Misplaced Pages

#649350

129-407: Camden Fort Meagher is a coastal defence fortification close to Crosshaven , County Cork , Ireland . Together with similar structures at Fort Mitchell ( Spike Island ), Fort Davis ( Whitegate ), and Templebreedy Battery (also close to Crosshaven), the fort was built to defend the mouth of Cork Harbour . Though originally constructed in the 16th century, the current structures of the fort date to

258-628: A London Jewish charity. Six Irish Jews are known to have been murdered in the Holocaust: Ettie Steinberg (born in Carpathian Ruthenia , lived in Dublin 1925–37), her Belgian-born husband Wojtech Gluck and their son Leon Gluck, who were all murdered at Auschwitz in 1942; Isaac Shishi, killed at Viekšniai , Lithuania in 1941; and siblings Ephraim and Jeanne (Lena) Saks, murdered at Auschwitz in 1944. Shishi and

387-414: A concrete pontoon barge on which stood two cylindrical towers on top of which was the gun platform mounting. They were laid down in dry dock and assembled as complete units. They were then fitted out before being towed out and sunk onto their sand bank positions in 1942. The other type consisted of seven interconnected steel platforms built on stilts. Five platforms carried guns arranged in a semicircle around

516-601: A critical component of the defence, and smaller guns were also employed to protect the mine fields from minesweeping vessels . Defences of a given harbor were initially designated artillery districts, redesignated as coast defense commands in 1913 and as harbor defense commands in 1924. In 1901 the Artillery Corps was divided into field artillery and coast artillery units, and in 1907 the United States Army Coast Artillery Corps

645-671: A function of Government" by operating a pro-Irish Republican pirate radio station, with McNeela being sentenced to two years imprisonment. With no concessions from the Irish Free State government, McNeela died on 19 April 1940 after 55 days on hunger strike in the Military Wing of St Bricin's Military Hospital, Dublin. Two IRA men ( Patrick McGrath and Thomas Harte ) were executed for the murder of two policemen in September 1940. The IRA became increasingly ineffective in

774-407: A great Power could ever hope to be permitted to go its own way in peace. It is indeed fortunate that Britain's necessity did not reach the point where Mr. Churchill would have acted. All credit to him that he successfully resisted the temptation which I have no doubt many times assailed him in his difficulties, and to which, I freely admit, many leaders might have easily succumbed. It is indeed hard for

903-494: A group of local volunteers began restoration and development of the fort for heritage and tourism purposes. The fort was renamed Camden Fort Meagher and is now open seasonally to visitors, with exhibits on the fort's Brennan torpedo installation (the world's first "practical guided weapon"). The headland known as Ram's Head overlooks the entrance to Cork Harbour – one of the world's largest natural harbours, and historically of strategic defensive and naval importance to Ireland and

1032-578: A long time to come" to employment paid for from public funds. The legislation in question was the Emergency Powers (No. 362) order which was passed on 8 August 1945. This punished those who had deserted during the Emergency in four ways: The Order only applied to personnel who had been called to active duty during the Emergency or who had enlisted "for the duration" of the Emergency and affected 4,000 men. The government's reasons for passing

1161-810: A member of the British Commonwealth " as this he said would be in conflict with the "constitutional theory of the indivisibility of the crown". A prevalent view in the UK was that Ireland was obliged to support the UK in the war. Winston Churchill said at the time that "Southern Ireland is at war, but skulking". After the German invasion of Norway in April 1940, Churchill became the British Prime Minister. The fall of France in June 1940 brought

1290-437: A moral code and that when this necessity became sufficiently great, other people's rights were not to count ... that is precisely why we had this disastrous succession of wars – World War No.1 and World War No.2 – and shall it be World War No.3? Surely Mr. Churchill must see that if his contention be admitted in our regard, a like justification can be framed for similar acts of aggression elsewhere and no small nation adjoining

1419-737: A new constitution , which had distanced the state further from the United Kingdom, and which changed its name to "Ireland". He had also conducted the Anglo-Irish trade war between 1932 and 1938. De Valera had good relations with the British Prime Minister , Neville Chamberlain . He resolved the two countries' economic differences, and negotiated the return of the Treaty Ports — Berehaven , Cobh , and Lough Swilly —which had remained under British jurisdiction under

SECTION 10

#1732802244650

1548-482: A plan to occupy the entire island as a response to any attempted German invasion. They had always sought to privately reassure de Valera that any invasion by their troops would be by invitation only. This scheme was titled Plan W and intricate details were worked out with the Irish government and military over how to react to a German invasion. The Irish military shared details of their defences and military capabilities with

1677-502: A proposal was accepted. One of the main reasons was that the Irish Government thought that the UK would lose the war and did not want to be on the losing side: during the negotiations Walshe had produced two memoranda for de Valera (one entitled Britain's Inevitable Defeat ) predicting the isolation of Great Britain, the dismemberment of its empire, and finally its inevitable crushing by Germany. Walshe also wrote approvingly of

1806-467: A reliable picture of British military strength did begin around 1939–1940, efforts were first made to infiltrate spies to Britain via Ireland, but these attempts consistently failed (see Operation Lobster and Operation Seagull ). The Abwehr also made attempts to foster intelligence gathering links with the IRA, but found that the IRA was in no condition to be of serious use — these attempts were to occur during

1935-489: A result of a 52 day Hunger-strike (16 April 1940) at the age of 32. At the time of his death D'Arcy left a wife and three young children. On 29 December 1939 Jack McNeela and several others were arrested in south Dublin at a location where an illegal radio transmitter was operating. McNeela and three other IRA men were imprisoned in Mountjoy Jail, tried (and found guilty) by a military tribunal for "conspiracy to usurp

2064-722: A threat of invasion. Some sort of armed occupation was a real possibility (the UK had occupied Iceland in May 1940), but the balance of evidence is that there was never a serious threat. Large elements of the British cabinet and government and those of its allies were opposed to any armed intervention in Ireland; however, in late 1940 and early 1941, relations between the two countries did worsen. The British stopped informing Ireland of their order of battle in Northern Ireland, while

2193-456: A threat to the stability of Ireland. The IRA fostered links with German intelligence (the Abwehr ) and Foreign Ministry, with men such as Francis Stuart travelling to Germany to talk, though these attempts were largely ineffectual due to a combination of Abwehr and Foreign Ministry incompetence and IRA weakness. Germans also came to Ireland, the most notable of whom was Hermann Görtz , who

2322-725: A visit to Great Britain and Ireland in January 1941, failed. In a further attempt to obtain arms from the US de Valera decided that Aiken should visit Washington. Gray supported the idea of a visit, but had doubts over whether Aiken was the right person to make it, and stressed that the Irish were only likely to obtain arms if they co-operated with the British Purchasing Commission . Aiken left Ireland in March 1941. For his St Patrick's Day address, de Valera claimed that Ireland

2451-416: A zigzag path to the west. The upper batteries and parade ground also link to the lower areas via a tunnel (known as the "bright tunnel") to the east. Coastal defence and fortification In littoral warfare , coastal defence counteracts naval offence, such as naval artillery , naval infantry ( marines ), or both. Rather than the beach assault of modern amphibious operations , seaborne assaults of

2580-407: Is 28 feet (8.5 m) wide. Additionally a two-storied caponier had positions for landward gunners. On the ramparts, the terreplein had a number of movable cannon (supported by fixed magazines ) and covered an arc of the landward approaches. In 1898, the landward defences are recorded as having four 32 pounder smooth bore breech loading guns . On the seaward side, land batteries were trained on

2709-466: Is on a built-up island, 400 meters (1,312 ft) from the shore, and connected to it by a causeway that high tide completely submerses. The most elaborate sea fort is Murud-Janjira , which is so extensive that one might truly call it a sea fortress. The most recent sea forts were the Maunsell Forts , which the British built during World War II as anti-aircraft platforms. One type consisted of

SECTION 20

#1732802244650

2838-520: Is partly because de Valera had to keep national unity, which meant accommodating the large swathe of Irish society that rejected anything to do with the British, some of whom admired Germany (which had failed in an attempt to supply a small cache of arms to the rebels of 1916) to some extent. These attitudes were shared by Aiken and by Walshe. Many, including de Valera and Richard Mulcahy , estimated Irish popular sympathies as favouring Germany due to anti-British hostility, and de Valera feared that joining

2967-573: The 1943 and 1944 general elections to be held without a preceding dissolution of the Dáil. This was to allow the old Dáil to continue in the event that the election could not be completed. On the declaration of the emergency, Walshe asked for assurances from the German minister in Dublin, Eduard Hempel , that Germany would not use its legation for espionage nor attack Irish trade with Great Britain. He then travelled to London on 6 September where he met

3096-569: The Dáil Éireann (the lower house of parliament) that neutrality was the best policy for the country. In this he was almost universally supported by the Dáil and the country at large (although many joined the British military). The 1937 constitution was amended to allow the government to take emergency powers, and then the Emergency Powers Act 1939 was passed that included censorship of the press and mail correspondence . The government

3225-542: The Endicott Board , whose recommendations would lead to a large-scale modernization programme of harbour and coastal defences in the United States, especially the construction of well dispersed, open topped reinforced concrete emplacements protected by sloped earthworks. Many of these featured disappearing guns , which sat protected behind the walls, but could be raised to fire. Underwater mine fields were

3354-707: The First World War the British Admiralty designed eight towers code named M-N that were to be built and positioned in the Straits of Dover to protect allied merchant shipping from German U-boats . Nab Tower is still in situ. The Maunsell Forts were small fortified towers, primarily for anti-aircraft guns, built in the Thames and Mersey estuaries during the Second World War . With

3483-527: The First World War , the harbour was used as a naval base to cover the " Western Approaches ", an anti-submarine net was added and further upgrades were applied to harbour defences. After the Irish War of Independence , under the Anglo-Irish Treaty the harbour defences remained in the control of the British government. These Treaty Port installations , including Fort Camden, were handed over to

3612-700: The Hong Kong Museum of Coastal Defence . This tells the story of coastal defence along the South China coast from the Ming dynasty onwards. Taiwan has several coastal fortifications, with some, such as Fort Zeelandia or Anping Castle dating to the time of the Dutch East India Company . Others, such as Cihou Fort , Eternal Golden Castle , Hobe Fort , date more to the end of the 19th century. The Uhrshawan Battery dates primarily to

3741-574: The S-Plan , exclusively in England from January 1939 to March 1940. These attacks consisted of approximately 300 explosions and acts of sabotage, resulting in 10 deaths and 96 injuries. On 1 September 1939, German troops invaded Poland from the west (followed on 17 September by the Soviet Union from the east), precipitating war with the UK, France, and their allies. On 2 September, de Valera told

3870-672: The Special Criminal Court , and rearrested and interned IRA activists. During this time two IRA men died as the result of hunger strikes – demanding free association and to have two prisoners (IRA Volunteers Nicky Doherty of County Meath and John Dwyer) moved from the criminal wing to the Republican area within the prison ( Mountjoy Jail ). On 17 February 1940 Tony D'Arcy was arrested and sentenced to three months for refusing to account for his movements and for not giving his name and address. IRA volunteer D'Arcy died as

3999-528: The U.S. Coast Guard would patrol the shores of the United States during the war. Some patrolled on horseback with mounted beach patrols. On 13 June 1942 Seaman 2nd Class John Cullen, patrolling the beach in Amagansett, New York , discovered the first landing of German saboteurs in Operation Pastorius . Cullen was the first American who actually came in contact with the enemy on the shores of

Camden Fort Meagher - Misplaced Pages Continue

4128-673: The gun turrets and searchlights . The defence of its coasts was a major concern for the United States from its independence. Prior to the American Revolution many coastal fortifications already dotted the Atlantic coast, as protection from pirate raids and foreign incursions. The Revolutionary War led to the construction of many additional fortifications, mostly comprising simple earthworks erected to meet specific threats. The prospect of war with European powers in

4257-574: The 1790s led to a national programme of fortification building spanning seventy years in three phases, known as the First, Second and Third Systems. By the time of the American Civil War , advances in armour and weapons had made masonry forts obsolete, and the combatants discovered that their steamships and ironclad warships could penetrate Third System defences with acceptable losses. In 1885 US President Grover Cleveland appointed

4386-434: The 1830s, Fort Camden had been reduced to a token force, and the fort was briefly repurposed as a prison. However, a Royal Commission in the 1850s gave renewed consideration to the strategic importance of the harbour, and proposed enhancements to landward defences and seaward gun batteries. This construction work started in 1861, using convict, military and civilian labour. The fort was extended during these works, with many of

4515-576: The 1860 Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom , following concerns about the strength of the French Navy. In 1865 Lieutenant Arthur Campbell Walker , of the School of Musketry advocated the use of armoured trains on "an iron high-road running parallel with that other 'silent highway', the source of all our greatness, the ocean, our time-honoured 'moat and circumvallation'" During

4644-627: The 1860s. Originally named Fort Camden and operated by the British Armed Forces , the fort (along with other Treaty Port installations ) was handed-over to the Irish Defence Forces in 1938. Renamed Fort Meagher in honour of Thomas Francis Meagher , it remained an Irish military installation until 1989 when the Irish Army handed the fort over to Cork County Council . It remained largely overgrown until 2010 when

4773-552: The 1st Duke of Marlborough ), a Williamite commander. By the Napoleonic War (1779) the defences were known as the Ram's Head Battery , and upgraded and remodelled to complement other installations at Haulbowline , Spike Island ( Fort Westmoreland/Mitchell ) and Whitegate ( Fort Carlisle/Davis ). In 1795 these fortifications were named Fort Camden in honour of John Pratt, 2nd Earl Camden , then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland . By

4902-630: The Allies would drive public opinion completely towards the Germans. The Fianna Fáil government, headed by de Valera, ruled alone and did not accommodate any other party in decision making. In the early months of the emergency, the greatest threat to the State came from the IRA. In the Christmas Raid in 1939, one million rounds of ammunition were stolen from the Irish Army by the IRA (though it

5031-494: The Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921. The major remaining disagreement between the countries was the status of Northern Ireland. The Irish saw it as rightfully Irish territory, while the UK saw it as rightfully British territory. Within Ireland itself, armed opposition to the treaty settlement took the name of the anti-treaty IRA , seeing itself as the "true" government of Ireland. This IRA mounted a sabotage/bombing campaign,

5160-442: The British and Irish military heritage of the fort, and the site houses one of the only resident 9/11 exhibits outside of the United States. There is a café with views of the harbour mouth, and historical reenactment events are sometimes held on the parade square. The features of the fort date primarily to developments in the 19th century, when – at its peak – the fort had 7 officers, more than 200 men, and upwards of 20 guns. On

5289-495: The British and troops stationed in Northern Ireland. The reassurances from the British did not altogether console de Valera however, and he was frequently suspicious, while German forces still threatened Britain, that the British might invade the territory of the State. He did not know that the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland , Craigavon , was urging London to seize the port at Cobh, or that attempts had been made to split

Camden Fort Meagher - Misplaced Pages Continue

5418-565: The British. Overall, during the period the focus of de Valera was maintaining Irish neutrality. The Irish authorities' pursuit of an aggressive campaign of internment against the IRA, including raising the Local Security Force (LSF), executions, and aggressive action by Irish Military Intelligence (G2) meant that the activities of the German Legation in Dublin were supervised closely and attempts to infiltrate spies into

5547-608: The Castrum Maris as Fort Saint Angelo . In the 1550s, Fort Saint Elmo and Fort Saint Michael were built, and walls surrounded the coastal cities of Birgu and Senglea . In 1565, the Great Siege of Malta reduced many of these coastal fortifications to rubble, but after the siege they were rebuilt. The fortified city of Valletta was built on the Sciberras Peninsula, and further modifications were made to

5676-487: The Dominions Secretary, Anthony Eden , who was conciliatory and defended Irish neutrality in subsequent Cabinet meetings. In addition, the appointment of Sir John Maffey as a British representative in Dublin was agreed. For the Irish government, neutrality meant not displaying alignment with either side. On one hand, that meant the open announcement of military activity such as the sighting of submarines or

5805-604: The Irish Army drew up plans for defence against the British. The United Kingdom also started to restrict trade to Ireland, reasoning that if Ireland would not do anything to protect the lives of those bringing in supplies, it should at least share in the deprivations being felt in the UK. Relations between the two countries only really eased in the middle of 1941 with the invasion of the Soviet Union by Germany and an agreement to allow Irish immigration to Britain to work in

5934-603: The Irish Free State and rejoin the United Kingdom . This Treaty settlement was immediately followed by the Irish Civil War between the pro-Treaty and anti-Treaty factions of the Irish Republican Army (IRA). After 1932, the governing party of the new state was the republican Fianna Fáil , led by Éamon de Valera (a veteran of both Irish wars and Easter Rising ). In 1937, de Valera introduced

6063-738: The Irish authorities in July 1938. During " the Emergency " (1939–1945), elements of the Coastal Defence Artillery (CDA) of the Irish Artillery Corps operated from the fort and the nearby Templebreedy Battery. The fort was later renamed Fort Meagher for Thomas Francis Meagher – who had fought in the Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848 . (Similarly, "Fort Westmoreland" on Spike Island was renamed "Fort Mitchell", and "Fort Carlisle" at Whitegate

6192-575: The Irish border to assist their Belfast colleagues. De Valera followed up with his "they are our people" speech. Although there was a later raid on 4 May, it was confined to the docks and shipyards. On 2 January 1941, there were several minor German bombings of Irish territory, which led to three deaths in Borris , County Carlow and other incidents in Wexford , Dublin and at the Curragh . The public mood

6321-423: The Irish government, the proposal was then amended to strengthen the steps towards a united Ireland, and no longer requiring Ireland to join the war, but only to invite British forces to use Irish bases and ports. De Valera rejected the revised proposal on 4 July and made no counter proposal. One reason for this would have been the difficult calculation of how damaging the inevitable split in Ireland would be if such

6450-426: The Irish state. In addition, this view made the UK reluctant to provide military supplies because of the risk of their falling into German hands after an invasion. The Irish government's view was that they would be more successful against the Germans than the states already occupied, and there could be no agreement for joint military measures while partition continued, and would not commit themselves beyond neutrality for

6579-584: The Minister for Justice to restrict the admission of Jewish aliens, for the reason that any substantial increase in our Jewish population might give rise to an anti-Semitic problem. However, De Valera over-ruled the Department of Justice and the 150 refugee Jewish children were brought to Ireland in 1948. Earlier, in 1946, 100 Jewish children from Poland were brought to Clonyn Castle in County Meath by

SECTION 50

#1732802244650

6708-593: The Pacific coast. In 1939–40 the threat of war in Europe prompted larger appropriations and the resumption of work along the Atlantic coast. Under a major program developed in the wake of the Fall of France in 1940, a near-total replacement of previous coast defenses was implemented, centered on 16-inch guns in new casemated batteries. These were supplemented by 6-inch and 90 mm guns , also in new installations. In WW2

6837-427: The Sakses were all born in Dublin but moved to continental Europe before war broke out. Six Stolpersteine commemorate them in Donore Avenue . De Valera's reluctance to recognise a difference between World War II and previous European wars was illustrated by his reply to a radio broadcast by the British Prime Minister, Churchill on V-E Day . Churchill praised Britain's restraint in not occupying Ireland to secure

6966-419: The Second World War, the United States President was Franklin Roosevelt . The United States was neutral, and Roosevelt's actions were circumscribed by neutrality legislation; however, Roosevelt was a vehement anti-Nazi, an unequivocal supporter of the UK in the war, and personally close to Churchill. The US minister to Ireland was David Gray , a personal friend of Roosevelt and his wife Eleanor . De Valera saw

7095-427: The Spanish founded the "city-fort" of Ancud in 1768 and separated Chiloé from the Captaincy General of Chile into a direct dependency of the Viceroyalty of Peru. China first established formal coastal defences during the early Ming dynasty (14th century) to protect against attacks by pirates ( wokou ). Coastal defences were maintained through both the Ming dynasty and the Qing dynasty that followed, protecting

7224-573: The Training and Employment Authority), and other partners, the group began to clean, restore, develop and (ultimately) operate the fort as a tourism and heritage centre. Some of these works were covered in documentary programming by RTÉ . As of 2017, the fort and its surrounding 45-acre site were open visitors, but limited to weekends and bank holidays between May and September. Parts of the site have been restored for self-guided and guided tours – though several areas are not accessible to visitors with reduced mobility. Several exhibits and installations cover

7353-444: The US as a bulwark against invasion from any party, while the US saw the support of Britain in the war as the priority, and so while supportive of Irish neutrality was sceptical of it extending over the whole island and wanted an arrangement to be made with the UK over ports, possibly through the leasing of them. The sale of arms was a major issue. The declaration of war legally impeded the US from selling any arms to belligerents under

7482-426: The United States during the war and his report led to the capture of the German sabotage team. For this, Cullen received the Legion of Merit . The walls around coastal cities, such as Southampton , had evolved from simpler Norman fortifications by the start of the 13th century. Later, King Edward I was a prolific castle builder and sites such as Conwy Castle , built 1283 to 1289, defend river approaches as well as

7611-415: The United States minister as no similar action had taken place on the deaths of President Franklin D. Roosevelt or the former British Prime Minister David Lloyd George . Elements of Irish public opinion were markedly different in their treatment of the Axis powers . A Limerick Leader editorial in 1945 noted that, "The campaign against war criminals is strangely confined to those who happen to fight on

7740-407: The Western Approaches during the Battle of the Atlantic : the approaches which the southern Irish ports and airfields could so easily have guarded were closed by the hostile aircraft and U-boats. This indeed was a deadly moment in our life, and if it had not been for the loyalty and friendship of Northern Ireland, we should have been forced to come to close quarters with Mr. de Valera, or perish from

7869-455: The advent of missile technology coastal forts became obsolete. Britain's coastal forts were therefore decommissioned in 1956 and the units manning them disbanded. Russia Federation developed A-222E Bereg-E 130mm coastal mobile artillery system , K-300P Bastion-P coastal defence system and Bal-E coastal missile complex with Kh-35 /Kh-35E missiles. The Emergency (Ireland) The Emergency ( Irish : Ré na Práinne / An Éigeandáil )

SECTION 60

#1732802244650

7998-411: The arguments put forward by O'Higgins and Mulcahy, the Dáil voted in favour of the order. An amnesty was enacted in the Defence Forces (Second World War Amnesty and Immunity) Act 2013, which admitted that the penalties were 'now considered to have been unduly harsh' and offered an apology to those affected. The Minister of Defence, Alan Shatter , commented that it 'was a tribute to how far we had come as

8127-613: The arrival of parachutists and the suppression of any foreign intelligence activity. Ireland's geographic position meant that this policy (which was, in the view of most historians, applied fully and consistently) tended to benefit the Allies more than Germany. For example, British airmen who crash-landed in the State were allowed to go free if they could claim not to have been on a combat mission; otherwise they were released "on licence" (promise to remain). Many chose to escape to Great Britain via Northern Ireland. Also, Allied mechanics were allowed to retrieve crash-landed Allied aircraft. There

8256-442: The border "if invited" was developed. The great majority of Ireland's trade was with the United Kingdom, and most of its supplies came from there. This created great difficulties for the Irish government as Germany tried to blockade the UK. Additionally the UK required Irish ships to operate under their ' navicert ' system. In September 1940, a joint agreement on trade, shipping and exports fell through—"the main sticking point between

8385-445: The character of the Pétain government . Walshe's memoranda affected de Valera, with him telling MacDonald that Great Britain "could not destroy this colossal [German] machine". Nevertheless, from May 1940, Walshe and Col Liam Archer of Irish Military Intelligence discussed the defence of Ireland in the event of a German invasion with counterparts in Northern Ireland and a general strategic plan for UK military action " Plan W " across

8514-403: The classical and medieval age more often took the form of coastal raiders sailing up river and landing well inland of the coast. Prior to the invention of naval artillery that could sink hostile ships, the most that coastal defence could do was act as an early warning system, that could alert local naval or ground forces of the impending attack. For example, in the late Roman period the Saxon Shore

8643-431: The coast against pirates, and against the Portuguese and other European powers that sought to impose their will on China. Subsequently, the European powers built their own coastal defences to protect the various colonial enclaves that they established along the Chinese coast. One such, a fort built by the British commanding the Lei Yue Mun channel between Hong Kong Island and the mainland, has been converted into

8772-471: The coast, sea forts are not. Instead, they are off the coast on islands, artificial islands , or are specially built structures. Some sea forts, such as Fort Denison or Fort Sumter , are within harbours in proximity to the coast, but most are at some distance off the coast. Some, such as for example Bréhon Tower or Fort Drum completely occupy small islands; others, such as Flakfortet and Pampus , are on artificial islands built up on shoals. Fort Louvois

8901-464: The coastline. The first of these was Sliema Point Battery , built to protect the northern approach to the Grand Harbour. A chain of fortifications, including Fort Delimara and Fort Benghisa , was also built to protect Marsaxlokk Harbour. From 1935 to the 1940s, the British built many pillboxes in Malta for defence in case of an Italian invasion. The coastline of New Zealand was fortified in two main waves. The first wave occurred around 1885 and

9030-494: The coasts of Malta and Gozo. Many of these have been destroyed, but a few examples still survive. After the British took Malta in 1800, they modified the Order's defences in the harbour area to keep up with new technology. Malta itself, Gibraltar , Bermuda , and Halifax, Nova Scotia were designated Imperial fortresses . The Corradino Lines were built in the 1870s to protect the Grand Harbour from landward attacks. Between 1872 and 1912, many forts and batteries were built around

9159-429: The consensus over the Neutrality policy. Concessions such as relaxing of the claim on Lough Swilly to allow British navy and air force patrols did go some way to easing the tension. As the war turned against Nazi Germany in their eastern campaign, and as the Abwehr became less and less effective, around 1943–1944, operations in the island of Ireland ceased to be of interest to the German Government and military and therefore

9288-641: The construction of the Valdivian Fort System that begun in 1645. As consequence of the Seven Years' War the Valdivian Fort System was updated and reinforced from 1764 onwards. Other vulnerable localities of colonial Chile such as Chiloé Archipelago , Concepción , Juan Fernández Islands and Valparaíso were also made ready for an eventual English attack. Inspired in the recommendations of former governor Santa María

9417-617: The country were quickly discovered. On the occasion of the death of Adolf Hitler , de Valera paid a controversial visit to Hempel to express sympathy with the German people over the death of the Führer . This action has been defended as proper given the state's neutrality. Sir John Maffey, the British Representative, commented that de Valera's actions were "unwise but mathematically consistent". Douglas Hyde , Ireland's president, also sent condolences, an action which enraged

9546-635: The early 17th century, the Order began to strengthen the coastal fortifications outside the harbour area, by building watchtowers . The first of these was Garzes Tower , which was built in 1605. The Wignacourt , Lascaris and De Redin towers were built over the course of the 17th century. The last coastal watchtower to be built was Isopu Tower in 1667. Between 1605 and 1667, a total of 31 towers were built, of which 22 survive today (with another 3 in ruins). From 1714 onwards, about 52 batteries and redoubts , along with several entrenchments, were built around

9675-489: The earth. However, with a restraint and poise to which, I venture to say, history will find few parallels, His Majesty’s Government never laid a violent hand upon them, though at times it would have been quite easy and quite natural, and we left the de Valera Government to frolic with the German and later with the Japanese representatives to their heart's content. De Valera replied to Churchill in another radio broadcast, which

9804-550: The economy. The Emergency Powers Act lapsed on 2 September 1946, although the Emergency was not formally ended until 1976. On 6 December 1922, following the Anglo-Irish Treaty that ended the War of Independence , the island of Ireland became an autonomous dominion , known as the Irish Free State . On 7 December 1922, the parliament of the six north-eastern counties, already known as Northern Ireland , voted to opt out of

9933-422: The establishment of any sure basis for peace. ... Mr. Churchill is proud of Britain's stand alone, after France had fallen and before America entered the war. Could he not find in his heart the generosity to acknowledge that there is a small nation that stood alone not for one year or two, but for several hundred years against aggression; that endured spoliations, famine, massacres, in endless succession; that

10062-568: The expense of their own allocation. As a result, in 1940 all surplus US arms were sold to the UK and Canada . The strong support of the UK by the Roosevelt administration led the Irish government to try to bolster anti-Roosevelt isolationist opinion in the November 1940 presidential election and a Christmas radio broadcast by de Valera to the US supporting isolationism. An attempt to influence Roosevelt's special emissary, Wendell Willkie , on

10191-413: The export of beers, and decided that more wheat should be grown, and less barley. The prospect of a shortage of beer led on to barter deals whereby Britain supplied wheat suitable for making bread flour , and coal, and in return Ireland allowed the export of beers. "These supplies were to keep neutral Ireland afloat during World War II and enable the continuance of Irish neutrality". At the beginning of

10320-569: The face of the resolute use of internment, the breaking of hunger strikes, and the application of hanging for capital offences. A total of seven IRA men were executed in Ireland between September 1940 and December 1944: Patrick McGrath, Thomas Harte, Richard Goss , George Plant , and Maurice O’Neill were executed by firing squad, while two others were hanged – Tom Williams in Crumlin Road Gaol , Belfast) and Charlie Kerins in Mountjoy Jail, Dublin. Maurice O'Neill and Richard Goss were

10449-720: The first half of the 19th century. It actually underwent bombardment during the Sino-French War . The islands of Malta , Gozo and Comino all have some form of coastal fortification. The area around the Grand Harbour was possibly first fortified during Arab rule, and by the 13th century, a castle known as the Castrum Maris was built in Birgu to protect the harbour. The Maltese islands were given to Order of Saint John in 1530, who settled in Birgu and rebuilt

10578-399: The following decades. In 2010 Cork County Council afforded a lease to community members from Crosshaven, who instrumented a volunteer campaign to clear and redevelop the fort as a heritage tourism site. In 2010, under a "Rescue Camden" banner, a community group of volunteers began reclaiming and restoring Camden Fort Meagher. With input from Cork County Council, Foras Áiseanna Saothair (FÁS;

10707-578: The fortifications over the years. The harbour area was strengthened even more by the building of the Floriana Lines , Santa Margherita Lines , Cottonera Lines and Fort Ricasoli in the 17th century and Fort Manoel and Fort Tigné in the nearby Marsamxett Harbour in the 18th century. The Order also built Fort Chambray near Mġarr Harbour in Gozo. In the early 15th century, a number of watch posts had been established around Malta's coastline. In

10836-399: The harbour from upper and lower batteries. The lower casemated batteries had 10 gun positions (behind shields) extending along the seafront. The upper en-barbette batteries had three guns each on the left and right batteries. In 1898 the upper batteries are recorded as having two 6-inch breech-loading guns and five QF 12-pounder guns , with QF 6-pounder guns in the lower batteries. At

10965-680: The increased losses of Allied shipping to U-boat attack. To try to prevent some of these losses, the UK wanted sea and air bases in western Ireland. On 5 November, in the House of Commons, Churchill complained: The fact that we cannot use the South and West coasts of Ireland to refuel our flotillas and aircraft and thus protect the trade by which Ireland as well as Great Britain lives, is a most heavy and grievous burden and one which should never have been placed on our shoulders, broad though they may be. The Irish government chose to interpret this sentence as

11094-454: The landward side, a ditch , ramparts , terreplein , caponier and flanking batteries defended the approaches. The casemated barracks on the north-east corner (close to the land entrance) housed the garrison and commanded the landward defences. The barracks overlooks the approach road which enters the fort on a bridge over the dry moat. A two-tiered musketry gallery and a number of flanking galleries also covered this moat – which at points

11223-459: The last seven weeks of his visit on what was seen as an anti-administration speaking tour, associating closely with isolationist opinion. The result was that the US would not sell any armaments to the State, and relations between the two countries significantly worsened, the US becoming even more unequivocal in its support of the UK. In October 1941 on receiving a note from the Irish government asking for its intentions with regard to Northern Ireland on

11352-416: The laws in force at the time; this led to Ireland being briefly considered as a possible conduit for arms sales to circumvent the law. However, in November 1939 Congress agreed to change the law to allow the sale of arms to all belligerents on a "cash and carry" basis. Nevertheless, the Irish government wanted the US to sell them arms. This was supported by Gray, and by the British government, but only if not at

11481-461: The neutrality of the state and to prevent it becoming a clearing house for foreign intelligence, though over the period of the Emergency, the Act started to be used for more party political purposes such as preventing the publication of the numbers of Irish soldiers serving in the United Kingdom armed forces or industrial disputes within the state. In addition, the information made available to Irish people

11610-488: The only people executed by the Irish state for a non-murder crime. During 1941, the IRA's hopes of a German invasion had faded and funding from the United States had been cut off. The IRA leadership were mostly interned within the Curragh Camp , where they were treated increasingly harshly, or on the run. Most internees accepted release on parole . The IRA remained barely active in Northern Ireland, but they were not

11739-467: The order have been given as follows: On 18 October 1945 Thomas F. O'Higgins moved to annul the order. He did not condone desertion, but felt that the order was specifically awarding harsh punishment to those deserters who had served in the Allied forces. General Richard Mulcahy also spoke against the Order, disagreeing with the way in which it applied to enlisted men and not to officers. However, despite

11868-407: The period 1939–1943. The German military also drew up plans detailing how an invasion of Ireland might take place. These plans were titled Plan Green and any invasion was to act as a diversionary attack in support of a main attack to conquer Britain titled Operation Sea Lion . Both of these plans were shelved by 1942. When US Army troops began to be stationed in Northern Ireland in 1942, Plan Green

11997-403: The raids might have been the result of a British invention which distorted Luftwaffe radio guidance beams so as to throw their planes off course. Dublin had limited blackout regulations at the time, so the city was clearly visible, unlike British cities. On 3 October, the German news agency announced that the German government would pay compensation, but only West Germany paid this after

12126-637: The region. The first harbour defences built at Ram's Head date from 1550 and were originally known as James' Battery . This fortification was extended in 1600, but fell into disuse after the Nine Years' War . The fort was reinforced in 1690 to defend Cork Harbour during the Williamite War in Ireland , but a party secretly came ashore and took the fort in an overland assault. The ports at Cork and Kinsale were later captured by forces under John Churchill, 1st Earl of Marlborough (later created, in 1702,

12255-409: The site's structures being constructed underground. The current structures of the fort are attributable primarily to these works. In the 1880s and 1890s, the guns were upgraded with breech-loading rifled guns, newer larger cannons were installed, a minefield was laid across the channel and a launching position was added for the "world's first practical guided weapon", the " Brennan Torpedo ". During

12384-528: The sixth platform, which contained the control centre and accommodation. The seventh platform, set further out than the gun towers, was the searchlight tower. In Colonial times the Spanish Empire diverted significant resources to fortify the Chilean coast as consequence of Dutch and English raids. The Dutch occupation of Valdivia in 1643 caused great alarm among Spanish authorities and triggered

12513-749: The stationing of personnel associated with lend-lease, the US State Department referred them to the British government as Northern Ireland was, they insisted, part of the UK. Meanwhile, Northern Ireland (as part of the United Kingdom) was at war and the Harland and Wolff shipyards in Belfast were among the strategic targets for German attack. The Luftwaffe carried out a bombing raid on Belfast on 7 April 1941; eight people died. On 15 April 1941, 180 Luftwaffe bombers attacked Belfast. There

12642-400: The strong to be just to the weak, but acting justly always has its rewards. By resisting his temptation in this instance, Mr. Churchill, instead of adding another horrid chapter to the already bloodstained record of the relations between England and this country, has advanced the cause of international morality – an important step, one of the most important indeed that can be taken on the road to

12771-466: The surrounding land. Built 1539 to 1544, the Device Forts are a series of artillery fortifications built for Henry VIII to defend the southern coast of England. Between 1804 and 1812 the British authorities built a chain of towers known as Martello Towers to defend the south and east coast of England , Ireland, Jersey and Guernsey against possible invasion from France . This type of tower

12900-470: The threat of losing their ships, and their way home with their loot, was often enough to force them to curtail their attack. In addition there was a system of fortified towns , burghs , that were positioned at choke points along navigable rivers to prevent raiders from sailing inland. Sea forts are completely surrounded by water – if not permanently, then at least at high tide (i.e. they are tidal islands ). Unlike most coastal fortifications, which are on

13029-464: The two sides was the prices on offer from Britain" owing to the refusal to allow transshipment and repair facilities following German pressure, including the threat to blockade Ireland and the bombing of Ambrosetown and Campile in County Wexford . In the autumn of 1940, the threat of German invasion had receded, but relations between the UK and Ireland deteriorated, largely as a result of

13158-614: The war close to Ireland, as German troops occupied the French coastline across the Celtic Sea . The United Kingdom was now the only major impediment to Germany. A major British concern was now whether Germany would invade Ireland. The British view was that the Irish Army was not powerful enough to resist an invasion for long enough for reinforcement from the UK, particularly with the IRA as a potential fifth column , and wished to be able to forestall this by stationing troops and ships within

13287-404: The war industries, resulting in up to 200,000 Irish people doing so by 1945. Only since 2000 has the wartime Irish economy been studied, away from the grander issues of diplomacy and warfare. Being still largely dependent on Britain for coal, manufactured goods and fuel oils, supplies of these were reduced after the fall of France in mid-1940, causing price inflation and a busy black market . It

13416-468: The war, using Marshall Aid money. In pursuit of its policy of neutrality, the Irish Government refused to close the German and Japanese embassies. In 1939, the German Government had very little intelligence on Ireland and Britain. This is because Hitler had hoped for a détente or alliance with Britain, whom he considered the "natural allies" of Nazi Germany. When concerted efforts to build

13545-418: The waterfront, a Brennan Torpedo station was constructed in the 1890s, and a second torpedo slipway was added after 1900. The fort had two piers for boat access. In the centre of the fort a spiral staircase leads down from the parade ground to the vaulted main powder magazine . This main magazine is connected to the lower batteries by a tunnel. The garrison area connects to the lower batteries and piers via

13674-456: The whole island should it end. By June 1940, the British representative in Ireland, Maffey, was urging that "the strategic unity of our island group" should take precedence over Ulster Unionism, and Churchill was making clear that there should be no military action taken against Ireland. The British Minister for Health, Malcolm MacDonald , who had negotiated the 1938 trade agreement with Ireland whilst Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs ,

13803-679: The wrong side." However it continued to say that Allied atrocities cannot excuse the monstrous barbarism of the Reich. According to some sources, it appears that there was official indifference from the political establishment to the Jewish victims of the Holocaust during and after the war. This was despite De Valera having knowledge of the crimes committed against Jewish victims of the Holocaust as early as 1943. Other sources report that De Valera

13932-477: Was a state of emergency in the independent state of Ireland in the Second World War , throughout which the state remained neutral . It was proclaimed by Dáil Éireann on 2 September 1939, allowing the passage of the Emergency Powers Act 1939 by the Oireachtas the following day. This gave sweeping powers to the government, including internment, censorship of the press and correspondence, and control of

14061-585: Was a response to fears of an attack by Russia . The second wave occurred during World War II and was due to fears of invasion by the Japanese . The fortifications were built from British designs adapted to New Zealand conditions. These installations typically included gun emplacements, pill boxes, fire command or observation posts , camouflage strategies, underground bunkers , sometimes with interconnected tunnels, containing magazines , supply and plotting rooms and protected engine rooms supplying power to

14190-481: Was a system of forts at the mouths of navigable rivers, and watch towers along the coast of Britannia and Gaul . Later in Anglo-Saxon Wessex , protection against Viking raiders took the form of coast watchers whose duty was to alert the local militia, the navy, which would attempt to intercept the raider's ships, or failing that, to destroy them after they had beached. Against smaller raiding forces,

14319-569: Was able to take control of the economic life of the country under the new Minister of Supply Seán Lemass . Liberal use was made of all of these powers. Internment of those who had committed a crime or were about to commit one would be used extensively against the IRA. Censorship was under the charge of the Minister for the Co-ordination of Defensive Measures , Frank Aiken . It was necessary to prevent publication of matter that might undermine

14448-436: Was already agitated, fearing a German invasion and the implications of the bombings added to the concern. So as not to antagonise the Germans further, the Irish authorities initially declined to confirm that the bombs were German. Public speculation, and IRA claims, that the bombs were British, or German but released by British aircraft, later prompted Irish Government denials. On the night of 30/31 May 1941, Dublin's Northside

14577-583: Was also carefully controlled. De Valera performed the duties of Minister of External Affairs, though the secretary for the Department of External Affairs, Joseph Walshe , was very influential. Most emergency measures were made by secondary legislation in the form of statutory orders under the Emergency Powers Act; the only other emergency primary legislation was the General Elections (Emergency Provisions) Act 1943, which allowed

14706-724: Was also used elsewhere in the British Empire and in the United States. In the early Victorian era, Alderney was strongly fortified to provide a massive anchorage for the British Navy before France became an ally of Britain in the Crimean War , even so plans changed slowly and the Palmerston Forts , a group of forts and associated structures were built during the Victorian period on the recommendations of

14835-420: Was captured in possession of " Plan Kathleen ", an IRA plan that detailed a German-supported invasion of Northern Ireland. (See also Irish Republican Army–Abwehr collaboration .) There was a reluctance on the part of the British to accept the policy of Irish neutrality. Anthony Eden, Dominions Secretary in the new British war cabinet, said "we do not want formally to recognise Eire as neutral while Eire remains

14964-400: Was clubbed many times into insensibility, but each time on returning to consciousness took up the fight anew; a small nation that could never be got to accept defeat and has never surrendered her soul? Unlike other neutral states, Ireland did not introduce a general prohibition on its citizens opting for foreign enlistment during the war. However, one serious concern of government in this regard

15093-435: Was created to operate these defences. The development of military aviation rendered these open topped emplacements vulnerable to air attack. Therefore, the next, and last, generation of coastal artillery was mounted under thick concrete shields covered with vegetation to make them virtually invisible from above. In anticipation of a conflict with Japan , most of the limited funds available between 1933 and 1938 were spent on

15222-518: Was extensive co-operation between British and Irish intelligence and the exchange of information such as detailed weather reports of the Atlantic Ocean; the decision to go ahead with the D-day landings was influenced by a weather report from Blacksod Bay , County Mayo . On the other hand, in the first few years of the war, the government did not show any overt preference for either side. This

15351-460: Was mostly recovered in the following weeks) and there were a number of killings, mostly of policemen. In addition, the existing emergency legislation was undermined by the obtaining of a writ of habeas corpus by Seán MacBride which resulted in the release of all those who had been interned. The government responded with the 1939 and 1940 Offences Against the State Acts , which established

15480-543: Was only one RAF squadron and seven anti-aircraft batteries to defend Belfast. Over 200 tons of explosives, 80 landmines attached to parachutes and 800 firebomb canisters were dropped. Over 1,000 died and 56,000 houses (more than half of the city's housing stock) were damaged leaving 100,000 temporarily homeless. At 4.30 AM Basil Brooke , Northern Ireland's Minister of Commerce, asked de Valera for assistance. Within two hours, 13 fire tenders from Dublin , Drogheda , Dundalk and Dún Laoghaire were on their way to cross

15609-678: Was popular when broadcast in Ireland: Allowances can be made for Mr. Churchill's statement, however unworthy, in the first flush of victory. No such excuse could be found for me in this quieter atmosphere. There are, however, some things it is essential to say. I shall try to say them as dispassionately as I can. Mr. Churchill makes it clear that, in certain circumstances, he would have violated our neutrality and that he would justify his actions by Britain's necessity. It seems strange to me that Mr. Churchill does not see that this, if accepted, would mean that Britain's necessity would become

15738-467: Was renamed "Fort Davis"). By the mid-to-late-20th century, the CDA was merged into other artillery regiments of the Irish Army , and the fort was used primarily for the training of Civil Defence and Reserve Defence Forces . In the 1980s the army handed over the fort to the local civil administration authority, Cork County Council . The facility remained disused, however, and became overgrown and derelict in

15867-612: Was reprinted because there was a fear amongst the German High Command (and the Irish Government) that the US Army might attempt an invasion of Ireland, following its occupation of Iceland (after the British invasion) and Greenland in 1941. These fears led to another German intelligence plan – Operation Osprey – but it was abandoned when the feared American invasion failed to take place. The British also had

15996-415: Was said that "the poor are like hunted rats looking for bread", as wheat supplies fell, and that the introduction of full rationing was "seriously belated". Typhus reappeared and the government started planning for famine relief in late 1941. John Betjeman , the British press attaché in Dublin, reported "No coal. No petrol. No gas. No electric. No paraffin. Guinness good." In March 1942 the government banned

16125-421: Was sent to Dublin to explore possibilities with de Valera. From these Chamberlain produced a six-point proposal that committed the UK government to a united Ireland and proposed the setting up of a joint body to effect this. A Joint Defence Council would be set up immediately and the State provided with military equipment. In return the State would join the Allies and intern all German and Italian aliens. Rejected by

16254-459: Was so aware in 1942 and the government sought to secure the release of Jews from then. After the war had ended, Jewish groups had difficulty in getting refugee status for Jewish children – whilst at the same time, a plan to bring over four hundred Catholic children from the Rhineland encountered no difficulties. The Department of Justice explained in 1948 that: It has always been the policy of

16383-510: Was the relatively high number of Irish soldiers deserting and leaving the jurisdiction. Estimates of between 4,000 and 7,000 members of the Irish armed forces deserted to join the armed forces of belligerent nations, the majority serving in the British Army , Royal Air Force and Royal Navy . On 17 May 1945, Minister for Defence Oscar Traynor stated that he proposed introducing legislation which would deprive deserters of any right "for

16512-607: Was the target of a Luftwaffe air raid. Thirty-eight were killed and seventy houses were destroyed on Summerhill Parade , North Strand and the North Circular Road. Unlike the earlier bombing incidents, there was no public speculation that the perpetrators were anyone other than the Luftwaffe. The Irish government promptly protested and Germany apologised, claiming that high winds or British interference with navigation signals were to blame. Churchill later conceded that

16641-567: Was under blockade from both sides and that neutrality protected Ireland from "the hazards of imperial adventure". Aiken's visit was disastrous. His anti-British views and, in American eyes, overestimation of Ireland's military capabilities went across all the administration's policies towards the war. As well as alienating Roosevelt and other members of the administration, he failed to use the letters of introduction to senior Democrats , including Eleanor Roosevelt, provided to him by Gray. Aiken spent

#649350