Diogenes Laërtius , Pliny the Elder , Strabo and Pomponius Mela , among other historians and ancient scientists. Among the moderns, he was aware of the Italian production of Francesco Petrarca , Ludovico Ariosto , Torquato Tasso , Giovanni Boccaccio and Jacopo Sannazaro , and of Castilian literature. For those who consider the Renaissance to be

1728-412: A great naval and commercial power, its arts were developing and enthusiasm for maritime conquests was boiling. The reign of D. João II was marked by the formation of a feeling of national pride, and in the time of D. Manuel I , as Spina & Bechara say, pride had given way to delirium, to the pure euphoria of world domination. At the beginning of the 16th century, Garcia de Resende lamented that there

1920-480: A homogeneous historical period, informed by classical ideals and extending to the end of the 16th century, Camões is quite simply a Renaissance poet, but in general it is recognized that the 16th century was largely dominated by a stylistic derivation called Mannerism , which at various points is an anti-classical school and in many ways prefigures the Baroque . Thus, for many authors, it is more appropriate to describe

2112-598: A long time and had tampered with the poems to the point of becoming unrecognizable. One example is enough: It seems impossible to reach a definitive result in this purge. However, enough authentic material survives to guarantee his position as the best Portuguese lyricist and the greatest Renaissance poet in Portugal. The general content of his works for the stage combines, in the same way as in Os Lusíadas, nationalism and classic inspiration. His production in this field

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2304-607: A major-general of the Austrian Imperial and Royal Army, Karl Wilhelm von Stutterheim , who tells of a joint advance of the Russian and Austrian forces (in which he himself took part) five days before the battle, and it is explicitly rejected in Goetz's 2005 book-length study of the battle. The date when each country adopted the Gregorian calendar, or an equivalent, is marked against a horizontal timeline. The vertical axis

2496-456: A man of average size, with reddish blond hair, blind in his right eye, skilled in all physical exercises and with a temperamental disposition, having little difficulty in engaging in fights. It is said that he had great value as a soldier, exhibiting courage, combativeness, a sense of honor and willingness to serve, a good companion in his spare time, liberal, cheerful and witty when the blows of fortune did not overwhelm his spirit and sadden him. He

2688-774: A marked way subsequent generations of Portuguese writers. His best poems shine exactly for what is genuine in the suffering expressed and the honesty of that expression, and this is one of the main reasons that put his poetry at such a high level. Its sources were numerous. He dominated Latin and Spanish , and demonstrated a solid knowledge of Greco-Roman mythology , ancient and modern European history, Portuguese chroniclers and classical literature , with authors such as Ovid , Xenophon , Lucan , Valerius Flaccus , Horace standing out, but especially Homer and Virgil , from whom he borrowed various structural and stylistic elements and sometimes even passages in almost literal transcription. According to his quotations, he also seems to have had

2880-489: A modified version of the Gregorian calendar, including Thailand ( Thai solar calendar ), Japan ( Japanese calendar ), North Korea ( North Korean calendar ) and Taiwan ( Minguo calendar ). While many religious organizations reckon their liturgical year by the Gregorian civil calendar, others have retained their own calendars. Alternative calendars are used in many regions of the world today to mark cycles of religious and astrological events. The use of different calendars had

3072-570: A naval battle in the Strait of Gibraltar . Back in Lisbon, he wasted no time in resuming his bohemian life. A document dating from 1550 states that he had enlisted to travel to India: " Luís de Camões, son of Simão Vaz and Ana de Sá, living in Lisbon, at Mouraria; squire , 25 years old, ginger bearded, brought his father as guarantor; goes on the ship of S. Pedro dos Burgaleses ... among the men-at-arms ". As it turns out, he didn't board immediately. In

3264-495: A poetic image rather than a real person. Ribeiro proposed several alternatives to explain it: the name might have been a cryptonym of Dona Joana Meneses (DIna = D.Ioana + Mene), one of his possible loves, who died on the way to the Indies and was buried in the sea, daughter of Violante, countess of Linhares, whom he would also have loved in Portugal, and pointed out the occurrence of the name Dinamene in poems written probably around

3456-535: A precarious state: While attempting to set sail with Couto, Camões found his departure embargoed in the amount of two hundred cruzados by Barreto, demanding reimbursement for monies spent on the poet's behalf. His friends, however, collected the amount and Camões was released, arriving in Cascais aboard the carrack Santa Clara on April 7, 1570. After so many adventures, he finally completed Os Lusíadas, presenting them in recitation to Sebastian . The king, still

3648-413: A remarkable harmony between classical scholarship and practical experience, developed with consummate technical skill, describing Portuguese adventures with moments of serious thought mixed with others of delicate sensitivity and humanism. The great descriptions of the battles, the manifestation of the natural forces, the sensual encounters, transcend the allegory and the classicist allusion that permeate all

3840-409: A teenager, ordered the work to be published in 1572, also granting a small pension to "Luís de Camões, noble knight of my House", in payment for services rendered in India. The value of the pension did not exceed fifteen thousand réis a year, which, if not generous, was also not as miserly as has been suggested, considering that the Royal Palace's ladies-in-waiting received around ten thousand réis. For

4032-622: A thousand years, as it is believed to have done then, and such an event would lay down mineral deposits like the salt deposits now found under the sea floor all over the Mediterranean. After a lengthy period of restricted intermittent or no water exchange between the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean basin, approximately 5.33 million years ago, the Atlantic–Mediterranean connection was completely reestablished through

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4224-528: A vessel or aircraft has the freedom of navigation or overflight for the purpose of crossing the strait of Gibraltar. Some studies have proposed the possibility of erecting tidal power generating stations within the Strait, to be powered from the predictable current at the Strait. In the 1920s and 1930s, the Atlantropa project proposed damming the Strait to generate large amounts of electricity and lower

4416-456: A veteran soldier, the sum must have been considered sufficient and honorable at the time. But the pension would've only lasted for three years, and although the grant was renewable, it seems that it was paid irregularly, causing the poet to experience material difficulties. Camões lived out his final years in a room in a house near the Convent of Santa Ana, in a state, according to tradition, of

4608-613: A way as to maximise the time before its dates start to diverge from the Gregorian. There will be no difference between the two calendars until 2800. The Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem , Russian Orthodox Church , Serbian Orthodox Church , Georgian Orthodox and Apostolic Church , Polish Orthodox Church , Macedonian Orthodox Church and the Greek Old Calendarists did not accept the Revised Julian calendar, and continue to celebrate Christmas on 25 December in

4800-632: Is disputed by Spain. Similarly, Morocco disputes Spanish sovereignty over Ceuta on the southern coast. There are several islets, such as the disputed Isla Perejil , that are claimed by both Morocco and Spain. Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea , vessels passing through the strait do so under the regime of transit passage , rather than the more limited innocent passage allowed in most territorial waters. Therefore,

4992-612: Is given in the poet's first biographies, those of Pedro de Mariz and that of Severim de Faria, who only collected rumors about "some loves in Paço da Rainha (the Queen’s Household)”. Reference to Catarina de Ataíde only appeared in the edition of Rimas de Faria e Sousa, in the middle of the 17th century and to the Infanta on José Maria Rodrigues, which was only published in the early 20th century. The celebrated Dinamene also appears to be

5184-509: Is limited to three works, all in the genre of comedy and in the format of self: El-Rei Seleuco , Filodemo and Anfitriões . The attribution of El-Rei Seleuco to Camões, however, is controversial. Its existence was not known until 1654, when it appeared published in the first part of Rimas in the Craesbeeck edition, which gave no details about its origin and had little care in editing the text. The play also differs in several aspects from

5376-472: Is no record of how it happened, but he was taken to Malacca , where he received a new arrest warrant for misappropriating the assets of the dead that had been entrusted to him. The exact date of his return to Goa is not known, but he may have remained in prison there for some time. Couto says that in the shipwreck Dinamene , a Chinese maiden with whom Camões had fallen in love, died, but Ribeiro and others reject that story. The next viceroy, D. Antão de Noronha ,

5568-565: Is now the United States) adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1752, by which time it was necessary to correct by 11 days. Wednesday, 2 September 1752, was followed by Thursday, 14 September 1752. In Great Britain, the term "New Style" was used for the calendar and the Act omits any acknowledgement of Pope Gregory: the Annexe to the Act established a computation for the date of Easter that achieved

5760-662: Is possible that he drew some inspiration from fragments of the Decades of Asia , by João de Barros , and the History of the Discovery and Conquest of India by the Portuguese , by Fernão Lopes de Castanheda . He was certainly well-informed on classical mythology before that, as well as on ancient epic literature. Apparently, the poem started to take shape as early as 1554, with Storck considering that his determination to write it

5952-555: Is used for expansion to show separate national names for ease in charting, but otherwise has no significance. Strait of Gibraltar The Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Europe from Africa . The two continents are separated by 7.7 nautical miles (14.2 kilometers, 8.9 miles) at its narrowest point. Ferries cross between

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6144-487: Is worth entire literary works. Camões' fame began to spread across Spain, where he had several admirers since the 16th century, with two translations of Os Lusíadas appearing in 1580, the year of the poet's death, possibly printed at the behest of Philip II of Spain , who at the time was also the king of Portugal. In Luis Gómez de Tápia's edition, Camões is already mentioned as "famous", and in Benito Caldera's he

6336-480: The status quo ante ; thus, for example, when the Catholic countries of Europe adopted the new calendar, the day after Thursday, 4 October 1582 was Friday, 15 October 1582. Countries which did not change until the 18th century had by then observed an additional leap year (1700), necessitating the removal of eleven days from the reckoning. Some countries did not change until the 19th or 20th century, necessitating

6528-482: The Common Era or Anno Domini system, or a year of the nengō of the emperor on the throne. Since 1873, an era and the first year of that era has begun on the day of the year that the emperor ascended the throne. The second year of that era began on the next 1 January even if the first year contained only a few days. All subsequent years of that era began on 1 January until that emperor died or abdicated. For example,

6720-518: The Dutch Republic adopted the Gregorian calendar on 12 July 1700 (Gelderland), 12 December 1700 (Overijssel and Utrecht), 12 January 1701 (Friesland and Groningen) and 12 May 1701 (Drenthe). Sweden's transition to the Gregorian calendar was difficult and protracted. Sweden started to make the change from the Julian calendar and towards the Gregorian calendar in 1700, but it was decided to make

6912-625: The Eurasian Plate , but on geological rather than human timescales. The Strait has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because of the hundreds of thousands of seabirds which use it every year to migrate between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, including significant numbers of Scopoli's and Balearic shearwaters, Audouin's and lesser black-backed gulls, razorbills , and Atlantic puffins . A resident orca pod of some 36 individuals lives around

7104-639: The Hohenzollern , such as Berlin-based Brandenburg , a fief of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1700, through Ole Rømer 's influence, Denmark–Norway adopted the solar portion of the Gregorian calendar simultaneously with the Brandenburg-Pomerania and other Protestant estates of the Holy Roman Empire. Sunday, 18 February 1700, was followed by Monday, 1 March 1700. None of these states adopted the lunar portion , instead calculating

7296-606: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (ruled by Anna Jagiellon ) and in the Papal States , the new calendar was implemented on the date specified by the bull, with Julian Thursday, 4 October 1582, being followed by Gregorian Friday, 15 October 1582; the Spanish and Portuguese colonies followed somewhat later de facto because of delay in communication. Other Catholic countries soon followed. France adopted

7488-575: The Propaganda Fide for dispensation from observing the new calendar, as it signalled their disloyalty. The Lutheran Duchy of Prussia , until 1657 still a fiefdom of Catholic Poland, was the first Protestant state to adopt the Gregorian calendar. Under the influence of its liege lord, the King of Poland, it agreed in 1611 to do so. So 22 August was followed by 2 September 1612. However, this calendar change did not apply to other territories of

7680-537: The Real Mesa Censória . Over the centuries the image of Camões was represented numerous times in engraving, painting and sculpture, by Portuguese and foreign artists, and several monuments were erected in his honor, notably the great Monument to Camões installed in 1867 in Praça de Luís de Camões , in Lisbon, by Victor Bastos , which is the center of official public ceremonies and popular demonstrations. He

7872-497: The Republic of China (ROC) government under Provisional President Sun Yat-sen abolished the lunisolar Chinese calendar and adopted the Gregorian calendar. The public, however, resisted the change and continued to observe traditional holidays. President Yuan Shikai switched to a dual-calendar policy, under which the Gregorian calendar was to be used for most purposes except traditional holidays, which were to be timed according to

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8064-647: The Spanish Republican Navy tried to blockade the Strait of Gibraltar to hamper the transport of Army of Africa troops from Spanish Morocco to Peninsular Spain. On 5 August 1936 the so-called Convoy de la Victoria was able to bring at least 2,500 men across the Strait, breaking the republican blockade. The Strait is an important shipping route from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic . Ferries operate between Spain and Morocco across

8256-591: The Swedish kingdom at that time, hence it did the same. The Russian Empire's 1809 conquest of Finland did not revert this, since autonomy was granted, but government documents in Finland were dated in both the Julian and Gregorian styles. This practice ended when independence was gained in 1917. Through enactment of the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 , Great Britain and its possessions (including parts of what

8448-546: The canon law of the Catholic Church in 1582, but it was not recognised by Protestant churches , Eastern Orthodox Churches , and a few others, and as such, the days on which Easter and other holidays were celebrated by different Christian churches diverged. Catholic states such as France , the Italian principalities , Poland–Lithuania , Spain (along with her European and overseas possessions), Portugal , and

8640-489: The "backbone" of the Camonian lyric, as is repeatedly cited in the critical literature. The trauma of the shipwreck, in the words of Leal de Matos, had the most profound impact on redefining the themes of Os Lusíadas, this being noticeable beginning with Canto VII, a fact already noted by Diogo do Couto , a friend of the poet who partly accompanied the work as it was being written. His rescue took months to occur, and there

8832-568: The "new style" (N.S.) Gregorian calendar in 1582 (switched back in 1795 after the Third Partition of Poland ), but the switch to the Gregorian calendar for secular use occurred in Eastern Orthodox countries as late as the 20th century. Some religious groups in some of these countries, known as Old Calendarists , still use the "old style" (O.S.) Julian calendar for ecclesiastical purposes. The Kingdom of Bulgaria changed from

9024-512: The (then 11-day) adjustment gradually by excluding the leap days (29 February) from each of 11 successive leap years, 1700 to 1740. Meanwhile, the Swedish calendar would be out of step with both the Julian calendar and the Gregorian calendar for 40 years; also, the difference would not be constant but would change every four years. This system had the potential for confusion when working out the dates of Swedish events in this 40-year period. To add to

9216-511: The 11th lunar month not only in Korea but also in China , which still used the lunisolar calendar. Yet Korean era names were used for its years through 1910; and between 1910 and 1945, when Korea was under Japanese rule , Japanese era names were used to count the years of the Gregorian calendar used in Korea. In South Korea , from 1945 until 1961, Gregorian calendar years were also counted from

9408-400: The 18th century. The two Swiss communes of Schiers and Grüsch were the last areas of Western and Central Europe to switch to the Gregorian calendar, in 1812. Many of the countries of eastern Europe were Eastern Orthodox or Islamic and adopted the Gregorian calendar much later than western Christian countries. Catholic countries such as the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth adopted

9600-411: The 20th century, the date on the Julian calendar was 13 days behind that on the Gregorian calendar. Romania adopted the Gregorian in 1919, with 31 March 1919 being followed by 14 April 1919. The last country of Eastern Orthodox Europe to adopt the Gregorian calendar for secular purposes was Greece, at the time under military administration following the 11 September 1922 Revolution . The date of change

9792-416: The 8th–11th centuries, and Spain and Portugal in the 16th century. Beginning in 1492, the Strait began to play a certain cultural role in acting as a barrier against cross-channel conquest and the flow of culture and language that would naturally follow such a conquest. In that year, the last Muslim government north of the Strait was overthrown by a Spanish force. Since that time, the Strait has come to foster

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9984-746: The Americas adopted the change when their mother countries did. New France and New Spain had adopted the new calendar in 1582. The Gregorian calendar was applied in the British colonies in Canada and the future United States east of the Appalachian Mountains in 1752. Alaska remained on the Julian calendar along with the rest of Russia until 1867, when it was sold to the United States . At noon on Saturday, 7 October 1867 (Julian),

10176-830: The Anglican bishops, who argued that the Pope was undoubtedly the fourth great beast of Daniel , led the Queen to let the matter be quietly dropped. In the Czech lands , Protestants resisted the calendar imposed by the Habsburg monarchy . In parts of Ireland, Catholic rebels (until their defeat in the Nine Years' War ) kept the "new" Easter in defiance of the English-loyal authorities ; later, Catholics practising in secret petitioned

10368-458: The Atlantic waters that they sink below the constantly incoming water and form a highly saline ( thermohaline , both warm and salty) layer of bottom water. This layer of bottom-water constantly works its way out into the Atlantic as the Mediterranean outflow. On the Atlantic side of the Strait, a density boundary separates the Mediterranean outflow waters from the rest at about 100 m (330 ft; 55 fathoms) depth. These waters flow out and down

10560-678: The Camarinal Sill. When large tidal flows enter the Strait and the high tide relaxes, internal waves are generated at the Camarinal Sill and proceed eastwards. Even though the waves may occur down to great depths, occasionally the waves are almost imperceptible at the surface, at other times they can be seen clearly in satellite imagery. These internal waves continue to flow eastward and to refract around coastal features. They can sometimes be traced for as much as 100 km (62 mi; 54 nmi), and sometimes create interference patterns with refracted waves. Except for its far eastern end,

10752-499: The Camonian style as mannerist, distinguishing it from typical Renaissance classicism. This is justified by the presence of several language resources and an approach to its themes that are not in agreement with the doctrines of balance, economy, tranquility, harmony, unity and invariable idealism, which are the fundamental axes of Renaissance classicism. Camões, after a typically classic initial phase, moved on to other paths and anxiety and drama became his companions. Throughout The Lusiads

10944-499: The Catholic states of the Holy Roman Empire were first to change to the Gregorian calendar. Thursday, 4 October 1582, was followed by Friday, 15 October 1582, with ten days skipped. Philip II of Spain decreed the change from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar, which affected much of Catholic Europe, as Philip was at the time ruler over Spain and Portugal as well as much of Italy . In these territories, as well as in

11136-575: The Chinese calendar; this would also be followed by the short-lived Empire of China . With the 1928 unification of China under the Kuomintang , the Nationalist government decreed that, effective 1 January 1929 , the Gregorian calendar would be used. The Republic of China calendar would retain the Chinese traditions of numbering the months with a modified era system, determined according to

11328-610: The East would have been like, beyond what can be extrapolated from his military status. It seems certain that he always lived modestly and may have shared a house with friends, "in one of those collective dwellings where it was customary for people from the homeland to associate", as Ramalho notes. Some of these friends must have been in possession of a certain degree of culture and would have provided illustrious companionship. Ribeiro, Saraiva and Moura admit that he may have encountered, among other figures, Fernão Mendes Pinto , Fernão Vaz Dourado , Fernão Álvares do Oriente, Garcia de Orta and

11520-412: The European political map, with Italy losing its place as a power, and the split of Catholicism, with the emergence of the Protestant Reformation . In the Catholic reaction, Counter-Reformation was launched, the Inquisition was reactivated and ecclesiastical censorship was rekindled. At the same time, Machiavelli 's doctrines became widespread, dissociating ethics from the practice of power. The result

11712-401: The Gregorian calendar The adoption of the Gregorian Calendar has taken place in the history of most cultures and societies around the world, marking a change from one of various traditional (or "old style") dating systems to the contemporary (or "new style") system – the Gregorian calendar  – which is widely used around the world today. Some states adopted

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11904-447: The Gregorian calendar as the official civil calendar, with the Rattanakosin Era (with 1782 as Year 1). The Thai lunar calendar remains in use for religious purposes. Since the British conquest of the Konbaung dynasty in 1886, the Gregorian calendar has been used alongside the Burmese calendar in Myanmar . The Islamic calendar is a lunar one so there are twelve lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days, being 11 days shorter than

12096-600: The Gregorian calendar for pay purposes. Today, the vast majority of countries use the Gregorian calendar as their sole civil calendar. The four countries which have not adopted the Gregorian calendar are Ethiopia ( Ethiopian calendar ), Nepal ( Vikram Samvat and Nepal Sambat ), Iran and Afghanistan ( Solar Hijri calendar ). Some countries use other calendars alongside the Gregorian calendar, including India ( Indian national calendar ), Bangladesh ( Bengali calendar ), Pakistan ( Islamic calendar ), Israel ( Hebrew calendar ) and Myanmar ( Burmese calendar ), and other countries use

12288-416: The Gregorian calendar in 1923, except in the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem , where the old Julian calendar is still in use. Japan , Korea , and China started using the Gregorian calendar on 1 January 1873 , 1 January 1896 , and 1 January 1912 , respectively. They previously used lunisolar calendars . The Old Style and New Style dates in these countries usually mean the older lunisolar dates and

12480-426: The Gregorian calendar in the 1910s or early 1920s, none of the national Eastern Orthodox Churches have recognised the Gregorian calendar for church or religious purposes. Instead, the Revised Julian calendar was proposed in May 1923 at the Council of Constantinople . It uses a different leap year rule, leading to the mean year being slightly shorter than that of the Gregorian calendar, while being constructed in such

12672-402: The Gregorian calendar was introduced for general purposes on 1 January 1926. In Russia , the Gregorian calendar was accepted after the October Revolution . On 24 January 1918, the Council of People's Commissars issued a decree that Wednesday, 31 January 1918, was to be followed by Thursday, 14 February 1918, thus dropping 13 days from the calendar. The decree required that the Julian date

12864-447: The Gregorian calendar with numbered months and adopted Western numbered years, but timed traditional holidays according to the Chinese calendar and abolished the ROC Era System. Today mainland China (including Hong Kong and Macau), Taiwan, Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore all observe traditional holidays based on the traditional calendar, such as Chinese New Year , while timing other holidays, especially national anniversaries, according to

13056-404: The Gregorian calendar, it was decided to revert to the Julian calendar. This was achieved by introducing the unique date 30 February in 1712, adjusting the discrepancy in the calendars from 10 back to 11 days. Sweden finally adopted the solar portion of the Gregorian calendar in 1753, when Wednesday, 17 February, was followed by Thursday, 1 March. What became later Finland was an integral part of

13248-434: The Gregorian calendar. The adopted calendar in both mainland China and Taiwan is called the Public Calendar ( simplified Chinese : 公历 ; traditional Chinese : 公曆 ; pinyin : Gōnglì ), or "New Calendar" ( simplified Chinese : 新历 ; traditional Chinese : 新曆 ; pinyin : Xīnlì ). The Chinese language may distinguish old and new style dates in different ways: In speaking, people generally call

13440-401: The Julian calendar, which is 7 January in the Gregorian calendar until 2100. All of the other Eastern churches, the Oriental Orthodox churches ( Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria , Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church , Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church , and Syriac Orthodox Church ) continue to use their own calendars, which usually result in fixed dates being celebrated in accordance with

13632-421: The Julian calendar. This is most interesting in the case of the Syriac Orthodox Church, as one of its Patriarchs, Ignatius Nemet Allah I , was one of the nine scholars who devised the Gregorian calendar. The Indian Orthodox Church uses the Gregorian calendar along with their autonomous Syriac Orthodox counterparts in India, the Malankara Jacobite Syriac Orthodox Church . The Armenian Apostolic Church adopted

13824-465: The Julian to the Gregorian calendar in 1916 during the First World War . 31 March was followed by 14 April 1916. The Ottoman Empire 's Rumi calendar , used for fiscal purposes, was realigned from a Julian to a Gregorian starting on 16 February / 1 March 1917. The beginning of the year was reset to 1 January starting in 1918. The numbering of the years, though, remained uniquely Turkish until

14016-482: The Mediterranean. All these boats had to navigate the British-controlled Strait of Gibraltar where nine U-boats were sunk while attempting passage and 10 more had to break off their run due to damage. Internal waves (waves at the density boundary layer) are often produced by the Strait. Like traffic merging on a highway, the water flow is constricted in both directions because it must pass over

14208-547: The Orthodox Church of Ukraine opted for the Revised Julian calendar. At the same time, the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) declared that it would continue to celebrate the birth of Christ according to the Julian calendar. Other countries of Eastern Europe, most notably Eastern Orthodox countries, adopted the Gregorian calendar for secular purposes in the 1910s or early 1920s. By

14400-557: The Portuguese national archive, document the date of the poet's death, although an epitaph written by D. Gonçalo Coutinho has been preserved which mistakenly assigns his death to the year 1579. After the 1755 earthquake which destroyed most of Lisbon, attempts were made to find the remains of Camões, but to no avail. The bones deposited in 1880 in a tomb in the Jerónimos Monastery are, in all probability, someone else's. The testimonies of his contemporaries describe him as

14592-671: The Royal Navy and did trade in Guinea and India, and another brother, Bento, who followed the career of a man of letters and entered the priesthood , joining the Austin friars at the Monastery of Santa Cruz , which was a prestigious school for many young Portuguese gentlemen. Simão married Dona Ana de Sá e Macedo, also from a noble family, from Santarém . Her only son, Luís Vaz de Camões, according to Jayne, Fernandes and some other authors,

14784-491: The Spanish crown, he was stricken by bubonic plague , according to Le Gentil. He was transported to a hospital and died on June 10, 1580, being buried, according to Faria e Sousa , in a shallow grave in the Convent of Santa Ana, or in the cemetery of the poor in the same hospital, according to Teófilo Braga . His mother, having survived him, began to receive his pension as an inheritance. The receipts, found at Torre do Tombo ,

14976-539: The Spanish popular songwriter, working it in the style by Gil Vicente . Anfitriões , published in 1587, is an adaptation of Plautus ' Amphitryon , where it emphasizes the comic character of the Amphitryon myth, highlighting the omnipotence of love, which subdues even the immortals, also following the Vincentian tradition. The play was written in smaller redondilhas and uses bilingualism, using Castilian in

15168-477: The Strait lies within the territorial waters of Spain and Morocco. The United Kingdom claims 3 nautical miles (5.6 km; 3.5 mi) around Gibraltar on the northern side of the Strait, putting part of it inside British territorial waters. As this is less than the 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) maximum, it means, according to the British claim, that part of the Strait lies in international waters . The ownership of Gibraltar and its territorial waters

15360-580: The Strait of Gibraltar by the Zanclean flood , and has remained open ever since. The erosion produced by the incoming waters seems to be the main cause for the present depth of the Strait (900 m (3,000 ft; 490 fathoms) at the narrows, 280 m (920 ft; 150 fathoms) at the Camarinal Sill ). The Strait is expected to close again as the African Plate moves northward relative to

15552-420: The Strait, as well as between Spain and Ceuta and Gibraltar to Tangier . Discussion between Spain and Morocco of a tunnel under the strait began in the 1980s. In December 2003, both countries agreed to explore the construction of an undersea rail tunnel to connect their rail systems across the Strait. The gauge of the rail would be 1,435 mm ( 4 ft  8 + 1 ⁄ 2  in ) to match

15744-651: The Strait, one of the few that are left in Western European waters. The pod may be facing extinction in the coming decades due to long term effects of PCB pollution. Evidence of the first human habitation of the area by Neanderthals dates back to 125,000 years ago. It is believed that the Rock of Gibraltar may have been one of the last outposts of Neanderthal habitation in the world, with evidence of their presence there dating to as recently as 24,000 years ago. Archaeological evidence of Homo sapiens habitation of

15936-817: The West" or "Gate of the sunset", and furthermore "Gate of the Maghreb " or "Gate of Morocco ". In the Middle Ages it was called in Arabic Az-Zuqāq ( الزقاق ), "the Passage" and by the Romans Fretum Gaditanum (Strait of Cadiz ). In Latin it has been called Fretum Herculeum , based on the name from antiquity " Pillars of Hercules " ( Ancient Greek : αἱ Ἡράκλειοι στῆλαι , romanized :  hai Hērákleioi stêlai ), referring to

16128-410: The aforementioned Diogo do Couto , creating opportunities for debating literary topics and the like. He may also have attended lectures at one of Goa's colleges or religious establishments. Ribeiro adds that At such meetings the participants were both men-at-arms and men of letters, and were in search not only of military success and material fortune, but also of the fame and glory born of culture. This

16320-405: The amendments to the second text are due. Currently, the edition that shows the publisher's brand, a pelican , with its neck turned to the left, which is called edition A, carried out under the supervision of the author, is recognized as original. However, edition B was for a long time taken as princeps , with disastrous consequences for the later critical analysis of the work. Apparently, edition B

16512-465: The ancient Roman denomination of Portugal, Lusitania . It is one of the most important epics of the modern age due to its greatness and universality. The epic tells the story of Vasco da Gama and the Portuguese heroes who sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and opened a new route to India . It is a humanist epic, even in its contradictions, in the association of pagan mythology with the Christian view, in

16704-435: The area dates back c.  40,000 years. The relatively short distance between the two shores has served as a quick crossing point for various groups and civilizations throughout history, including Carthaginians campaigning against Rome, Romans travelling between the provinces of Hispania and Mauritania, Vandals raiding south from Germania through Western Rome and into North Africa in the 5th century, Moors and Berbers in

16896-544: The arrest was actually for debts that Camões had incurred. It is possible that he remained in prison until 1561, and that he may have been convicted of additional offenses before then. At any rate, when D. Francisco Coutinho assumed the governorship of India, Camões was released and came under that man's employ and protection. He was appointed to the position of Superintendent for the Dead and Missing for Macau in 1562, serving de facto from 1563 until 1564 or 1565. At that time, Macau

17088-419: The arrival in India, before proceeding to China, where it is said that he would have found the girl. He also referred to the opinion of researchers who claim the mention of Couto, the only primitive reference to the Chinese outside of the Camonian work itself, to have been falsified, being introduced a posteriori , with the possibility that it is even a spelling error, a corruption of "dignamente" ("worthily"). In

17280-445: The beginning of the 20th century, work continued with José Maria Rodrigues and Afonso Lopes Vieira, who published Rimas in 1932 in an edition they called "crítica" ("criticism"), although it did not deserve the name: it adopted large parts of Faria and Sousa's lesson, but editors claimed to have used the original editions, from 1595 and 1598. On the other hand, they definitely raised the issue of textual fraud that had been perpetuating for

17472-491: The bourgeoisie became a force of great social and economic importance, contrasting with the relative decline in the influence of religion in world affairs. In the 16th century, the time in which Camões lived, the influence of the Italian Renaissance expanded throughout Europe. However, several of its most typical features were declining, in particular because of a series of political disputes and wars that altered

17664-516: The care of the first editor of Rimas , Fernão Rodrigues Lobo Soropita, in the 1595 edition, several apocryphal poems were included. Many poems were discovered over the next few centuries and attributed to him, but not always with careful critical analysis. The result was that, for example, while in the original Rhymes there were 65 sonnets, in the 1861 edition of Juromenha there were 352; in the 1953 edition of Aguiar e Silva 166 pieces were still listed. In addition, many editions modernized or "embellished"

17856-571: The carrack São Bento , belonging to the fleet of Fernão Álvares Cabral, which left the Tagus on March 24, 1553. During the trip he passed through the regions where Vasco da Gama had sailed, faced a storm in the Cape of Good Hope Cabo da Boa Esperança where the three other ships in the fleet were lost, and landed in Goa in 1554. Soon he enlisted in the service of the viceroy D. Afonso de Noronha and fought in

18048-581: The chance to bridge part of the distance that separated him from his homeland, it is not known for certain, but in December 1567 Camões embarked on Pedro Barreto's ship to Sofala , on the Island of Mozambique , where Barreto had been appointed governor, and there Camões would wait for transport to Lisbon at a future date. The early biographers say that Pedro Barreto was treacherous, making false promises to Camões, so that after two years Diogo do Couto found him in

18240-413: The changes of this period towards a humanist and naturalist ideal that affirmed the dignity of man, placing him at the center of the universe, making him the researcher par excellence of nature, and promoting reason and science as arbitrators of manifest life. During this period, several scientific instruments were invented and several natural laws and physical entities previously unknown were discovered;

18432-512: The charm of the Odyssey and the magnificence of the Aeneid . Between 1735 and 1874 no less than twenty French translations of the book appeared, not counting numerous second editions and paraphrases of some of the most striking episodes. In 1777 Pieterszoon translated Os Lusíadas into Dutch and by the 19th century, five more partial translations had appeared. Works by Camões Adoption of

18624-462: The coast of Africa, is observed by the assembly of classical gods, who discuss the fate of the expedition, which is protected by Venus and attacked by Bacchus . Resting for a few days in Malindi , at the request of the local king Vasco da Gama narrates all Portuguese history, from its origins to the journey they undertake. The cantos III, IV and V contain some of the best passages of the entire epic:

18816-411: The comicality of the characters to the action and refining the plot, so he pointed out a path for the renewal of Portuguese comedy. However, his suggestion was not followed by the growers of the genus who succeeded him. According to Monteiro , of the great epic poets of the west, Camões remains the least known outside his homeland and his masterpiece, Os Lusíadas, is the least known of the great poems in

19008-743: The coming months. This was in order to resume discussions on a tunnel. Earlier, in January 2021, the UK government had studied plans for a tunnel to link Gibraltar with Tangiers that would replace the Spanish-Moroccan project that until then had had no tangible results after over 40 years of discussions. The Strait of Gibraltar links the Atlantic Ocean directly to the Mediterranean Sea. This direct linkage creates certain unique flow and wave patterns. These unique patterns are created due to

19200-407: The confusion, the system was poorly administered, and the leap days that should have been excluded in 1704 and 1708 were not excluded. The Swedish calendar (according to the transition plan) should have been 8 days behind the Gregorian but was 10 days behind. King Charles XII recognised that the gradual change to the new system was not working, and he abandoned it. Rather than proceeding directly to

19392-641: The connection between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean along the Betic and Rifan Corridor was progressively restricted until its total closure, effectively causing the salinity of the Mediterranean to rise periodically within the gypsum and salt deposition range, during what is known as the Messinian salinity crisis . In this water chemistry environment, dissolved mineral concentrations , temperature and stilled water currents combined and occurred regularly to precipitate many mineral salts in layers on

19584-441: The conquest over elements and physical space, with recurring use of classic allegories. The idea of a national epic had existed in the Portuguese heart since the 15th century, when the navigations started, but it was up to Camões, in the following century, to materialize it. In his dramatic works he sought to fuse nationalist and classic elements. Probably if he had remained in Portugal, as a courtly poet, he would never have achieved

19776-449: The constant propaganda of the Catholic faith with ancient mythology, responsible in the aesthetic plan for all the action that materializes the final realization, discarding the mediocre aurea dear to classics to advocate the primacy of the exercise of weapons and the glorious conquest. Os Lusíadas, or The Lusiads is considered the Portuguese epic par excellence. The title itself already suggests its nationalist intentions, being derived from

19968-614: The continental slope, losing salinity, until they begin to mix and equilibrate more rapidly, much farther out at a depth of about 1,000 m (3,300 ft; 550 fathoms). The Mediterranean outflow water layer can be traced for thousands of kilometres west of the Strait, before completely losing its identity. During the Second World War , German U-boats used the currents to pass into the Mediterranean Sea without detection, by maintaining silence with engines off. From September 1941 to May 1944 Germany managed to send 62 U-boats into

20160-630: The date changed to Friday, 18 October 1867 (Gregorian). Although the Julian calendar was 12 days behind the Gregorian calendar, only 11 days were skipped because Alaska also moved from the Eurasian side of the International Date Line to the American side. As noted above, the Catholic cantons of Switzerland adopted the new calendar in 1582. Geneva and several Protestant cantons adopted it in January 1701 or at other dates throughout

20352-478: The date in the Gregorian calendar month "No. dd " ( simplified Chinese : dd号 ; traditional Chinese : dd號 ); for example, the Spring Festival of year 2017 is No. 28 of Month 1 ( simplified Chinese : 1月28号 ; traditional Chinese : 1月28號 ). On the other hand, people never call dates on the Chinese calendar as "No. dd". , which avoids any possible ambiguity. When referencing dates before

20544-462: The date of Easter astronomically using the instant of the vernal equinox and the full moon according to Kepler 's Rudolphine Tables of 1627; this combination was referred to by the Protestant estates as the "improved calendar" ( Verbesserte Kalender ) and considered to be distinct from the Gregorian. They finally adopted the Gregorian calculation of Easter in 1774. The remaining provinces of

20736-499: The development of two very distinct and varied cultures on either side of it after sharing much the same culture for over 500 years from the 8th century to the early 13th century. On the northern side, Christian-European culture has remained dominant since the expulsion of the last Muslim kingdom in 1492, along with the Romance Spanish language , while on the southern side, Muslim-Arabic/Mediterranean has been dominant since

20928-500: The end of the 19th century. It arrived in France at the beginning of the 18th century, when Castera published a translation of the epic. Voltaire criticized certain aspects of the work, namely its lack of unity in action and the mixture of Christian and pagan mythology, but he also admired the novelties it introduced in relation to other epics, contributing powerfully to its popularity. Montesquieu stated that Camões' poem had something of

21120-460: The epic, portrayed in life by a professional painter ". What is known of this portrait is a copy, made at the request of the 3rd Duke of Lafões , executed by Luís José Pereira de Resende between 1819 and 1844, from the original that was found in a green silk bag in the rubble of the fire at the palace of the Counts of Ericeira , which has since disappeared. It is a "very faithful copy" that: [D]ue to

21312-568: The episode of Inês de Castro , which becomes a symbol of love and death, the Battle of Aljubarrota , the vision of D. Manuel I , the description of St. Elmo's fire , the story of the giant Adamastor . Back on the ship, the poet takes advantage of his free time to tell the story of the Twelve of England , while Bacchus summons the sea gods to destroy the Portuguese fleet. Venus intervenes and ships reach Calicut , India. There, Paulo da Gama receives

21504-650: The expedition against the king of Chembé (or "da Pimenta"). In 1555, Noronha's successor D. Pedro Mascarenhas ordered Manuel de Vasconcelos to fight the Moors in the Red Sea . Camões accompanied him, but the squadron did not find the enemy and went to winter in Ormuz , in the Persian Gulf. Probably at this time he had already started writing Os Lusíadas . When he returned to Goa in 1556, he met D. Francisco Barreto in

21696-430: The face of new political, religious and social facts. The new art that was made, although inspired by the source of classicism, translated it into restless, anxious, distorted, ambivalent forms, attached to intellectualist preciosities, characteristics that reflected the dilemmas of the century and define the general style of this phase as mannerist . Since the middle of the 15th century, Portugal had established itself as

21888-399: The final version of Couto's manuscript, the name would not even have been cited, even though proving it is difficult with the disappearance of the manuscript. Probably executed between 1573 and 1575, the so-called "portrait painted in red", illustrated at the opening of the article, is considered by Vasco Graça Moura as "the only and precious reliable document we have to know the features of

22080-518: The first year of the Showa Era , that of Emperor Hirohito , contained only the last six days of 1926, while Showa 64, his last year, contained only the first seven days of 1989. The current Gregorian year 2024 corresponds to Reiwa 6. Replacing its years numbered from 1392, the founding of the Joseon dynasty, Korea started using the Gregorian calendar on 1 January 1896, which was the 17th day of

22272-470: The format of "25 October (7 November, New Style)" to describe the date of the start of the revolution. In the territory of modern Ukraine , the Gregorian calendar was officially adopted for secular use immediately after its adoption by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582, as most of Ukraine then was part of the predominantly Catholic Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth . The Roman Catholic Church in Ukraine switched to

22464-668: The foundation of Gojoseon in 2333 BC (regarded as year one), the date of the legendary founding of Korea by Dangun , hence these Dangi (단기) years were 4278 to 4294. This numbering was informally used with the Korean lunar calendar before 1945 but is only occasionally used today. Since 1997, North Korea officially counts years based on the Juche era , the first year of which is 1912, the year of Kim Il Sung 's birth, with Gregorian months and days. The current Gregorian year 2024 corresponds to Juche year 113. At its founding on 1 January 1912 ,

22656-458: The glories of Portugal in high style. When Camões appeared, the land was prepared for the apotheosis of the homeland, a homeland that had fought hard to conquer its sovereignty, first of the Moors and after Castile, had developed an adventurous spirit that had taken it across the oceans, expanding the known borders of the world and opening new routes of trade and exploration, defeating enemy armies and

22848-551: The government, and composed for him the " Auto de Filodemo ", which suggests that Barreto looked upon Camões with favor. The early biographers, however, differ about Camões' relations with that ruler. At the same time, an anonymous satire criticizing the prevalence of immorality and corruption, which was attributed to Camões, also was published. Since satires were condemned by the Ordinances of King Manuel, Camões would have been arrested for that. But it has also been hypothesized that

23040-477: The hostile forces of nature. But at this point, however, the political and cultural crisis was already being announced, materializing shortly after his death, when the country lost its sovereignty to Spain. Camões' production is divided into three genres: lyrical, epic and theatrical. His lyrical work was immediately appreciated as a high achievement. He demonstrated his virtuosity especially in cantos and elegies, but his redondilhas are not far behind. In fact, he

23232-626: The interaction of various regional and global evaporative forces, water temperatures, tidal forces, and wind forces. Water flows through the Strait more or less continuously, both eastwards and westwards. A smaller amount of deeper, saltier and therefore denser waters continually flow westwards (the Mediterranean outflow ), while a larger amount of surface waters with lower salinity and density continually flow eastwards (the Mediterranean inflow). These general flow tendencies may be occasionally interrupted for brief periods by temporary tidal flows, depending on various lunar and solar alignments. The balance of

23424-550: The introduction of doubt, contradiction and questioning, in disagreement with the affirmative certainty that characterizes the classic epic, and the primacy of rhetoric over action, replacing the world of facts with that of words, which do not fully recover reality and evolve into metalanguage , with the same disruptive effect on the traditional epic. According to Costa Pimpão, there is no evidence that Camões intended to write his epic before he traveled to India, although heroic themes were already present in his previous production. It

23616-565: The introduction of the Gregorian calendar in 1582, the official Chinese calendar may either inherit the issues with earlier calendars to be historically correct or follow the proleptic Gregorian calendar if so specified. The Gregorian calendar replaced the Burmese calendar in several mainland Southeast Asian kingdoms in the second half of the 19th century. This took place in Cambodia in 1863 and Laos in 1889. In 1889, Siam also switched to

23808-408: The king's representatives and explains the meaning of the banners that adorn the flagship. On the return trip the sailors enjoy the island created for them by Venus, rewarding the nymphs with their favors. One of them sings the glorious future of Portugal and the scene ends with a description of the universe by Tethys and Vasco da Gama. Then the journey continues home. In Os Lusíadas, Camões achieves

24000-439: The knowledge of the face of the planet itself changed after the discoveries of the great navigations . The spirit of intellectual speculation and scientific research was on the rise, causing Physics, Mathematics, Medicine, Astronomy, Philosophy, Engineering, Philology and several other branches of knowledge to reach a level of complexity, efficiency and accuracy unprecedented, which led to an optimistic conception of human history as

24192-423: The limits of the Strait of Gibraltar as follows: The seabed of the Strait is composed of synorogenic Betic-Rif clayey flysch covered by Pliocene and/or Quaternary calcareous sediments, sourced from thriving cold water coral communities. Exposed bedrock surfaces, coarse sediments and local sand dunes attest to the strong bottom current conditions at the present time. Around 5.9 million years ago,

24384-410: The lines of the character Sósia, a slave, to mark his low social level in passages that reach the grotesque, a feature that appears in the other pieces as well. Filodemo , composed in India and dedicated to the viceroy D. Francisco Barreto , is a comedy of morality in five acts, according to the classical division, being, of the three, the one that remained most alive in the interest of the critic due to

24576-418: The major Western powers (excluding Russia). To this day, however, it is common to use reign names (nengō), especially for official documents; for instance, Meiji 1 for 1868, Taishō 1 for 1912, Shōwa 1 for 1926, Heisei 1 for 1989, Reiwa 1 for 2019, and so on. The months and days are those of the Gregorian calendar, but the year is either the "Western calendar" (西暦, seireki ) year number per

24768-409: The mastery of his art. The experiences he accumulated as a soldier and navigator enriched his worldview and excited his talent. Through them, he managed to free himself from the formal limitations of courtesan poetry and the difficulties he went through, the profound anguish of exile, the longing for his country, indelibly impregnated his spirit and communicated with his work, and from there influenced in

24960-432: The most unworthy poverty, "without a rag to cover him". Le Gentil considered this view a romantic exaggeration, as he was still able to keep a slave named Jau, whom he had brought with him from the east, and official documents attest that he had some means of livelihood. After being embittered by the Portuguese defeat at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir , in which Sebastian disappeared, leading Portugal to lose its independence to

25152-508: The mountains as pillars, such as Gibraltar, flanking the strait. On the northern side of the Strait are Spain and Gibraltar (a British overseas territory in the Iberian Peninsula ). On the southern side are Morocco and Ceuta (a Spanish autonomous city in northern Africa). Due to its location, the Strait is commonly used for illegal immigration from Africa to Europe. The International Hydrographic Organization defines

25344-403: The multiplicity of human experiences it describes and for the sharpness of psychological observation. The theme is about the love of a servant, Filodemo, for the daughter, Dionisa, of the nobleman in the house of the one he serves, with autobiographical traits. Camões saw comedy as a secondary genre, of interest only as a diversion of circumstance, but he achieved significant results by transferring

25536-744: The new calendar at the same time. However, the Orthodox churches in the Commonwealth refused to accept a calendar instigated by a Roman Catholic Pope, so the Orthodox Church of Ukraine continued following the old Julian calendar until 2023. In 2018, the Ukrainian Lutheran Church switched to the Revised Julian calendar . After the Russian invasion in 2022, most other Christian denominations that were still using

25728-429: The new calendar in 1582, others not before the early twentieth century, and others at various dates between. A few have yet to do so, but except for these, the Gregorian calendar is now the world's universal civil calendar , old style calendars remaining in use in religious or traditional contexts. During – and for some time after – the transition between systems, it has been common to use

25920-421: The new calendar in January 1584. Many Protestant countries initially objected to adopting a Catholic innovation; some Protestants feared the new calendar was part of a plot to return them to the Catholic fold. In England for example, Queen Elizabeth I and her privy council had looked favourably to a Gregorian-like royal commission recommendation to drop 10 days from the calendar but the virulent opposition of

26112-620: The new calendar with Sunday, 9 December 1582, being followed by Monday, 20 December 1582. The Dutch provinces of Brabant and Zeeland , and the States General adopted it on 25 December of that year; the provinces forming the Southern Netherlands (modern Belgium ) except the Duchy of Brabant adopted it on 1 January 1583; the province of Holland adopted it on 12 January 1583. The seven Catholic Swiss cantons adopted

26304-437: The newer Gregorian calendar dates respectively. In these countries, the old style calendars were similar but not all the same. The Arabic numerals may be used for both calendar dates in modern Japanese and Korean languages, but not for Chinese old-style dates. Japan decided to officially replace its traditional lunisolar calendar with the Gregorian calendar in 1872, so the day following 31 December 1872 as "the second day of

26496-621: The old Julian calendar announced that they would transition to the Gregorian or the Revised Julian calendar. The All-Ukrainian Union of Churches of Evangelical Christian Baptists and the Church of Christians of the Evangelical Faith of Ukraine ( Pentecostals ) switched to the Gregorian calendar the same year. On 1 September 2023, the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church switched to the Gregorian calendar, while

26688-531: The old tradition of Cantigas de amigo , and the elegies are quite classicist. Its resorts follow an epistolary style, with moralizing themes. Eclogues are perfect pieces of the pastoral genre, derived from Virgil and the Italians. The influence of Spanish poetry by Garcilaso de la Vega , Jorge de Montemor , Juan Boscán , Gregorio Silvestre and several other names was also detected in many points of his lyric, as his commentator Faria e Sousa pointed out. Despite

26880-543: The opposite feelings about war and empire, in the taste of rest and in the desire for adventure, in the appreciation of sensual pleasure and in the demands of an ethical life, in the perception of greatness and in the presentiment of decline, in the heroism paid for with suffering and struggle. The poem opens with the famous verses: "As armas e os barões assinalados Que, da Ocidental praia Lusitana, Por mares nunca de antes navegados Passaram ainda além da Taprobana , Em perigos e guerras esforçados, Mais do que prometia

27072-451: The original text, a practice that was particularly pronounced after the 1685 edition of Faria e Sousa, giving rise to and rooting a tradition of its own in this adulterated lesson that caused enormous difficulties for critical study. More scientific studies only began to be undertaken at the end of the 19th century, with the contribution of Wilhelm Storck and Carolina Michaëlis de Vasconcelos , who discarded several apocryphal compositions. At

27264-410: The other two that survived, such as its much shorter length (an act), the existence of a prologue in prose , and the less profound and less erudite treatment of the love theme. The theme, of the complicated passion of Antiochus , son of King Seleucus I Nicator , for his stepmother, Queen Estratonice, was taken from a historical fact from Antiquity transmitted by Plutarch and repeated by Petrarch and

27456-649: The planet Mercury and an asteroid in the main belt were named after him. Camões lived in the final phase of the European Renaissance , a period marked by many changes in culture and society, which mark the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern Age and the transition from feudalism to capitalism . It was called "renaissance" due to the rediscovery and revaluation of the cultural references of Classical Antiquity , which guided

27648-402: The pose of a graphic book illustration, was intended for the opening of an engraving on a copper plate, to illustrate one of the first editions of The Lusiads ... Also surviving is a miniature painted in India in 1581, by order of Fernão Teles de Meneses and offered to the viceroy D. Luís de Ataíde, who, according to testimonies of the time, was very similar to him in appearance. Another portrait

27840-539: The potential to cause confusion between contemporaries. For example, it is related that one of the contributory factors for Napoleon 's victory at the Battle of Austerlitz was the confusion between the Russians, who were using the Julian calendar, and the Austrians, who were using the Gregorian calendar, over the date that their forces should combine. However, this tale is not supported in a contemporary account from

28032-532: The proposed construction and conversion of significant parts of the existing broad gauge system to standard gauge . While the project remained in a planning phase, Spanish and Moroccan officials met to discuss it occasionally, including in 2012. Those talks led to nothing constructive happening, but in April 2021 ministers from both countries agreed to a joint intergovernmental meeting to be held in Casablanca in

28224-581: The regions of a distant race rear'd a new throne so haught in Pride of Place. ..... My song would sound o'er Earth's extremest part were mine the genius, mine the Poet's art." The ten cantos of the poem add up to 1,102 stanzas in a total of 8,816 decyllable verses, using the ottava rima (abababcc). After an introduction, an invocation and a dedication to King Sebastian, the action begins, which merges myths and historical facts. Vasco da Gama, sailing along

28416-472: The removal of one or two further days. Although Gregory's reform was enacted in the most solemn of forms available to the Church , the bull had no authority beyond ecclesial institutions and the Papal States . The changes he was proposing were changes to the civil calendar, over which he had no formal authority. They required adoption by the civil authorities in each country to have legal effect. The bull became

28608-419: The restricted dimensions of the drawing, the texture of the blood, creating spots of distribution of values, the rigor of the contours and the definition of the contrasted planes, the reticulated neutral that harmonizes the background and highlights the bust of the portrait, the type of the wrap around limits from which the enlightening signature runs down, in short, the symbolic apparatus of the image, captured in

28800-587: The same copy", so that there were no two copies exactly the same in the press system of that time. Camões' lyric work, dispersed in manuscripts, was collected and published posthumously in 1595 under the title Rimas ( Rhymes ). Throughout the 17th century, the growing prestige of his epic contributed to raise the appreciation for these other poems even more. The collection includes redondilhas , odes , glosses , cantigas , twists or variations, sextilhas , sonnets , elegies , eclogues and other small stanzas. His lyrical poetry comes from several different sources:

28992-549: The same result as Gregory's rules, without actually referring to him. With the same Act, the Empire (except Scotland, which had already done so from 1600) changed the start of the civil year from 25 March to 1 January. Consequently, the custom of dual dating (giving a date in both old and new styles) can refer to the Julian/Gregorian calendar change, or to the start of year change, or to both. The European colonies of

29184-408: The seabed. The resultant accumulation of various huge salt and mineral deposits about the Mediterranean basin are directly linked to this era. It is believed that this process took a short time, by geological standards, lasting between 500,000 and 600,000 years. It is estimated that, were the Strait closed even at today's higher sea level, most water in the Mediterranean basin would evaporate within

29376-458: The signs of a political and spiritual crisis are visible, the prospect of the decline of the empire and the character of the Portuguese remains in the air, censored by bad customs and the lack of appreciation for the arts, alternating with excerpts in which its enthusiastic apology. They are also typical of Mannerism, and would become even more Baroque, the taste for contrast, for emotional flare, for conflict, for paradox, for religious propaganda, for

29568-503: The sonnets generally follow the Italian style derived from Petrarch , the songs took the model of Petrarch and Pietro Bembo . In the odes, the influence of the troubadour poetry of chivalry and classical poetry is verified, but with a more refined style; in the sextilhas the Provençal influence is clear; in the redondilhas it expanded the form, deepened the lyricism and introduced a theme, worked on antitheses and paradoxes, unknown in

29760-525: The spread of Islam into North Africa in the 700s, along with the Arabic language. The small British enclave of the city of Gibraltar presents a third cultural group found in the Strait. This enclave was first established in 1704 and has since been used by the United Kingdom to act as a surety for control of the sea lanes into and out of the Mediterranean. Following the Spanish coup of July 1936

29952-680: The strait of Gibraltar in case of continuous transit . The name comes from the Rock of Gibraltar , which in turn originates from the Arabic Jabal Ṭāriq (meaning "Tariq's Mount"), named after Tariq ibn Ziyad . It is also known as the Straits of Gibraltar, the Gut of Gibraltar (although this is mostly archaic), the STROG (STRait Of Gibraltar) in naval use. Another Arabic name is Bāb al- maghrib (Arabic: باب المغرب ), meaning "Gate of

30144-414: The style. However, from the time he lived and throughout the centuries after Camões was praised by several non-Lusophone luminaries of Western culture. Torquato Tasso , who claimed that Camões was the only rival he feared, dedicated a sonnet to him, Baltasar Gracián praised his sharpness and ingenuity, as did Lope de Vega . Cervantes – stated that he saw Camões as the "singer of Western civilization." He

30336-473: The terms "Old Style" and "New Style" when giving dates, to indicate which calendar was used to reckon them. The Gregorian calendar was decreed in 1582 by the papal bull Inter gravissimas by Pope Gregory XIII , to correct an error in the Julian calendar that was causing an erroneous calculation of the date of Easter . The Julian calendar had been based upon a year lasting 365.25 days , but this

30528-518: The title "Gente de guerra" ("Men of war"), the following statement: "Fernando Casado, son of Manuel Casado and Branca Queimada, residents of Lisbon, squire; Luís de Camões, son of Simão Vaz and Ana de Sá, squire, took his place; and he received 2400 like the others". Camões set sail on Palm Sunday , the 24th of March 1553. His last words, he says in a letter, were those of Scipio Africanus , “Ingrata patria, non possidebis ossa mea” (Ungrateful fatherland, you will not possess my bones). He traveled aboard

30720-621: The traditional Chinese era names , but using the founding of the Republic of China government in 1912 as the start ( epoch ) rather than the regnal year of an emperor. The current Gregorian year 2024 corresponds to the ROC year 113. This system is still in use in Taiwan where the ROC government retains control since 1945 . Upon its foundation in 1949, the People's Republic of China continued to use

30912-428: The twelfth month of Meiji 5" ( 明治5年12月2日 , Meiji gonen jūnigatsu futsuka ) became 1 January 1873 , locally known as "the first day of the first month of Meiji 6" ( 明治6年1月1日 , Meiji rokunen ichigatsu tsuitachi ) . (The Japanese rendering of the Western months is simply ichi-gatsu or "One-month" for January, ni-gatsu or "Two-month" for February, etc. ) This brought Japan's calendar in alignment with that of

31104-422: The two continents every day in as little as 35 minutes. The Strait's depth ranges between 300 and 900 metres (980 and 2,950 feet ; 160 and 490 fathoms ). The strait lies in the territorial waters of Morocco , Spain , and the British overseas territory of Gibraltar . Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea , foreign vessels and aircraft have the freedom of navigation and overflight to cross

31296-443: The typographic composition, but while printing was already in progress. According to the researcher, "the need to make the most of the press led to the conclusion that, after printing a shape, which consisted of several folios, a first test was taken, which was corrected while the press continued, now with the corrected text. There were, therefore, uncorrected printed folios and corrected printed folios, which were grouped indistinctly in

31488-429: The university and the prior of the Monastery of Santa Cruz, instructed him or that he studied at the monastery college. At about twenty years of age he probably moved to Lisbon, before completing his studies. His family was poor, but being noble, he could be admitted to the court of John III where he established fruitful intellectual contacts and began his career as a poet. It was suggested that he earned his living as

31680-466: The use of archaisms typical of the Middle Ages. Along with the use of formal Renaissance and classicist models, he cultivated the medieval genres of vilancete , cantiga and trova . For Joaquim dos Santos, the contradictory character of his poetry is found in the contrast between two opposing premises: idealism and practical experience. He combined typical values of humanist rationalism with other derivatives of cavalry , crusades and feudalism , aligned

31872-411: The use of complex figures of speech and preciousness, even for the grotesque and monstrous, many of them common features in Camonian work. The mannerist nature of his work is also marked by the ambiguities generated by the rupture with the past and by the concomitant adherence to it, the first manifested in the visualization of a new era and in the use of new poetic formulas from Italy, and the second, in

32064-462: The verse that describes the arrival of the Portuguese in India. Applying the separate section to the two resulting parts, in the first part comes the episode that reports the death of Inês de Castro and, in the second, the stanza that narrates Cupid 's efforts to unite the Portuguese and the nymphs, which for Sena reinforces the importance of love throughout the composition. Two other elements give Os Lusíadas its modernity and distance it from classicism:

32256-477: The water flow is eastwards, since the evaporation rate within the Mediterranean basin is higher than the combined inflow of all the rivers that empty into it, plus the total precipitation of rain or snow that falls on it. At the Strait's far western end is the Camarinal Sill , the Strait's shallowest point which limits mixing between the cold, less saline Atlantic water and the warmer, more saline Mediterranean waters. The Mediterranean waters are so much saltier than

32448-463: The work and present themselves as a fluent speech and always of a high aesthetic level, not only for its narrative character especially well achieved, but also by the superior mastery of all the resources of the language and the art of versification, with a knowledge of a wide range of styles, used in efficient combination. The work is also a serious warning for Christian kings to abandon small rivalries and unite against Muslim expansion. The structure of

32640-421: The work is in itself worthy of interest, as, according to Jorge de Sena , nothing is arbitrary in Os Lusíadas. Among the arguments he presented was the use of the golden section, a defined relationship between the parts and the whole, organizing the set in ideal proportions that emphasize especially significant passages. Sena demonstrated that when applying the golden section to the whole work, it falls precisely on

32832-410: Was 1 March 1923, As a consequence, Wednesday 15 February 1923 in the Greek calendar was followed by Thursday 1 March 1923. The decree expressly limited the reform to lay (i.e. non-religious) matters, so the reform did not affect the dates of religious holidays. (See below.) Turkey adopted the Gregorian calendar on 1 January 1926. While the civil administrations of Eastern European countries adopted

33024-437: Was a longtime friend of Camões, having first met him during his Morocco adventure. Certain biographers claim that he was promised a position at the trading post at Chaul, but he did not take up the position. Severim de Faria said that the final years spent in Goa were occupied with poetry and military activities, where he always showed bravery, readiness and loyalty to the Crown. It is difficult to determine what his daily life in

33216-417: Was a master in this form, giving new life to the art of gloss , instilling in it spontaneity and simplicity, a delicate irony and a lively phrasing, taking courtesan poetry to its highest level, and showing that he also knew how to express perfectly joy and relaxation. His epic production is synthesized in ' Os Lusíadas ', an intense glorification of Portuguese feats, not only of his military victories, but also

33408-432: Was a trading post still in formation and almost uninhabited. Tradition says that there he wrote part of Os Lusíadas in a cave, which later was named after him. On the trip back to Goa, he was shipwrecked, as tradition says, near the mouth of the Mekong River, managing to save only himself and the manuscript of Os Lusíadas, an event that inspired the famous redondilha " Sobre os rios que vão ", considered by António Sérgio

33600-409: Was actually born in Lisbon, in 1524. The arguments for placing his birth outside of Lisbon are weak; but neither is it completely beyond doubt, so the most recent scholarship considers his place and date of birth uncertain. About his childhood much remains unknown. At twelve or thirteen he would have been protected and educated by his uncle Bento, who sent him to Coimbra to study. Tradition says that he

33792-578: Was also honored in musical compositions, appeared with his effigy on medals, currency notes, stamps and coins, and as a character in novels, poetry and plays. The film Camões , directed by José Leitão de Barros , was the first Portuguese film to participate in the Cannes Film Festival , in 1946. Among the famous artists who took him as a model for his works are Bordalo Pinheiro , José Simões de Almeida , Francisco Augusto Metrass , António Soares dos Reis , Horace Vernet , José Malhoa , Vieira Portuense , Domingos Sequeira and Lagoa Henriques . A crater on

33984-459: Was an influence on the work of John Milton and several other English poets, Goethe recognized his eminence, Sir Richard Burton considered him a master, Friedrich Schlegel called him the ultimate exponent of creation in epic poetry, opining that the "perfection" [Vollendung] of Portuguese poetry was evident in his "beautiful poems," Humboldt regarded him as an admirable painter of nature. August-Wilhelm Schlegel wrote that Camões, by itself,

34176-412: Was an undisciplined student, but eager for knowledge, interested in history, cosmography and classic and modern literature. However, his name does not appear in the records of the University of Coimbra , but it is certain from his elaborate style and the profusion of erudite quotes that appear in his works that in some way he received a solid education. It is possible that his uncle himself, a chancellor of

34368-570: Was aware of his merit as a man, as a soldier and as a poet. All efforts made to discover the definitive identity of his muse were in vain and several contradictory proposals were made about alleged women present in his life. Camões himself suggested, in one of his poems, that there were several muses to inspire him, when he said "in various flames it was often burning". The names of ladies supposed to have been his loved ones that appear in his poems are always used generically, and can therefore be ideal figures; no mention of any ladies identifiable by name

34560-403: Was born during the sea voyage itself. He was seen working on it in Mozambique by his friend historian Diogo do Couto between 1568 and 1569. The success of the publication of Os Lusíadas supposedly required a second edition in the same year as the princeps edition. The two differ in countless details and it was debated at length which one would in fact be the original. Nor is it clear to whom

34752-483: Was born in Lisbon in 1524. Three years later, the city was being threatened by the plague, the family moved, following the court, to Coimbra . However, other cities claim the honour of being his birthplace: Coimbra, Santarém and Alenquer. Although the first biographers of Camões, Severin de Faria and Manoel Correa, initially gave his year of birth as 1517, records of the Lists of the Casa da Índia , later consulted by Manuel de Faria e Sousa , seem to establish that Camões

34944-422: Was compared to Virgil. In addition, the king granted him the honorific title of "Prince of the Poets of Spain," which was printed in one of the translations. Philip was perfectly aware of the advantages of using an already established culture for his own purposes rather than suppressing it. As the son of a Portuguese princess, he had no interest in annulling the Portuguese identity or its cultural achievements, and it

35136-508: Was descended from Vasco Pires de Camões, Galician troubadour , warrior and fidalgo , who moved to Portugal in 1370 and received great benefits from the king in positions, honours and lands, and whose poetry, of a nationalist nature, contributed to ward off Breton and Italian influence and to shape a national troubadour style. His son Antão Vaz de Camões served in the Red Sea and married Dona Guiomar da Gama, related to Vasco da Gama . From this marriage were born Simão Vaz de Camões, who served in

35328-463: Was found in the 1970s by Maria Antonieta de Azevedo, dated 1556 and showing the poet in prison. The first medal with its effigy appeared in 1782, ordered to mint by the Baron of Dillon in England, where Camões is crowned with laurels and dressed in coat of arms, with the inscription "Apollo Portuguez / Honor de Hespanha / Nasceo 1524 / Morreo 1579". In 1793, a reproduction of this medal was coined in Portugal, by order of Tomás José de Aquino, Librarian of

35520-412: Was no one who could celebrate so many feats worthily, claiming that there was epic material superior to that of the Romans and Trojans. Filling this gap, João de Barros wrote his cavalry novel, " A Crónica do Imperador Clarimundo " (1520), in epic format. Shortly thereafter, António Ferreira appeared, establishing himself as a mentor of the classicist generation and challenging his contemporaries to sing

35712-400: Was one of the great aspirations of the Humanism of that era, and from it may have sprung the idea of creating an academy , reproducing within the limitations of the local context, the model of Renaissance academies such as the one founded in Florence by Marsilio Ficino and his circle, where Neoplatonic ideals were cultivated. Whether it was by invitation, or simply a matter of taking

35904-414: Was produced later, around 1584 or 1585, in a clandestine manner, taking the fictitious date of 1572 to bypass the delays of censorship of the time if it were published as a new edition and to correct the serious defects of another 1584 edition, the so-called piscos edition. However, Maria Helena Paiva raised the hypothesis that editions A and B are only variants of the same edition, which was corrected after

36096-432: Was slightly too long; in reality, it is about 365.2422 days, and so over the centuries, the calendar had drifted increasingly out of alignment with the Earth's orbit. According to Gregory's scientific advisers, the calendar had acquired ten excess leap days since the First Council of Nicaea (which established the rule for dating Easter in AD 325). Consequently, he ruled, the numbering of days must jump by ten, to restore

36288-446: Was talk of a passion for Infanta Dona Maria , sister of the king, but that audacity would have earned him time in prison. Another was Catarina de Ataíde, with whom he allegedly had a frustrated love affair that resulted in his self-exile, first in Ribatejo , and then by enlisting as a soldier in Ceuta . The reason for the latter trip is doubtful, but the trip itself is accepted fact; he remained there two years and lost his right eye in

36480-499: Was the reaffirmation of the power of religion over the profane world and the formation of an agitated spiritual, political, social and intellectual atmosphere, with strong doses of pessimism, reverberating unfavorably on the former freedom that artists enjoyed. Despite this, the intellectual and artistic acquisitions of the High Renaissance that were still fresh and shining before the eyes could not be forgotten immediately, even if their philosophical substrate could no longer remain valid in

36672-424: Was to be written in parentheses after the Gregorian date, until 1 July 1918. With the change, the October Revolution itself, once converted, took place on 7 November. Articles about the October Revolution that mention this date difference tend to do a full conversion to the dates from Julian to the Gregorian calendar. For example, in the article "The October (November) Revolution" the Encyclopædia Britannica uses

36864-445: Was to his advantage to assimilate the poet into the Spanish orbit, both to ensure his legitimacy as sovereign of the united crowns, and to enhance the brilliance of Spanish culture. Soon his fame would reach Italy ; Tasso called his work "cult and good" and by 1658 Os Lusíadas would be translated twice, by Oliveira and Paggi. Later, associated with Tasso, it became an important paradigm in Italian Romanticism . By this time in Portugal,

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